# FreeType 2.0 Tutorial
Step 2 - managing glyphs

### © 2000 David Turner (david@freetype.org)
© 2000 The FreeType Development Team (www.freetype.org)

## Introduction This is the second section of the FreeType 2 tutorial. It will teach you the following: how to retrieve glyph metrics how to easily manage glyph images how to retrieve global metrics (including kerning) how to render a simple string of text, with kerning how to render a centered string of text (with kerning) how to render a transformed string of text (with centering) finally, how to access metrics in design font units when needed, and how to scale them to device space. ### 1. Glyph metrics: Glyph metrics are, as their name suggests, certain distances associated to each glyph in order to describe how to use it to layout text. There are usually two sets of metrics for a single glyph: those used to layout the glyph in horizontal text layouts (like latin, cyrillic, arabic, hebrew, etc..), and those used to layout the glyph in vertical text layouts (like some layouts of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and others..). Note that only a few font formats provide vertical metrics. You can test wether a given face object contains them by using the macro `FT_HAS_VERTICAL(face)`, which is true when appropriate. Individual glyph metrics can be accessed by first loading the glyph in a face's glyph slot, then accessing them through the `face->glyph->metrics` structure, whose type is `FT_Glyph_Metrics` . This will be detailed later, for now, we'll see that it contains the following fields:
`width` | This is the width of the glyph image's bounding box. It is independent of layout direction.
`height` | This is the height of the glyph image's bounding box. It is independent of layout direction.
`horiBearingX` | For horizontal text layouts, this is the horizontal distance from the current cursor position to the left-most border of the glyph image's bounding box.
`horiBearingY` | For horizontal text layouts, this is the vertical distance from the current cursor position (on the baseline) to the top-most border of the glyph image's bounding box.
`horiAdvance` | For horizontal text layouts, this is the horizontal distance used to increment the pen position when the glyph is drawn as part of a string of text.
`vertBearingX` | For vertical text layouts, this is the horizontal distance from the current cursor position to the left-most border of the glyph image's bounding box.
`vertBearingY` | For vertical text layouts, this is the vertical distance from the current cursor position (on the baseline) to the top-most border of the glyph image's bounding box.
`vertAdvance` | For vertical text layouts, this is the vertical distance used to increment the pen position when the glyph is drawn as part of a string of text.
NOTA BENE: As all fonts do not contain vertical metrics, the values of `vertBearingX`, `vertBearingY` and `vertAdvance` should not be considered reliable when `FT_HAS_VERTICAL(face)` is false. The following graphics illustrate the metrics more clearly. First, for horizontal metrics, where the baseline is the horizontal axis : For vertical text layouts, the baseline is vertical and is the vertical axis: The metrics found in `face->glyph->metrics` are normally expressed in 26.6 pixels (i.e 1/64th of pixels), unless you use the `FT_LOAD_NO_SCALE` flag when calling `FT_Load_Glyph` or `FT_Load_Char`. In this case, the metrics will be expressed in original font units. The glyph slot object has also a few other interesting fields that will ease a developer's work. You can access them though `face−>glyph−>xxx` where `xxx` is :
`advance` | This field is a `FT_Vector` which holds the transformed advance for the glyph. That's useful when you're using a transform through `FT_Set_Transform`, as shown in the rotated text example of section I. Other than that, its value is by default (metrics.horiAdvance,0), unless you specify `FT_LOAD_VERTICAL` when loading the glyph image; it will then be (0,metrics.vertAdvance)
`linearHoriAdvance` | This field contains the linearly-scaled value of the glyph's horizontal advance width. Indeed, the value of `metrics.horiAdvance` that is returned in the glyph slot is normally rounded to integer pixel coordinates (i.e., it will be a multiple of 64) by the font driver used to load the glyph image. `linearHoriAdvance` is a 16.16 fixed float number that gives the value of the original glyph advance width in 1/65536th of pixels. It can be use to perform pseudo device-independent text layouts.
`linearVertAdvance` | This is the same thing as `linearHoriAdvance` for the glyph's vertical advance height. Its value is only reliable if the font face contains vertical metrics.
### 2. Managing glyph images: The glyph image that is loaded in a glyph slot can be converted into a bitmap, either by using `FT_LOAD_RENDER` when loading it, or by calling `FT_Render_Glyph`. Each time you load a new glyph image, the previous one is erased from the glyph slot. There are times however where you may need to extract this image from the glyph slot, in order to cache it within your application, and even perform additional transforms and measures on it before converting it to a bitmap. The FreeType 2 API has a specific extension which is capable of dealing with glyph images in a flexible and generic way. To use it, you first need to include the `FT_GLYPH_H` header file, as in:
          #include FT_GLYPH_H
We will now explain how to use the functions defined in this file: #### a. Extracting the glyph image: You can extract a single glyph image very easily. Here's some code that shows how to do it:
           FT_Glyph    glyph;    // handle to glyph image

           ....
           error = FT_Load_Glyph( face, glyph_index, FT_LOAD_NORMAL );
           if (error) { .... }

           error = FT_Get_Glyph( face->glyph, &glyph );
           if (error) { .... }
As you see, we have: Created a variable, named `glyph`, of type `FT_Glyph` . This is a handle (pointer) to an individual glyph image. Loaded the glyph image normally in the face's glyph slot. We did not use `FT_LOAD_RENDER` because we want to grab a scalable glyph image, in order to later transform it. Copy the glyph image from the slot into a new `FT_Glyph` object, by calling `FT_Get_Glyph` . This function returns an error code and sets `glyph`. It is important to note that the extracted glyph is in the same format than the original one that is still in the slot. For example, if we're loading a glyph from a TrueType font file, the glyph image will really be a scalable vector outline. You can access the field `glyph−>format` if you want to know exactly how the glyph is modeled and stored. A new glyph object can be destroyed with a call to `FT_Done_Glyph` . The glyph object contains exactly one glyph image and a 2D vector representing the glyph's advance in 16.16 fixed float coordinates. The latter can be accessed directly as `glyph−>advance` Note that unlike other FreeType objects, the library doesn't keeps a list of all allocated glyph objects. This means you'll need to destroy them yourself, instead of relying on `FT_Done_FreeType` doing all the clean-up. #### b. Transforming & copying the glyph image If the glyph image is scalable (i.e. if `glyph->format` is not equal to `ft_glyph_format_bitmap`), it is possible to transform the image anytime by a call to `FT_Glyph_Transform` . You can also copy a single glyph image with `FT_Glyph_Copy`. Here's some example code:
        FT_Glyph  glyph, glyph2;
        FT_Matrix matrix;
        FT_Vector delta;

        ......
        .. load glyph image in "glyph" ..

        // copy glyph to glyph2
        //
        error = FT_Glyph_Copy( glyph, &glyph2 );
        if (error) { ... could not copy (out of memory) }

        // translate "glyph"
        //
        delta.x = -100 * 64;   // coordinates are in 26.6 pixels
        delta.y =  50  * 64;

        FT_Glyph_Transform( glyph, 0, &delta );

        // transform glyph2 (horizontal shear)
        //
        matrix.xx = 0x10000;
        matrix.xy = 0;
        matrix.yx = 0.12 * 0x10000;
        matrix.yy = 0x10000;

        FT_Glyph_Transform( glyph2, &matrix, 0 );
Note that the 2x2 transform matrix is always applied to the 16.16 advance vector in the glyph, you thus don't need to recompute it.. #### c. Measuring the glyph image You can also retrieve the control (bounding) box of any glyph image (scalable or not), through the `FT_Glyph_Get_CBox` function, as in:
         FT_BBox   bbox;
         ...
         FT_Glyph_Get_CBox(  glyph, bbox_mode, &bbox );
Coordinates are relative to the glyph origin, i.e. (0,0), using the Y_upwards convention. This function takes a special argument, the "bbox mode", that is a set of bit flags used to indicate how box coordinates are expressed. If the glyph was loaded with FT_LOAD_NO_SCALE, ``bbox_mode`' must be set to ``ft_glyph_bbox_unscaled`' to get unscaled font units. If ``bbox_mode`' is set to ``ft_glyph_bbox_subpixels`' the bbox coordinates are returned in 26.6 pixels (i.e. 1/64th of pixels). Note that the box's maximum coordinates are exclusive, which means that you can always compute the width and height of the glyph image, be in in integer or 26.6 pixels with:
         width  = bbox.xMax - bbox.xMin;
         height = bbox.yMax - bbox.yMin;
Note also that for 26.6 coordinates, if `ft_glyph_bbox_gridfit` is set in the bbox mode, the coordinates will also be grid-fitted, which corresponds to:
         bbox.xMin = FLOOR(bbox.xMin)
         bbox.yMin = FLOOR(bbox.yMin)
         bbox.xMax = CEILING(bbox.xMax)
         bbox.yMax = CEILING(bbox.yMax)
To get the bbox in integer pixel coordinates, set `bbox_mode' to ``ft_glyph_bbox_truncate`'. Finally, to get the bbox in grid-fitted pixel coordinates, set `bbox_mode' to ``ft_glyph_bbox_pixels`'. #### d. Converting the glyph image to a bitmap You may need to convert the glyph object to a bitmap once you have convienently cached or transformed it. This can be done easily with the FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap function. It is charged of converting any glyph object into a bitmap, as in:
        FT_Vector  origin;

        origin.x = 32;   /* 1/2 pixel in 26.26 format */
        origin.y = 0;

        error = FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap( &glyph,
                                    render_mode,
                                    &origin,
                                    1 );        // destroy original image == true
We will know detail this function's parameters: the first parameter is the address of the source glyph's handle. When the function is called, it reads its to access the source glyph object. After the call, the handle will point to a new glyph object that contains the rendered bitmap. the second parameter is a standard render mode, that is used to specify what kind of bitmap we want. It can be `ft_render_mode_default` for an 8-bit anti-aliased pixmap, or `ft_render_mode_mono` for a 1-bit monochrome bitmap. the third parameter is a pointer to a 2D vector that is used to translate the source glyph image before the conversion. Note that the source image will be translated back to its original position (and will thus be left unchanged) after the call. If you do not need to translate the source glyph before rendering, set this pointer to 0. the last parameter is a boolean that indicates wether the source glyph object should be destroyed by the function. By default, the original glyph object is never destroyed, even if its handle is lost (it's up to client applications to keep it). The new glyph object always contain a bitmap (when no error is returned), and you must typecast its handle to the `FT_BitmapGlyph` type in order to access its content. This type is a sort of "subclass" of `FT_Glyph` that contains additional fields (see `FT_BitmapGlyphRec` ) :
`left` | Just like the `bitmap_left` field of a glyph slot, this is the horizontal distance from the glyph origin (0,0) to the left-most pixel of the glyph bitmap. It is expressed in integer pixels.
`top` | Just like the `bitmap_top` field of a glyph slot, this is the vertical distance from the glyph origin (0,0) to the top-most pixel of the glyph bitmap (more exactly, to the pixel just above the bitmap). This distance is expressed in integer pixels, and is positive for upwards Y.
`bitmap` | This is a bitmap descriptor for the glyph object, just like the `bitmap` field in a glyph slot.
### 3. Global glyph metrics: Unlike glyph metrics, global ones are used to describe distances and features of a whole font face. They can be expressed either in 26.6 pixels or in design "font units" for scalable formats. #### a. Design Global Metrics: For scalable formats, all global metrics are expressed in font units in order to be later scaled to device space, according to the rules described in the last chapter of this section of the tutorial. You can access them directly as simple fields of a `FT_Face` handle. However, you need to check that the font face's format is scalable before using them. One can do it by using the macro `FT_IS_SCALABLE(face)` which returns true when appropriate. In this case, you can access the global design metrics as:
`units_per_EM` | This is the size of the EM square for the font face. It is used by scalable formats to scale design coordinates to device pixels, as described by the last chapter of this section. Its value usually is 2048 (for TrueType) or 1000 (for Type1), but others are possible too. It is set to 1 for fixed-size formats like FNT/FON/PCF/BDF.
`global_bbox` | The global bounding box is defined as the largest rectangle that can enclose all the glyphs in a font face. It is defined for horizontal layouts only.
`ascender` | The ascender is the vertical distance from the horizontal baseline to the highest "character" coordinate in a font face. Unfortunately, font formats define the ascender differently. For some, it represents the ascent of all capital latin characters, without accents, for others it's the ascent of the highest accented character, and finally, other formats define it as being equal to `global_bbox.yMax`.
`descender` | The descender is the vertical distance from the horizontal baseline to the lowest "character" coordinate in a font face. Unfortunately, font formats define the descender differently. For some, it represents the descent of all capital latin characters, without accents, for others it's the ascent of the lowest accented character, and finally, other formats define it as being equal to `global_bbox.yMin`. This field is usually negative
`text_height` | This field is simply used to compute a default line spacing (i.e. the baseline-to-baseline distance) when writing text with this font. Note that it usually is larger than the sum of the ascender and descender taken in absolute value. There is also no guarantee that no glyphs can extend above or below subsequent baselines when using this distance.
`max_advance_width` | This field gives the maximum horizontal cursor advance for all glyphs in the font. It can be used to quickly compute the maximum advance width of a string of text. It doesn't correspond to the maximum glyph image width !!
`max_advance_height` | Same as `max_advance_width` but for vertical text layout. It is only available in fonts providing vertical glyph metrics.
`underline_position` | When displaying or rendering underlined text, this value corresponds to the vertical position, relative to the baseline, of the underline bar. It noramlly is negative (as it's below the baseline).
`underline_thickness` | When displaying or rendering underlined text, this value corresponds to the vertical thickness of the underline.
Notice how, unfortunately, the values of the ascender and the descender are not reliable (due to various discrepancies in font formats). #### b. Scaled Global Metrics: Each size object also contains a scaled versions of some of the global metrics described above. They can be accessed directly through the `face->size->metrics` structure. Note that these values correspond to scaled versions of the design global metrics, with no rounding/grid-fitting performed.. They are also completely independent of any hinting process. In other words, don't rely on them to get exact metrics at the pixel level. They're expressed in 26.6 pixels.
`ascender` | This is the scaled version of the original design ascender.
`descender` | This is the scaled version of the original design descender.
`height` | This is the scaled version of the original design text height. That probably is the only field you should really use in this structure.
`max_advance` | Thi is the scaled version of the original design max advance.
Note that the `face->size->metrics` structure contains other fields that are used to scale design coordinates to device space. They're described, in the last chapter. #### c. Kerning: Kerning is the process of adjusting the position of two subsequent glyph images in a string of text, in order to improve the general appearance of text. Basically, it means that when the glyph for an "A" is followed by the glyph for a "V", the space between them can be slightly reduced to avoid extra "diagonal whitespace". Note that in theory, kerning can happen both in the horizontal and vertical direction between two glyphs; however, it only happens in the horizontal direction in nearly all cases except really extreme ones. Note all font formats contain kerning information. Instead, they sometimes rely on an additional file that contains various glyph metrics, including kerning, but no glyph images. A good example would be the Type 1 format, where glyph images are stored in a file with extension ".pfa" or ".pfb", and where kerning metrics can be found in an additional file with extension ".afm" or ".pfm". FreeType 2 allows you to deal with this, by providing the `FT_Attach_File` and `FT_Attach_Stream` APIs. Both functions are used to load additional metrics into a face object, by reading them from an additional format-specific file. For example, you could open a Type 1 font by doing the following:
          error = FT_New_Face( library, "/usr/shared/fonts/cour.pfb", 0, &face );
          if (error) { ... }

          error = FT_Attach_File( face, "/usr/shared/fonts/cour.afm" );
          if (error) { .. could not read kerning and additional metrics .. }
Note that `FT_Attach_Stream` is similar to `FT_Attach_File` except that it doesn't take a C string to name the extra file, but a `FT_Stream` handle. Also, reading a metrics file is in no way, mandatory. Finally, the file attachment APIs are very generic and can be used to load any kind of extra information for a given face. The nature of the additional content is entirely font format specific. FreeType 2 allows you to retrieve the kerning information between two glyphs through the `FT_Get_Kerning` function, whose interface looks like:
         FT_Vector  kerning;
         ...
         error = FT_Get_Kerning( face,                  // handle to face object
                                 left,                  // left glyph index
                                 right,                 // right glyph index
                                 kerning_mode,          // kerning mode
                                 &kerning );            // target vector
As you see, the function takes a handle to a face object, the indices of the left and right glyphs for which the kerning value is desired, as well as an integer, called the "kerning mode", and a pointer to a destination vector that receives the corresponding distances. The kerning mode is very similar to the "bbox mode" described in a previous chapter. It's a enumeration that indicates how the kerning distances are expressed in the target vector. The default value is `ft_kerning_default` which has value 0. It corresponds to kerning distances expressed in 26.6 grid-fitted pixels (which means that the values are multiples of 64). For scalable formats, this means that the design kerning distance is scaled then rounded. The value `ft_kerning_unfitted` corresponds to kerning distances expressed in 26.6 unfitted pixels (i.e. that do not correspond to integer coordinates). It's the design kerning distance that is simply scaled without rounding. Finally, the value `ft_kerning_unscaled` is used to return the design kerning distance, expressed in font units. You can later scale it to device space using the computations explained in the last chapter of this section. Note that the "left" and "right" positions correspond to the visual order of the glyphs in the string of text. This is important for bi-directional text, or simply when writing right-to-left text.. ### 4. Simple text rendering: kerning + centering: In order to show off what we just learned, we will now show how to modify the example code that was provided in section I to render a string of text, and enhance it to support kerning and delayed rendering. #### a. Kerning support: Adding support for kerning to our code is trivial, as long as we consider that we're still dealing with a left-to-right script like Latin. We simply need to retrieve the kerning distance between two glyphs in order to alter the pen position appropriately. The code looks like:
          FT_GlyphSlot  slot = face->glyph;  // a small shortcut
          FT_UInt       glyph_index;
          FT_Bool       use_kerning;
          FT_UInt       previous;
          int           pen_x, pen_y, n;

          .. initialise library ..
          .. create face object ..
          .. set character size ..

          pen_x = 300;
          pen_y = 200;

          use_kerning = FT_HAS_KERNING(face);
          previous    = 0;

          for ( n = 0; n < num_chars; n++ )
          {
            // convert character code to glyph index
            glyph_index = FT_Get_Char_Index( face, text[n] );

            // retrieve kerning distance and move pen position
            if ( use_kerning && previous && glyph_index )
            {
              FT_Vector  delta;

              FT_Get_Kerning( face, previous, glyph_index,
                              ft_kerning_mode_default, &delta );

              pen_x += delta.x >> 6;
            }

            // load glyph image into the slot (erase previous one)
            error = FT_Load_Glyph( face, glyph_index, FT_LOAD_RENDER );
            if (error) continue;  // ignore errors

            // now, draw to our target surface
            my_draw_bitmap( &slot->bitmap,
                            pen_x + slot->bitmap_left,
                            pen_y - slot->bitmap_top );

            // increment pen position
            pen_x += slot->advance.x >> 6;

            // record current glyph index
            previous = glyph_index;
          }
That's it. You'll notice that: As kerning is determined from glyph indices, we need to explicitely convert our character code into a glyph index, then later call `FT_Load_Glyph` instead of `FT_Load_Char`. No big deal, if you ask me :-) We use a boolean named `use_kerning` which is set with the result of the macro `FT_HAS_KERNING(face)`. It's certainly faster not to call `FT_Get_Kerning` when we know that the font face does not contain kerning information. We move the position of the pen before a new glyph is drawn. We did initialize the variable `previous` with the value 0, which always correspond to the "missing glyph" (also called `.notdef` in the Postscript world). There is never any kerning distance associated with this glyph. We do not check the error code returned by `FT_get_Kerning`. This is because the function always set the content of `delta` to (0,0) when an error occurs. As you see, this is not terribly complex :-) #### b. Centering: Our code begins to become interesting but it's still a bit too simple for normal uses. For example, the position of the pen is determined before we do the rendering when in a normal situation, you would want to layout the text and measure it before computing its final position (e.g. centering) or perform things like word-wrapping. We're thus now going to decompose our text rendering function into two distinct but successive parts: the first one will position individual glyph images on the baseline, while the second one will render the glyphs. As we'll see, this has many advantages. We will thus start by storing individual glyph images, as well as their position on the baseline. This can be done with code like:
          FT_GlyphSlot  slot = face->glyph;  // a small shortcut
          FT_UInt       glyph_index;
          FT_Bool       use_kerning;
          FT_UInt       previous;
          int           pen_x, pen_y, n;

          FT_Glyph      glyphs[ MAX_GLYPHS ];   // glyph image
          FT_Vector     pos   [ MAX_GLYPHS ];   // glyph position
          FT_UInt       num_glyphs;

          .. initialise library ..
          .. create face object ..
          .. set character size ..

          pen_x = 0;   /* start at (0,0) !! */
          pen_y = 0;

          num_glyphs  = 0;
          use_kerning = FT_HAS_KERNING(face);
          previous    = 0;

          for ( n = 0; n < num_chars; n++ )
          {
            // convert character code to glyph index
            glyph_index = FT_Get_Char_Index( face, text[n] );

            // retrieve kerning distance and move pen position
            if ( use_kerning && previous && glyph_index )
            {
              FT_Vector  delta;

              FT_Get_Kerning( face, previous, glyph_index,
                              ft_kerning_default, &delta );

              pen_x += delta.x >> 6;
            }

            // store current pen position
            pos[ num_glyphs ].x = pen_x;
            pos[ num_glyphs ].y = pen_y;

            // load glyph image into the slot. DO NOT RENDER IT !!
            error = FT_Load_Glyph( face, glyph_index, FT_LOAD_DEFAULT );
            if (error) continue;  // ignore errors, jump to next glyph

            // extract glyph image and store it in our table
            error = FT_Get_Glyph( face->glyph, & glyphs[num_glyphs] );
            if (error) continue;  // ignore errors, jump to next glyph

            // increment pen position
            pen_x += slot->advance.x >> 6;

            // record current glyph index
            previous = glyph_index

            // increment number of glyphs
            num_glyphs++;
          }
As you see, this is a very simple variation of our previous code where we extract each glyph image from the slot, and store it, along with the corresponding position, in our tables. Note also that "pen_x" contains the total advance for the string of text. We can now compute the bounding box of the text string with a simple function like:
          void   compute_string_bbox( FT_BBox  *abbox )
          {
            FT_BBox  bbox;

            // initialise string bbox to "empty" values
            bbox.xMin = bbox.yMin =  32000;
            bbox.xMax = bbox.yMax = -32000;

            // for each glyph image, compute its bounding box, translate it,
            // and grow the string bbox
            for ( n = 0; n < num_glyphs; n++ )
            {
              FT_BBox   glyph_bbox;

              FT_Glyph_Get_CBox( glyphs[n], ft_glyph_bbox_pixels, &glyph_bbox );

              glyph_bbox.xMin += pos[n].x;
              glyph_bbox.xMax += pos[n].x;
              glyph_bbox.yMin += pos[n].y;
              glyph_bbox.yMax += pos[n].y;

              if (glyph_bbox.xMin < bbox.xMin)
                bbox.xMin = glyph_bbox.xMin;

              if (glyph_bbox.yMin < bbox.yMin)
                bbox.yMin = glyph_bbox.yMin;

              if (glyph_bbox.xMax > bbox.xMax)
                bbox.xMax = glyph_bbox.xMax;

              if (glyph_bbox.yMax > bbox.yMax)
                bbox.yMax = glyph_bbox.yMax;
            }

            // check that we really grew the string bbox
            if ( bbox.xMin > bbox.xMax )
            {
              bbox.xMin = 0;
              bbox.yMin = 0;
              bbox.xMax = 0;
              bbox.yMax = 0;
            }

            // return string bbox
            *abbox = bbox;
          }
The resulting bounding box dimensions are expressed in integer pixels, and can then be used to compute the final pen position before rendering the string as in:
          // compute string dimensions in integer pixels
          string_width  = (string_bbox.xMax - string_bbox.xMin);
          string_height = (string_bbox.yMax - string_bbox.yMin);

          // compute start pen position in 26.6 cartesian pixels
          start_x = (( my_target_width  - string_width )/2)*64;
          start_y = (( my_target_height - string_height)/2)*64;

          for ( n = 0; n < num_glyphs; n++ )
          {
            FT_Glyph  image;
            FT_Vector pen;

            image = glyphs[n];

            pen.x = start_x + pos[n].x;
            pen.y = start_y + pos[n].y;

            error = FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap( &image, ft_render_mode_normal,
                                        &pen, 0 );
            if (!error)
            {
              FT_BitmapGlyph  bit = (FT_BitmapGlyph)image;

              my_draw_bitmap( bit->bitmap,
                              bit->left,
                              my_target_height - bit->top );

              FT_Done_Glyph( image );
            }
          }
You'll take note that: The pen position is expressed in the cartesian space (i.e. Y upwards). We call `FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap` with the `destroy` parameter set to 0 (false), in order to avoid destroying the original glyph image. The new glyph bitmap is accessed through `image` after the call and is typecasted to a `FT_BitmapGlyph`. We use translation when calling `FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap`. This ensures that the `left` and `top` fields of the bitmap glyph object are already set to the correct pixel coordinates in the cartesian space. Of course, we still need to convert pixel coordinates from cartesian to device space before rendering, hence the `my_target_height - bitmap->top` in the call to `my_draw_bitmap`. The same loop can be used to render the string anywhere on our display surface, without the need to reload our glyph images each time.. We could also decide to implement word wrapping, and only draw ### 5. Advanced text rendering: transform + centering + kerning: We are now going to modify our code in order to be able to easily transform the rendered string, for example to rotate it. We will start by performing a few minor improvements: #### a. packing & translating glyphs: We'll start by packing the information related to a single glyph image into a single structure, instead of parallel arrays. We thus define the following structure type:
         typedef struct TGlyph_
         {
           FT_UInt    index;    // glyph index
           FT_Vector  pos;      // glyph origin on the baseline
           FT_Glyph   image;    // glyph image

         } TGlyph, *PGlyph;
We will also translate each glyph image directly after it is loaded to its position on the baseline at load time. As we'll see, this as several advantages. Our glyph sequence loader thus becomes:
          FT_GlyphSlot  slot = face->glyph;  // a small shortcut
          FT_UInt       glyph_index;
          FT_Bool       use_kerning;
          FT_UInt       previous;
          int           pen_x, pen_y, n;

          TGlyph        glyphs[ MAX_GLYPHS ];   // glyphs table
          PGlyph        glyph;                  // current glyph in table
          FT_UInt       num_glyphs;

          .. initialise library ..
          .. create face object ..
          .. set character size ..

          pen_x = 0;   /* start at (0,0) !! */
          pen_y = 0;

          num_glyphs  = 0;
          use_kerning = FT_HAS_KERNING(face);
          previous    = 0;

          glyph = glyphs;
          for ( n = 0; n < num_chars; n++ )
          {
            glyph->index = FT_Get_Char_Index( face, text[n] );

            if ( use_kerning && previous && glyph->index )
            {
              FT_Vector  delta;

              FT_Get_Kerning( face, previous, glyph->index,
                              ft_kerning_mode_default, &delta );

              pen_x += delta.x >> 6;
            }

            // store current pen position
            glyph->pos.x = pen_x;
            glyph->pos.y = pen_y;

            error = FT_Load_Glyph( face, glyph_index, FT_LOAD_DEFAULT );
            if (error) continue;

            error = FT_Get_Glyph( face->glyph, &glyph->image );
            if (error) continue;

            // translate the glyph image now..
            FT_Glyph_Transform( glyph->image, 0, &glyph->pos );

            pen_x   += slot->advance.x >> 6;
            previous = glyph->index

            // increment number of glyphs
            glyph++;
          }
          // count number of glyphs loaded..
          num_glyphs = glyph - glyphs;
Note that translating glyphs now has several advantages. The first one, is that we don't need to translate the glyph bbox when we compute the string's bounding box. The code becomes:
          void   compute_string_bbox( FT_BBox  *abbox )
          {
            FT_BBox  bbox;

            bbox.xMin = bbox.yMin =  32000;
            bbox.xMax = bbox.yMax = -32000;

            for ( n = 0; n < num_glyphs; n++ )
            {
              FT_BBox   glyph_bbox;

              FT_Glyph_Get_CBox( glyphs[n], &glyph_bbox );

              if (glyph_bbox.xMin < bbox.xMin)
                bbox.xMin = glyph_bbox.xMin;

              if (glyph_bbox.yMin < bbox.yMin)
                bbox.yMin = glyph_bbox.yMin;

              if (glyph_bbox.xMax > bbox.xMax)
                bbox.xMax = glyph_bbox.xMax;

              if (glyph_bbox.yMax &gy; bbox.yMax)
                bbox.yMax = glyph_bbox.yMax;
            }

            if ( bbox.xMin > bbox.xMax )
            {
              bbox.xMin = 0;
              bbox.yMin = 0;
              bbox.xMax = 0;
              bbox.yMax = 0;
            }

            *abbox = bbox;
          }
Now take a closer look, the `compute_string_bbox` can now compute the bounding box of a transformed glyph string. For example, we can do something like:
          FT_BBox    bbox;
          FT_Matrix  matrix;
          FT_Vector  delta;

          ... load glyph sequence

          ... setup "matrix" and "delta"

          // transform glyphs
          for ( n = 0; n < num_glyphs; n++ )
            FT_Glyph_Transform( glyphs[n].image, &matrix, &delta );

          // compute bounding box of transformed glyphs
          compute_string_bbox( &bbox );
#### b. Rendering a transformed glyph sequence: However, directly transforming the glyphs in our sequence is not an idea if we want to re-use them in order to draw the text string with various angles or transforms. It's better to perform the affine transformation just before the glyph is rendered, as in the following code:
          FT_Vector  start;
          FT_Matrix  transform;

          // get bbox of original glyph sequence
          compute_string_bbox( &string_bbox );

          // compute string dimensions in integer pixels
          string_width  = (string_bbox.xMax - string_bbox.xMin)/64;
          string_height = (string_bbox.yMax - string_bbox.yMin)/64;

          // set up start position in 26.6 cartesian space
          start.x = (( my_target_width  - string_width )/2)*64;
          start.y = (( my_target_height - string_height)/2)*64;

          // set up transform (a rotation here)
          matrix.xx = (FT_Fixed)( cos(angle)*0x10000);
          matrix.xy = (FT_Fixed)(-sin(angle)*0x10000);
          matrix.yx = (FT_Fixed)( sin(angle)*0x10000);
          matrix.yy = (FT_Fixed)( cos(angle)*0x10000);

          for ( n = 0; n < num_glyphs; n++ )
          {
            FT_Glyph  image;
            FT_Vector pen;
            FT_BBox   bbox;

            // create a copy of the original glyph
            error = FT_Glyph_Copy( glyphs[n].image, &image );
            if (error) continue;

            // transform copy (this will also translate it to the correct
            // position
            FT_Glyph_Transform( image, &matrix, &start );

            // check bounding box, if the transformed glyph image
            // is not in our target surface, we can avoid rendering it
            FT_Glyph_Get_CBox( image, ft_glyph_bbox_pixels, &bbox );
            if ( bbox.xMax <= 0 || bbox.xMin >= my_target_width  ||
                 bbox.yMax <= 0 || bbox.yMin >= my_target_height )
              continue;

            // convert glyph image to bitmap (destroy the glyph copy !!)
            //
            error = FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap( &image,
                                        ft_render_mode_normal,
                                        0,      // no additional translation
                                        1 );    // destroy copy in "image"
            if (!error)
            {
              FT_BitmapGlyph  bit = (FT_BitmapGlyph)image;

              my_draw_bitmap( bitmap->bitmap,
                              bitmap->left,
                              my_target_height - bitmap->top );

              FT_Done_Glyph( image );
            }
          }
You'll notice a few changes compared to the original version of this code: We keep the original glyph images untouched, by transforming a copy. We perform clipping computations, in order to avoid rendering & drawing glyphs that are not within our target surface We always destroy the copy when calling `FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap` in order to get rid of the transformed scalable image. Note that the image is destroyed even when the function returns an error code (which is why `FT_Done_Glyph` is only called within the compound statement. The translation of the glyph sequence to the start pen position is integrated in the call to `FT_Glyph_Transform` intead of `FT_Glyph_To_Bitmap`. It's possible to call this function several times to render the string width different angles, or even change the way "start" is computed in order to move it to different place. This code is the basis of the FreeType 2 demonstration program named"`ftstring.c`". It could be easily extended to perform advanced text layout or word-wrapping in the first part, without changing the second one. Note however that a normal implementation would use a glyph cache in order to reduce memory needs. For example, let's assume that our text string is "FreeType". We would store three identical glyph images in our table for the letter "e", which isn't optimal (especially when you consider longer lines of text, or even whole pages..). ### 6. Accessing metrics in design font units, and scaling them: Scalable font formats usually store a single vectorial image, called an "outline", for each in a face. Each outline is defined in an abstract grid called the "design space", with coordinates expressed in nominal "font units". When a glyph image is loaded, the font driver usually scales the outline to device space according to the current character pixel size found in a `FT_Size` object. The driver may also modify the scaled outline in order to significantly improve its appearance on a pixel-based surface (a process known as "hinting" or "grid-fitting"). This chapter describes how design coordinates are scaled to device space, and how to read glyph outlines and metrics in font units. This is important for a number of things: In order to perform "true" WYSIWYG text layout In order to access font content for conversion or analysis purposes #### a.Scaling distances to device space: Design coordinates are scaled to device space using a simple scaling transform, whose coefficients are computed with the help of the character pixel size:
         device_x = design_x * x_scale
         device_y = design_y * y_scale

         x_scale  = pixel_size_x / EM_size
         y_scale  = pixel_size_y / EM_size
Here, the value `EM_size` is font-specific and correspond to the size of an abstract square of the design space (called the "EM"), which is used by font designers to create glyph images. It is thus expressed in font units. It is also accessible directly for scalable font formats as `face->units_per_EM`. You should check that a font face contains scalable glyph images by using the `FT_IS_SCALABLE(face)` macro, which returns true when appropriate. When you call the function `FT_Set_Pixel_Sizes`, you're specifying the value of `pixel_size_x` and `pixel_size_y` you want to use to FreeType, which will immediately compute the values of `x_scale` and `y_scale`. When you call the function `FT_Set_Char_Size`, you're specifying the character size in physical "points", which is used, along with the device's resolutions, to compute the character pixel size, then the scaling factors. Note that after calling any of these two functions, you can access the values of the character pixel size and scaling factors as fields of the `face->size->metrics` structure. These fields are:
`x_ppem` | Which stands for "X Pixels Per EM", this is the size in integer pixels of the EM square, which also is the horizontal character pixel size, called `pixel_size_x` in the above example.
`y_ppem` | Which stands for "Y Pixels Per EM", this is the size in integer pixels of the EM square, which also is the vertical character pixel size, called `pixel_size_y` in the above example.
`x_scale` | This is a 16.16 fixed float scale that is used to directly scale horizontal distances from design space to 1/64th of device pixels.
`y_scale` | This is a 16.16 fixed float scale that is used to directly scale vertical distances from design space to 1/64th of device pixels.
Basically, this means that you can scale a distance expressed in font units to 26.6 pixels directly with the help of the `FT_MulFix` function, as in:
          // convert design distances to 1/64th of pixels
          //
          pixels_x = FT_MulFix( design_x, face->size->metrics.x_scale );
          pixels_y = FT_MulFix( design_y, face->size->metrics.y_scale );
However, you can also scale the value directly with more accuracy by using doubles and the equations:
          FT_Size_Metrics*  metrics = &face->size->metrics;    // shortcut
          double            pixels_x, pixels_y;
          double            em_size, x_scale, y_scale;

          // compute floating point scale factors
          //
          em_size = 1.0 * face->units_per_EM;
          x_scale = metrics->x_ppem / em_size;
          y_scale = metrics->y_ppem / em_size;

          // convert design distances to floating point pixels
          //
          pixels_x = design_x * x_scale;
          pixels_y = design_y * y_scale;
#### b. Accessing design metrics (glyph & global): You can access glyph metrics in font units simply by specifying the `FT_LOAD_NO_SCALE` bit flag in `FT_Load_Glyph` or `FT_Load_Char`. The metrics returned in `face->glyph->metrics` will all be in font units. You can access unscaled kerning data using the `ft_kerning_mode_unscaled` mode Finally, a few global metrics are available directly in font units as fields of the `FT_Face` handle, as described in chapter 3 of this section. ### Conclusion This is the end of the second section of the FreeType 2 tutorial, you're now able to access glyph metrics, manage glyph images, and render text much more intelligently (kerning, measuring, transforming & caching). You have now sufficient knowledge to build a pretty decent text service on top of FreeType 2, and you could possibly stop there if you want. The next section will deal with FreeType 2 internals (like modules, vector outlines, font drivers, renderers), as well as a few font format specific issues (mainly, how to access certain TrueType or Type 1 tables).