This is ../info/emacs, produced by makeinfo version 4.8 from emacs.texi.

   This is the Sixteenth edition of the `GNU Emacs Manual', updated for
Emacs version 22.0.99.

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     Front-Cover texts being "A GNU Manual," and with the Back-Cover
     Texts as in (a) below.  A copy of the license is included in the
     section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License."

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INFO-DIR-SECTION Emacs
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Emacs: (emacs).	The extensible self-documenting text editor.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY


File: emacs,  Node: Top,  Next: Distrib,  Prev: (dir),  Up: (dir)

The Emacs Editor
****************

Emacs is the extensible, customizable, self-documenting real-time
display editor.  This Info file describes how to edit with Emacs and
some of how to customize it; it corresponds to GNU Emacs version
22.0.99.

   To learn more about the Info documentation system, type `h', and
Emacs will take you to a programmed instruction sequence for the Info
commands.

   For information on extending Emacs, see *Note Emacs Lisp: (elisp)Top.

* Menu:

* Distrib::	        How to get the latest Emacs distribution.
* Copying::	        The GNU General Public License gives you permission
			  to redistribute GNU Emacs on certain terms;
			  it also explains that there is no warranty.
* GNU Free Documentation License:: The license for this documentation.
* Intro::	        An introduction to Emacs concepts.
* Glossary::	        The glossary.
* Antinews::	        Information about Emacs version 21.
* Mac OS::              Using Emacs in the Mac.
* Microsoft Windows::   Using Emacs on Microsoft Windows and MS-DOS.
* Manifesto::	        What's GNU?  Gnu's Not Unix!
* Acknowledgments::     Major contributors to GNU Emacs.

Indexes (each index contains a large menu)
* Key Index::	        An item for each standard Emacs key sequence.
* Option Index::        An item for every command-line option.
* Command Index::       An item for each command name.
* Variable Index::      An item for each documented variable.
* Concept Index::       An item for each concept.

Important General Concepts
* Screen::	        How to interpret what you see on the screen.
* User Input::	        Kinds of input events (characters, buttons,
                          function keys).
* Keys::	        Key sequences: what you type to request one
                          editing action.
* Commands::	        Named functions run by key sequences to do editing.
* Text Characters::     Character set for text (the contents of buffers
			  and strings).
* Entering Emacs::      Starting Emacs from the shell.
* Exiting::	        Stopping or killing Emacs.
* Emacs Invocation::    Hairy startup options.

Fundamental Editing Commands
* Basic::	        The most basic editing commands.
* Minibuffer::	        Entering arguments that are prompted for.
* M-x::		        Invoking commands by their names.
* Help::	        Commands for asking Emacs about its commands.

Important Text-Changing Commands
* Mark::	        The mark: how to delimit a ``region'' of text.
* Killing::	        Killing (cutting) text.
* Yanking::	        Recovering killed text.  Moving text. (Pasting.)
* Accumulating Text::   Other ways of copying text.
* Rectangles::	        Operating on the text inside a rectangle on the screen.
* Registers::	        Saving a text string or a location in the buffer.
* Display::	        Controlling what text is displayed.
* Search::	        Finding or replacing occurrences of a string.
* Fixit::	        Commands especially useful for fixing typos.
* Keyboard Macros::	A keyboard macro records a sequence of
			  keystrokes to be replayed with a single command.

Major Structures of Emacs
* Files::	        All about handling files.
* Buffers::	        Multiple buffers; editing several files at once.
* Windows::	        Viewing two pieces of text at once.
* Frames::	        Running the same Emacs session in multiple X windows.
* International::       Using non-ASCII character sets (the MULE features).

Advanced Features
* Major Modes::	        Text mode vs. Lisp mode vs. C mode ...
* Indentation::	        Editing the white space at the beginnings of lines.
* Text::	        Commands and modes for editing English.
* Programs::	        Commands and modes for editing programs.
* Building::	        Compiling, running and debugging programs.
* Maintaining::         Features for maintaining large programs.
* Abbrevs::	        How to define text abbreviations to reduce
			  the number of characters you must type.

* Picture Mode::        Editing pictures made up of characters using
                          the quarter-plane screen model.
* Sending Mail::        Sending mail in Emacs.
* Rmail::	        Reading mail in Emacs.
* Dired::	        You can ``edit'' a directory to manage files in it.
* Calendar/Diary::      The calendar and diary facilities.
* Gnus::	        How to read netnews with Emacs.
* Shell::	        Executing shell commands from Emacs.
* Emacs Server::        Using Emacs as an editing server for `mail', etc.
* Printing::	        Printing hardcopies of buffers or regions.
* Sorting::	        Sorting lines, paragraphs or pages within Emacs.
* Narrowing::	        Restricting display and editing to a portion
		          of the buffer.
* Two-Column::	        Splitting apart columns to edit them
		          in side-by-side windows.
* Editing Binary Files::Using Hexl mode to edit binary files.
* Saving Emacs Sessions:: Saving Emacs state from one session to the next.
* Recursive Edit::      A command can allow you to do editing
			  "within the command".  This is called a
			  "recursive editing level".
* Emulation::	        Emulating some other editors with Emacs.
* Hyperlinking::        Following links in buffers.
* Dissociated Press::   Dissociating text for fun.
* Amusements::	        Various games and hacks.
* Customization::       Modifying the behavior of Emacs.
* X Resources::         X resources for customizing Emacs.

Recovery from Problems
* Quitting::	        Quitting and aborting.
* Lossage::	        What to do if Emacs is hung or malfunctioning.
* Bugs::	        How and when to report a bug.
* Contributing::        How to contribute improvements to Emacs.
* Service::	        How to get help for your own Emacs needs.


 --- The Detailed Node Listing ---
 ---------------------------------

Here are some other nodes which are really inferiors of the ones
already listed, mentioned here so you can get to them in one step:

The Organization of the Screen

* Point::	        The place in the text where editing commands operate.
* Echo Area::           Short messages appear at the bottom of the screen.
* Mode Line::	        Interpreting the mode line.
* Menu Bar::            How to use the menu bar.

Basic Editing Commands

* Inserting Text::      Inserting text by simply typing it.
* Moving Point::        How to move the cursor to the place where you want to
			  change something.
* Erasing::	        Deleting and killing text.
* Basic Undo::	        Undoing recent changes in the text.
* Basic Files::         Visiting, creating, and saving files.
* Basic Help::          Asking what a character does.
* Blank Lines::	        Commands to make or delete blank lines.
* Continuation Lines::  Lines too wide for the screen.
* Position Info::       What page, line, row, or column is point on?
* Arguments::	        Numeric arguments for repeating a command.
* Repeating::           A short-cut for repeating the previous command.

The Minibuffer

* Minibuffer File::     Entering file names with the minibuffer.
* Minibuffer Edit::     How to edit in the minibuffer.
* Completion::		An abbreviation facility for minibuffer input.
* Minibuffer History::	Reusing recent minibuffer arguments.
* Repetition::		Re-executing commands that used the minibuffer.

Completion

* Example: Completion Example.    Examples of using completion.
* Commands: Completion Commands.  A list of completion commands.
* Strict Completion::             Different types of completion.
* Options: Completion Options.    Options for completion.

Help

* Help Summary::	Brief list of all Help commands.
* Key Help::		Asking what a key does in Emacs.
* Name Help::		Asking about a command, variable or function name.
* Apropos::		Asking what pertains to a given topic.
* Help Mode::           Special features of Help mode and Help buffers.
* Library Keywords::	Finding Lisp libraries by keywords (topics).
* Language Help::       Help relating to international language support.
* Misc Help::		Other help commands.
* Help Files::          Commands to display pre-written help files.
* Help Echo::           Help on active text and tooltips (`balloon help')

The Mark and the Region

* Setting Mark::	Commands to set the mark.
* Transient Mark::	How to make Emacs highlight the region--
			  when there is one.
* Momentary Mark::      Enabling Transient Mark mode momentarily.
* Using Region::	Summary of ways to operate on contents of the region.
* Marking Objects::	Commands to put region around textual units.
* Mark Ring::		Previous mark positions saved so you can go back there.
* Global Mark Ring::	Previous mark positions in various buffers.

Killing and Moving Text

* Deletion::		Commands for deleting small amounts of text and
			  blank areas.
* Killing by Lines::	How to kill entire lines of text at one time.
* Other Kill Commands:: Commands to kill large regions of text and
			  syntactic units such as words and sentences.
* CUA Bindings::        Using C-x, C-c, C-v for copy
                          and paste, with enhanced rectangle support.

Yanking

* Kill Ring::		Where killed text is stored.  Basic yanking.
* Appending Kills::	Several kills in a row all yank together.
* Earlier Kills::	Yanking something killed some time ago.

Registers

* RegPos::      	Saving positions in registers.
* RegText::     	Saving text in registers.
* RegRect::     	Saving rectangles in registers.
* RegConfig::           Saving window configurations in registers.
* RegNumbers::          Numbers in registers.
* RegFiles::    	File names in registers.
* Bookmarks::           Bookmarks are like registers, but persistent.

Controlling the Display

* Scrolling::	           Moving text up and down in a window.
* Auto Scrolling::         Redisplay scrolls text automatically when needed.
* Horizontal Scrolling::   Moving text left and right in a window.
* Follow Mode::            Follow mode lets two windows scroll as one.
* Faces::	           How to change the display style using faces.
* Standard Faces::         Emacs' predefined faces.
* Font Lock::              Minor mode for syntactic highlighting using faces.
* Highlight Interactively:: Tell Emacs what text to highlight.
* Fringes::                Enabling or disabling window fringes.
* Displaying Boundaries::  Displaying top and bottom of the buffer.
* Useless Whitespace::     Showing possibly-spurious trailing whitespace.
* Selective Display::      Hiding lines with lots of indentation.
* Optional Mode Line::     Optional mode line display features.
* Text Display::           How text characters are normally displayed.
* Cursor Display::         Features for displaying the cursor.
* Line Truncation::        Truncating lines to fit the screen width instead
                             of continuing them to multiple screen lines.
* Display Custom::         Information on variables for customizing display.

Searching and Replacement

* Incremental Search::	   Search happens as you type the string.
* Nonincremental Search::  Specify entire string and then search.
* Word Search::		   Search for sequence of words.
* Regexp Search::	   Search for match for a regexp.
* Regexps::		   Syntax of regular expressions.
* Regexp Backslash::       Regular expression constructs starting with `\'.
* Regexp Example::         A complex regular expression explained.
* Search Case::		   To ignore case while searching, or not.
* Replace::		   Search, and replace some or all matches.
* Other Repeating Search:: Operating on all matches for some regexp.

Incremental Search

* Basic Isearch::       Basic incremental search commands.
* Repeat Isearch::      Searching for the same string again.
* Error in Isearch::    When your string is not found.
* Special Isearch::     Special input in incremental search.
* Non-ASCII Isearch::   How to search for non-ASCII characters.
* Isearch Yank::        Commands that grab text into the search string
                          or else edit the search string.
* Highlight Isearch::   Isearch highlights the other possible matches.
* Isearch Scroll::      Scrolling during an incremental search.
* Slow Isearch::        Incremental search features for slow terminals.

Replacement Commands

* Unconditional Replace::  Replacing all matches for a string.
* Regexp Replace::	   Replacing all matches for a regexp.
* Replacement and Case::   How replacements preserve case of letters.
* Query Replace::	   How to use querying.

Commands for Fixing Typos

* Undo::                Full details of Emacs undo commands.
* Kill Errors::         Commands to kill a batch of recently entered text.
* Transpose::	        Exchanging two characters, words, lines, lists...
* Fixing Case::         Correcting case of last word entered.
* Spelling::	        Apply spelling checker to a word or a whole buffer.

Keyboard Macros

* Basic Keyboard Macro::     Defining and running keyboard macros.
* Keyboard Macro Ring::      Where previous keyboard macros are saved.
* Keyboard Macro Counter::   Inserting incrementing numbers in macros.
* Keyboard Macro Query::     Making keyboard macros do different things each time.
* Save Keyboard Macro::      Giving keyboard macros names; saving them in files.
* Edit Keyboard Macro::      Editing keyboard macros.
* Keyboard Macro Step-Edit:: Interactively executing and editing a keyboard
                                macro.

File Handling

* File Names::          How to type and edit file-name arguments.
* Visiting::            Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file.
* Saving::              Saving makes your changes permanent.
* Reverting::           Reverting cancels all the changes not saved.
* Autorevert::          Auto Reverting non-file buffers.
* Auto Save::           Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data.
* File Aliases::        Handling multiple names for one file.
* Version Control::     Version control systems (RCS, CVS and SCCS).
* Directories::         Creating, deleting, and listing file directories.
* Comparing Files::     Finding where two files differ.
* Diff Mode::           Editing diff output.
* Misc File Ops::       Other things you can do on files.
* Compressed Files::    Accessing compressed files.
* File Archives::       Operating on tar, zip, jar etc. archive files.
* Remote Files::        Accessing files on other sites.
* Quoted File Names::   Quoting special characters in file names.
* File Name Cache::     Completion against a list of files you often use.
* File Conveniences::   Convenience Features for Finding Files.
* Filesets::            Handling sets of files.

Saving Files

* Save Commands::       Commands for saving files.
* Backup::              How Emacs saves the old version of your file.
* Customize Save::      Customizing the saving of files.
* Interlocking::        How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing
                          of one file by two users.
* File Shadowing::      Copying files to "shadows" automatically.
* Time Stamps::         Emacs can update time stamps on saved files.

Backup Files

* One or Many: Numbered Backups. Whether to make one backup file or many.
* Names: Backup Names.		How backup files are named.
* Deletion: Backup Deletion.	Emacs deletes excess numbered backups.
* Copying: Backup Copying.	Backups can be made by copying or renaming.

Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters

* Files: Auto Save Files.       The file where auto-saved changes are
                                  actually made until you save the file.
* Control: Auto Save Control.   Controlling when and how often to auto-save.
* Recover::		        Recovering text from auto-save files.

Version Control

* Introduction to VC::  How version control works in general.
* VC Mode Line::        How the mode line shows version control status.
* Basic VC Editing::    How to edit a file under version control.
* Old Versions::        Examining and comparing old versions.
* Secondary VC Commands:: The commands used a little less frequently.
* Branches::            Multiple lines of development.
* Remote Repositories:: Efficient access to remote CVS servers.
* Snapshots::           Sets of file versions treated as a unit.
* Miscellaneous VC::    Various other commands and features of VC.
* Customizing VC::      Variables that change VC's behavior.

Using Multiple Buffers

* Select Buffer::       Creating a new buffer or reselecting an old one.
* List Buffers::        Getting a list of buffers that exist.
* Misc Buffer::	        Renaming; changing read-onliness; copying text.
* Kill Buffer::	        Killing buffers you no longer need.
* Several Buffers::     How to go through the list of all buffers
			  and operate variously on several of them.
* Indirect Buffers::    An indirect buffer shares the text of another buffer.
* Buffer Convenience::  Convenience and customization features for
                          buffer handling.

Multiple Windows

* Basic Window::        Introduction to Emacs windows.
* Split Window::        New windows are made by splitting existing windows.
* Other Window::        Moving to another window or doing something to it.
* Pop Up Window::       Finding a file or buffer in another window.
* Force Same Window::   Forcing certain buffers to appear in the selected
                          window rather than in another window.
* Change Window::       Deleting windows and changing their sizes.
* Window Convenience::  Convenience functions for window handling.

Frames and Graphical Displays

* Cut and Paste::       Mouse commands for cut and paste.
* Mouse References::    Using the mouse to select an item from a list.
* Menu Mouse Clicks::   Mouse clicks that bring up menus.
* Mode Line Mouse::     Mouse clicks on the mode line.
* Creating Frames::     Creating additional Emacs frames with various contents.
* Frame Commands::      Iconifying, deleting, and switching frames.
* Speedbar::            How to make and use a speedbar frame.
* Multiple Displays::   How one Emacs job can talk to several displays.
* Special Buffer Frames::  You can make certain buffers have their own frames.
* Frame Parameters::    Changing the colors and other modes of frames.
* Scroll Bars::	        How to enable and disable scroll bars; how to use them.
* Wheeled Mice::        Using mouse wheels for scrolling.
* Drag and Drop::       Using drag and drop to open files and insert text.
* Menu Bars::	        Enabling and disabling the menu bar.
* Tool Bars::           Enabling and disabling the tool bar.
* Dialog Boxes::        Controlling use of dialog boxes.
* Tooltips::            Showing "tooltips", AKA "balloon help" for active text.
* Mouse Avoidance::     Moving the mouse pointer out of the way.
* Non-Window Terminals::  Multiple frames on terminals that show only one.
* Text-Only Mouse::     Using the mouse in text-only terminals.

International Character Set Support

* International Chars::     Basic concepts of multibyte characters.
* Enabling Multibyte::      Controlling whether to use multibyte characters.
* Language Environments::   Setting things up for the language you use.
* Input Methods::           Entering text characters not on your keyboard.
* Select Input Method::     Specifying your choice of input methods.
* Multibyte Conversion::    How single-byte characters convert to multibyte.
* Coding Systems::          Character set conversion when you read and
                              write files, and so on.
* Recognize Coding::        How Emacs figures out which conversion to use.
* Specify Coding::          Specifying a file's coding system explicitly.
* Output Coding::           Choosing coding systems for output.
* Text Coding::             Choosing conversion to use for file text.
* Communication Coding::    Coding systems for interprocess communication.
* File Name Coding::        Coding systems for file _names_.
* Terminal Coding::         Specifying coding systems for converting
                              terminal input and output.
* Fontsets::                Fontsets are collections of fonts
                              that cover the whole spectrum of characters.
* Defining Fontsets::       Defining a new fontset.
* Undisplayable Characters::When characters don't display.
* Unibyte Mode::            You can pick one European character set
                              to use without multibyte characters.
* Charsets::                How Emacs groups its internal character codes.

Major Modes

* Choosing Modes::      How major modes are specified or chosen.

Indentation

* Indentation Commands::  Various commands and techniques for indentation.
* Tab Stops::		  You can set arbitrary "tab stops" and then
			    indent to the next tab stop when you want to.
* Just Spaces::		  You can request indentation using just spaces.

Commands for Human Languages

* Words::	        Moving over and killing words.
* Sentences::	        Moving over and killing sentences.
* Paragraphs::	        Moving over paragraphs.
* Pages::	        Moving over pages.
* Filling::	        Filling or justifying text.
* Case::	        Changing the case of text.
* Text Mode::	        The major modes for editing text files.
* Outline Mode::        Editing outlines.
* TeX Mode::	        Editing input to the formatter TeX.
* HTML Mode::           Editing HTML, SGML, and XML files.
* Nroff Mode::	        Editing input to the formatter nroff.
* Formatted Text::      Editing formatted text directly in WYSIWYG fashion.
* Text Based Tables::   Editing text-based tables in WYSIWYG fashion.

Filling Text

* Auto Fill::	        Auto Fill mode breaks long lines automatically.
* Refill::              Keeping paragraphs filled.
* Fill Commands::       Commands to refill paragraphs and center lines.
* Fill Prefix::	        Filling paragraphs that are indented
                          or in a comment, etc.
* Adaptive Fill::       How Emacs can determine the fill prefix automatically.
* Longlines::           Editing text with very long lines.

Outline Mode

* Format: Outline Format.	   What the text of an outline looks like.
* Motion: Outline Motion.	   Special commands for moving through
                                     outlines.
* Visibility: Outline Visibility.  Commands to control what is visible.
* Views: Outline Views.            Outlines and multiple views.
* Foldout::                        Folding means zooming in on outlines.

TeX Mode

* Editing: TeX Editing.   Special commands for editing in TeX mode.
* LaTeX: LaTeX Editing.   Additional commands for LaTeX input files.
* Printing: TeX Print.    Commands for printing part of a file with TeX.
* Misc: TeX Misc.         Customization of TeX mode, and related features.

Editing Formatted Text

* Requesting Formatted Text::   Entering and exiting Enriched mode.
* Hard and Soft Newlines::      There are two different kinds of newlines.
* Editing Format Info::         How to edit text properties.
* Faces: Format Faces.          Bold, italic, underline, etc.
* Color: Format Colors.         Changing the color of text.
* Indent: Format Indentation.   Changing the left and right margins.
* Justification: Format Justification.
                                Centering, setting text flush with the
                                  left or right margin, etc.
* Other: Format Properties.     The "special" text properties submenu.
* Forcing Enriched Mode::       How to force use of Enriched mode.

Editing Text-based Tables

* Table Definition::    What is a text based table.
* Table Creation::      How to create a table.
* Table Recognition::   How to activate and deactivate tables.
* Cell Commands::       Cell-oriented commands in a table.
* Cell Justification::  Justifying cell contents.
* Row Commands::        Manipulating rows of table cell.
* Column Commands::     Manipulating columns of table cell.
* Fixed Width Mode::    Fixing cell width.
* Table Conversion::    Converting between plain text and tables.
* Measuring Tables::    Analyzing table dimension.
* Table Misc::          Table miscellany.

Editing Programs

* Program Modes::       Major modes for editing programs.
* Defuns::              Commands to operate on major top-level parts
                          of a program.
* Program Indent::      Adjusting indentation to show the nesting.
* Parentheses::         Commands that operate on parentheses.
* Comments::	        Inserting, killing, and aligning comments.
* Documentation::       Getting documentation of functions you plan to call.
* Hideshow::            Displaying blocks selectively.
* Symbol Completion::   Completion on symbol names of your program or language.
* Glasses::             Making identifiersLikeThis more readable.
* Misc for Programs::   Other Emacs features useful for editing programs.
* C Modes::             Special commands of C, C++, Objective-C,
                          Java, and Pike modes.
* Asm Mode::            Asm mode and its special features.
* Fortran::             Fortran mode and its special features.

Top-Level Definitions, or Defuns

* Left Margin Paren::   An open-paren or similar opening delimiter
                          starts a defun if it is at the left margin.
* Moving by Defuns::    Commands to move over or mark a major definition.
* Imenu::               Making buffer indexes as menus.
* Which Function::      Which Function mode shows which function you are in.

Indentation for Programs

* Basic Indent::	Indenting a single line.
* Multi-line Indent::   Commands to reindent many lines at once.
* Lisp Indent::		Specifying how each Lisp function should be indented.
* C Indent::		Extra features for indenting C and related modes.
* Custom C Indent::	Controlling indentation style for C and related modes.

Commands for Editing with Parentheses

* Expressions::         Expressions with balanced parentheses.
* Moving by Parens::    Commands for moving up, down and across
                          in the structure of parentheses.
* Matching::	        Insertion of a close-delimiter flashes matching open.

Manipulating Comments

* Comment Commands::    Inserting, killing, and aligning comments.
* Multi-Line Comments:: Commands for adding and editing multi-line comments.
* Options for Comments::Customizing the comment features.

Documentation Lookup

* Info Lookup::         Looking up library functions and commands
                          in Info files.
* Man Page::            Looking up man pages of library functions and commands.
* Lisp Doc::            Looking up Emacs Lisp functions, etc.

C and Related Modes

* Motion in C::         Commands to move by C statements, etc.
* Electric C::          Colon and other chars can automatically reindent.
* Hungry Delete::       A more powerful DEL command.
* Other C Commands::    Filling comments, viewing expansion of macros,
                          and other neat features.

Compiling and Testing Programs

* Compilation::		Compiling programs in languages other
			  than Lisp (C, Pascal, etc.).
* Compilation Mode::    The mode for visiting compiler errors.
* Compilation Shell::   Customizing your shell properly
                          for use in the compilation buffer.
* Grep Searching::      Searching with grep.
* Flymake::             Finding syntax errors on the fly.
* Debuggers::		Running symbolic debuggers for non-Lisp programs.
* Executing Lisp::	Various modes for editing Lisp programs,
			  with different facilities for running
			  the Lisp programs.
* Lisp Libraries::      Creating Lisp programs to run in Emacs.
* Lisp Eval::		Executing a single Lisp expression in Emacs.
* Lisp Interaction::    Executing Lisp in an Emacs buffer.
* External Lisp::	Communicating through Emacs with a separate Lisp.

Running Debuggers Under Emacs

* Starting GUD::	How to start a debugger subprocess.
* Debugger Operation::	Connection between the debugger and source buffers.
* Commands of GUD::	Key bindings for common commands.
* GUD Customization::	Defining your own commands for GUD.
* GDB Graphical Interface::  An enhanced mode that uses GDB features to
                          implement a graphical debugging environment through
                          Emacs.

Maintaining Large Programs

* Change Log::	        Maintaining a change history for your program.
* Format of ChangeLog:: What the change log file looks like.
* Tags::	        Go direct to any function in your program in one
			  command.  Tags remembers which file it is in.
* Emerge::              A convenient way of merging two versions of a program.

Tags Tables

* Tag Syntax::		Tag syntax for various types of code and text files.
* Create Tags Table::	Creating a tags table with `etags'.
* Etags Regexps::       Create arbitrary tags using regular expressions.
* Select Tags Table::	How to visit a tags table.
* Find Tag::		Commands to find the definition of a specific tag.
* Tags Search::		Using a tags table for searching and replacing.
* List Tags::		Listing and finding tags defined in a file.

Abbrevs

* Abbrev Concepts::     Fundamentals of defined abbrevs.
* Defining Abbrevs::    Defining an abbrev, so it will expand when typed.
* Expanding Abbrevs::   Controlling expansion: prefixes, canceling expansion.
* Editing Abbrevs::     Viewing or editing the entire list of defined abbrevs.
* Saving Abbrevs::      Saving the entire list of abbrevs for another session.
* Dynamic Abbrevs::     Abbreviations for words already in the buffer.
* Dabbrev Customization:: What is a word, for dynamic abbrevs.  Case handling.


Editing Pictures

* Basic Picture::         Basic concepts and simple commands of Picture Mode.
* Insert in Picture::     Controlling direction of cursor motion
                            after "self-inserting" characters.
* Tabs in Picture::       Various features for tab stops and indentation.
* Rectangles in Picture:: Clearing and superimposing rectangles.

Sending Mail

* Mail Format:: 	Format of the mail being composed.
* Mail Headers::        Details of permitted mail header fields.
* Mail Aliases::        Abbreviating and grouping mail addresses.
* Mail Mode::   	Special commands for editing mail being composed.
* Mail Amusements::     Distract the NSA's attention; add a fortune to a msg.
* Mail Methods::        Using alternative mail-composition methods.

Reading Mail with Rmail

* Rmail Basics::        Basic concepts of Rmail, and simple use.
* Rmail Scrolling::     Scrolling through a message.
* Rmail Motion::        Moving to another message.
* Rmail Deletion::      Deleting and expunging messages.
* Rmail Inbox::         How mail gets into the Rmail file.
* Rmail Files::         Using multiple Rmail files.
* Rmail Output::        Copying message out to files.
* Rmail Labels::        Classifying messages by labeling them.
* Rmail Attributes::    Certain standard labels, called attributes.
* Rmail Reply::         Sending replies to messages you are viewing.
* Rmail Summary::       Summaries show brief info on many messages.
* Rmail Sorting::       Sorting messages in Rmail.
* Rmail Display::       How Rmail displays a message; customization.
* Rmail Coding::        How Rmail handles decoding character sets.
* Rmail Editing::       Editing message text and headers in Rmail.
* Rmail Digest::        Extracting the messages from a digest message.
* Out of Rmail::	Converting an Rmail file to mailbox format.
* Rmail Rot13::         Reading messages encoded in the rot13 code.
* Movemail::            More details of fetching new mail.
* Remote Mailboxes::    Retrieving Mail from Remote Mailboxes.
* Other Mailbox Formats:: Retrieving Mail from Local Mailboxes in
                          Various Formats

Dired, the Directory Editor

* Dired Enter:: 	     How to invoke Dired.
* Dired Navigation::         How to move in the Dired buffer.
* Dired Deletion::           Deleting files with Dired.
* Flagging Many Files::      Flagging files based on their names.
* Dired Visiting::           Other file operations through Dired.
* Marks vs Flags::	     Flagging for deletion vs marking.
* Operating on Files::	     How to copy, rename, print, compress, etc.
			       either one file or several files.
* Shell Commands in Dired::  Running a shell command on the marked files.
* Transforming File Names::  Using patterns to rename multiple files.
* Comparison in Dired::	     Running `diff' by way of Dired.
* Subdirectories in Dired::  Adding subdirectories to the Dired buffer.
* Subdir Switches::          Subdirectory switches in Dired.
* Subdirectory Motion::	     Moving across subdirectories, and up and down.
* Hiding Subdirectories::    Making subdirectories visible or invisible.
* Dired Updating::           Discarding lines for files of no interest.
* Dired and Find::	     Using `find' to choose the files for Dired.
* Wdired::                   Operating on files by editing the Dired buffer.
* Image-Dired::              Viewing image thumbnails in Dired
* Misc Dired Features::      Various other features.

The Calendar and the Diary

* Calendar Motion::     Moving through the calendar; selecting a date.
* Scroll Calendar::     Bringing earlier or later months onto the screen.
* Counting Days::       How many days are there between two dates?
* General Calendar::    Exiting or recomputing the calendar.
* Writing Calendar Files:: Writing calendars to files of various formats.
* Holidays::            Displaying dates of holidays.
* Sunrise/Sunset::      Displaying local times of sunrise and sunset.
* Lunar Phases::        Displaying phases of the moon.
* Other Calendars::     Converting dates to other calendar systems.
* Diary::               Displaying events from your diary.
* Appointments::	Reminders when it's time to do something.
* Importing Diary::     Converting diary events to/from other formats.
* Daylight Saving::    How to specify when daylight saving time is active.
* Time Intervals::      Keeping track of time intervals.
* Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage:: Advanced Calendar/Diary customization.

Movement in the Calendar

* Calendar Unit Motion::      Moving by days, weeks, months, and years.
* Move to Beginning or End::  Moving to start/end of weeks, months, and years.
* Specified Dates::	      Moving to the current date or another
				specific date.

Conversion To and From Other Calendars

* Calendar Systems::	   The calendars Emacs understands
			     (aside from Gregorian).
* To Other Calendar::	   Converting the selected date to various calendars.
* From Other Calendar::	   Moving to a date specified in another calendar.
* Mayan Calendar::	   Moving to a date specified in a Mayan calendar.

The Diary

* Displaying the Diary::   Viewing diary entries and associated calendar dates.
* Format of Diary File::   Entering events in your diary.
* Date Formats::	   Various ways you can specify dates.
* Adding to Diary::	   Commands to create diary entries.
* Special Diary Entries::  Anniversaries, blocks of dates, cyclic entries, etc.

Gnus

* Buffers of Gnus::	The group, summary, and article buffers.
* Gnus Startup::	What you should know about starting Gnus.
* Summary of Gnus::	A short description of the basic Gnus commands.

Running Shell Commands from Emacs

* Single Shell::	How to run one shell command and return.
* Interactive Shell::	Permanent shell taking input via Emacs.
* Shell Mode::		Special Emacs commands used with permanent shell.
* Shell Prompts::       Two ways to recognize shell prompts.
* Shell History::       Repeating previous commands in a shell buffer.
* Directory Tracking::  Keeping track when the subshell changes directory.
* Shell Options::       Options for customizing Shell mode.
* Terminal emulator::   An Emacs window as a terminal emulator.
* Term Mode::           Special Emacs commands used in Term mode.
* Paging in Term::      Paging in the terminal emulator.
* Remote Host::		Connecting to another computer.

Using Emacs as a Server

* Invoking emacsclient:: Emacs client startup options.

Printing Hard Copies

* PostScript::	         Printing buffers or regions as PostScript.
* PostScript Variables:: Customizing the PostScript printing commands.
* Printing Package::     An optional advanced printing interface.

Hyperlinking and Navigation Features

* Browse-URL::          Following URLs.
* Goto-address::        Activating URLs.
* FFAP::                Finding files etc. at point.

Customization

* Minor Modes::		Each minor mode is one feature you can turn on
			  independently of any others.
* Easy Customization::  Convenient way to browse and change user options.
* Variables::		Many Emacs commands examine Emacs variables
			  to decide what to do; by setting variables,
			  you can control their functioning.
* Key Bindings::	The keymaps say what command each key runs.
			  By changing them, you can "redefine keys".
* Syntax::		The syntax table controls how words and
			  expressions are parsed.
* Init File::		How to write common customizations in the
			  `.emacs' file.

Variables

* Examining::	        Examining or setting one variable's value.
* Hooks::	        Hook variables let you specify programs for parts
		          of Emacs to run on particular occasions.
* Locals::	        Per-buffer values of variables.
* File Variables::      How files can specify variable values.

Customizing Key Bindings

* Keymaps::             Generalities.  The global keymap.
* Prefix Keymaps::      Keymaps for prefix keys.
* Local Keymaps::       Major and minor modes have their own keymaps.
* Minibuffer Maps::     The minibuffer uses its own local keymaps.
* Rebinding::           How to redefine one key's meaning conveniently.
* Init Rebinding::      Rebinding keys with your init file, `.emacs'.
* Function Keys::       Rebinding terminal function keys.
* Named ASCII Chars::   Distinguishing <TAB> from C-i, and so on.
* Mouse Buttons::       Rebinding mouse buttons in Emacs.
* Disabling::           Disabling a command means confirmation is required
                          before it can be executed.  This is done to protect
                          beginners from surprises.

The Init File, `~/.emacs'

* Init Syntax::	        Syntax of constants in Emacs Lisp.
* Init Examples::       How to do some things with an init file.
* Terminal Init::       Each terminal type can have an init file.
* Find Init::	        How Emacs finds the init file.
* Init Non-ASCII::      Using non-ASCII characters in an init file.

Dealing with Emacs Trouble

* DEL Does Not Delete:: What to do if <DEL> doesn't delete.
* Stuck Recursive::     `[...]' in mode line around the parentheses.
* Screen Garbled::      Garbage on the screen.
* Text Garbled::        Garbage in the text.
* Memory Full::         How to cope when you run out of memory.
* After a Crash::       Recovering editing in an Emacs session that crashed.
* Emergency Escape::    Emergency escape---
                          What to do if Emacs stops responding.
* Total Frustration::   When you are at your wits' end.

Reporting Bugs

* Bug Criteria::        Have you really found a bug?
* Understanding Bug Reporting::	How to report a bug effectively.
* Checklist::		Steps to follow for a good bug report.
* Sending Patches::	How to send a patch for GNU Emacs.

Command Line Arguments for Emacs Invocation

* Action Arguments::	Arguments to visit files, load libraries,
			  and call functions.
* Initial Options::     Arguments that take effect while starting Emacs.
* Command Example::     Examples of using command line arguments.
* Resume Arguments::	Specifying arguments when you resume a running Emacs.
* Environment::         Environment variables that Emacs uses.
* Display X::           Changing the default display and using remote login.
* Font X::	        Choosing a font for text, under X.
* Colors::	        Choosing display colors.
* Window Size X::       Start-up window size, under X.
* Borders X::	        Internal and external borders, under X.
* Title X::             Specifying the initial frame's title.
* Icons X::             Choosing what sort of icon to use, under X.
* Misc X::              Other display options.

Environment Variables

* General Variables::	Environment variables that all versions of Emacs use.
* Misc Variables::	Certain system specific variables.
* MS-Windows Registry:: An alternative to the environment on MS-Windows.

X Options and Resources

* Resources::           Using X resources with Emacs (in general).
* Table of Resources::  Table of specific X resources that affect Emacs.
* Face Resources::      X resources for customizing faces.
* Lucid Resources::     X resources for Lucid menus.
* LessTif Resources::   X resources for LessTif and Motif menus.
* GTK resources::       Resources for GTK widgets.

Emacs and Mac OS

* Mac Input::           Keyboard and mouse input on Mac.
* Mac International::   International character sets on Mac.
* Mac Environment Variables::  Setting environment variables for Emacs.
* Mac Directories::     Volumes and directories on Mac.
* Mac Font Specs::      Specifying fonts on Mac.
* Mac Functions::       Mac-specific Lisp functions.

Emacs and Microsoft Windows/MS-DOS

* Text and Binary::     Text files use CRLF to terminate lines.
* Windows Files::       File-name conventions on Windows.
* ls in Lisp::          Emulation of `ls' for Dired.
* Windows HOME::        Where Emacs looks for your `.emacs'.
* Windows Keyboard::    Windows-specific keyboard features.
* Windows Mouse::       Windows-specific mouse features.
* Windows Processes::   Running subprocesses on Windows.
* Windows Printing::    How to specify the printer on MS-Windows.
* Windows Misc::        Miscellaneous Windows features.
* MS-DOS::              Using Emacs on MS-DOS (otherwise known as "MS-DOG").


File: emacs,  Node: Distrib,  Next: Intro,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

Distribution
************

GNU Emacs is "free software"; this means that everyone is free to use
it and free to redistribute it on certain conditions.  GNU Emacs is not
in the public domain; it is copyrighted and there are restrictions on
its distribution, but these restrictions are designed to permit
everything that a good cooperating citizen would want to do.  What is
not allowed is to try to prevent others from further sharing any
version of GNU Emacs that they might get from you.  The precise
conditions are found in the GNU General Public License that comes with
Emacs and also appears in this manual(1).  *Note Copying::.

   One way to get a copy of GNU Emacs is from someone else who has it.
You need not ask for our permission to do so, or tell any one else;
just copy it.  If you have access to the Internet, you can get the
latest distribution version of GNU Emacs by anonymous FTP; see
`http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs' on our website for more information.

   You may also receive GNU Emacs when you buy a computer.  Computer
manufacturers are free to distribute copies on the same terms that
apply to everyone else.  These terms require them to give you the full
sources, including whatever changes they may have made, and to permit
you to redistribute the GNU Emacs received from them under the usual
terms of the General Public License.  In other words, the program must
be free for you when you get it, not just free for the manufacturer.

   You can also order copies of GNU Emacs from the Free Software
Foundation.  This is a convenient and reliable way to get a copy; it is
also a good way to help fund our work.  We also sell hardcopy versions
of this manual and `An Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp', by
Robert J. Chassell.  You can find an order form on our web site at
`http://www.gnu.org/order/order.html'.  For further information, write
to

     Free Software Foundation
     51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor
     Boston, MA 02110-1301
     USA

   The income from distribution fees goes to support the foundation's
purpose: the development of new free software, and improvements to our
existing programs including GNU Emacs.

   If you find GNU Emacs useful, please *send a donation* to the Free
Software Foundation to support our work.  Donations to the Free
Software Foundation are tax deductible in the US.  If you use GNU Emacs
at your workplace, please suggest that the company make a donation.  If
company policy is unsympathetic to the idea of donating to charity, you
might instead suggest ordering a CD-ROM from the Foundation
occasionally, or subscribing to periodic updates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This manual is itself covered by the GNU Free Documentation
License.  This license is similar in spirit to the General Public
License, but is more suitable for documentation.  *Note GNU Free
Documentation License::.


File: emacs,  Node: Intro,  Next: Glossary,  Prev: Distrib,  Up: Top

Introduction
************

You are reading about GNU Emacs, the GNU incarnation of the advanced,
self-documenting, customizable, extensible editor Emacs.  (The `G' in
`GNU' is not silent.)

   We call Emacs advanced because it provides much more than simple
insertion and deletion.  It can control subprocesses, indent programs
automatically, show two or more files at once, and edit formatted text.
Emacs editing commands operate in terms of characters, words, lines,
sentences, paragraphs, and pages, as well as expressions and comments
in various programming languages.

   "Self-documenting" means that at any time you can type a special
character, `Control-h', to find out what your options are.  You can
also use it to find out what any command does, or to find all the
commands that pertain to a topic.  *Note Help::.

   "Customizable" means that you can alter Emacs commands' behavior in
simple ways.  For example, if you use a programming language in which
comments start with `<**' and end with `**>', you can tell the Emacs
comment manipulation commands to use those strings (*note Comments::).
Another sort of customization is rearrangement of the command set.  For
example, you can rebind the basic cursor motion commands (up, down,
left and right) to any keys on the keyboard that you find comfortable.
*Note Customization::.

   "Extensible" means that you can go beyond simple customization and
write entirely new commands--programs in the Lisp language to be run by
Emacs's own Lisp interpreter.  Emacs is an "on-line extensible" system,
which means that it is divided into many functions that call each
other, any of which can be redefined in the middle of an editing
session.  Almost any part of Emacs can be replaced without making a
separate copy of all of Emacs.  Most of the editing commands of Emacs
are written in Lisp; the few exceptions could have been written in Lisp
but use C instead for efficiency.  Writing an extension is programming,
but non-programmers can use it afterwards.  *Note Emacs Lisp Intro:
(eintr)Top, if you want to learn Emacs Lisp programming.

   When running on a graphical display, Emacs provides its own menus
and convenient handling of mouse buttons.  In addition, Emacs provides
many of the benefits of a graphical display even on a text-only
terminal.  For instance, it can highlight parts of a file, display and
edit several files at once, move text between files, and edit files
while running shell commands.


File: emacs,  Node: Screen,  Next: User Input,  Prev: Acknowledgments,  Up: Top

1 The Organization of the Screen
********************************

On a text-only terminal, the Emacs display occupies the whole screen.
On a graphical display, such as on GNU/Linux using the X Window System,
Emacs creates its own windows to use.  We use the term "frame" to mean
the entire text-only screen or an entire system-level window used by
Emacs.  Emacs uses both kinds of frames, in the same way, to display
your editing.  Emacs normally starts out with just one frame, but you
can create additional frames if you wish.  *Note Frames::.

   When you start Emacs, the main central area of the frame, all except
for the top and bottom and sides, displays the text you are editing.
This area is called "the window".  At the top there is normally a "menu
bar" where you can access a series of menus; then there may be a "tool
bar", a row of icons that perform editing commands if you click on
them.  Below this, the window begins, often with a "scroll bar" on one
side.  Below the window comes the last line of the frame, a special
"echo area" or "minibuffer window", where prompts appear and you enter
information when Emacs asks for it.  See following sections for more
information about these special lines.

   You can subdivide the window horizontally or vertically to make
multiple text windows, each of which can independently display some
file or text (*note Windows::).  In this manual, the word "window"
refers to the initial large window if not subdivided, or any one of the
multiple windows you have subdivided it into.

   At any time, one window is the "selected window".  On graphical
displays, the selected window normally shows a more prominent cursor
(usually solid and blinking) while other windows show a weaker cursor
(such as a hollow box).   Text terminals have just one cursor, so it
always appears in the selected window.

   Most Emacs commands implicitly apply to the text in the selected
window; the text in unselected windows is mostly visible for reference.
However, mouse commands generally operate on whatever window you click
them in, whether selected or not.  If you use multiple frames on a
graphical display, then giving the input focus to a particular frame
selects a window in that frame.

   Each window's last line is a "mode line", which describes what is
going on in that window.  It appears in different color and/or a "3D"
box if the terminal supports them; its contents normally begin with
`--:--  *scratch*' when Emacs starts.  The mode line displays status
information such as what buffer is being displayed above it in the
window, what major and minor modes are in use, and whether the buffer
contains unsaved changes.

* Menu:

* Point::	        The place in the text where editing commands operate.
* Echo Area::           Short messages appear at the bottom of the screen.
* Mode Line::	        Interpreting the mode line.
* Menu Bar::            How to use the menu bar.


File: emacs,  Node: Point,  Next: Echo Area,  Up: Screen

1.1 Point
=========

Within Emacs, the active cursor shows the location at which editing
commands will take effect.  This location is called "point".  Many
Emacs commands move point through the text, so that you can edit at
different places in it.  You can also place point by clicking mouse
button 1 (normally the left button).

   While the cursor appears to be _on_ a character, you should think of
point as _between_ two characters; it points _before_ the character
that appears under the cursor.  For example, if your text looks like
`frob' with the cursor over the `b', then point is between the `o' and
the `b'.  If you insert the character `!' at that position, the result
is `fro!b', with point between the `!' and the `b'.  Thus, the cursor
remains over the `b', as before.

   Sometimes people speak of "the cursor" when they mean "point," or
speak of commands that move point as "cursor motion" commands.

   If you are editing several files in Emacs, each in its own buffer,
each buffer has its own point location.  A buffer that is not currently
displayed remembers its point location in case you display it again
later.  When Emacs displays multiple windows, each window has its own
point location.  If the same buffer appears in more than one window,
each window has its own point position in that buffer, and (when
possible) its own cursor.

   A text-only terminal has just one cursor, in the selected window.
The other windows do not show a cursor, even though they do have their
own position of point.  When Emacs updates the screen on a text-only
terminal, it has to put the cursor temporarily at the place the output
goes.  This doesn't mean point is there, though.  Once display updating
finishes, Emacs puts the cursor where point is.

   On graphical displays, Emacs shows a cursor in each window; the
selected window's cursor is solid and blinking, and the other cursors
are just hollow.  Thus, the most prominent cursor always shows you the
selected window, on all kinds of terminals.

   *Note Cursor Display::, for customizable variables that control
display of the cursor or cursors.

   The term "point" comes from the character `.', which was the command
in TECO (the language in which the original Emacs was written) for
accessing the value now called "point."


File: emacs,  Node: Echo Area,  Next: Mode Line,  Prev: Point,  Up: Screen

1.2 The Echo Area
=================

The line at the bottom of the frame (below the mode line) is the "echo
area".  It is used to display small amounts of text for various
purposes.

   "Echoing" means displaying the characters that you type.  At the
command line, the operating system normally echoes all your input.
Emacs handles echoing differently.

   Single-character commands do not echo in Emacs, and multi-character
commands echo only if you pause while typing them.  As soon as you pause
for more than a second in the middle of a command, Emacs echoes all the
characters of the command so far.  This is to "prompt" you for the rest
of the command.  Once echoing has started, the rest of the command
echoes immediately as you type it.  This behavior is designed to give
confident users fast response, while giving hesitant users maximum
feedback.  You can change this behavior by setting a variable (*note
Display Custom::).

   If a command cannot do its job, it may display an "error message" in
the echo area.  Error messages are accompanied by beeping or by
flashing the screen.  The error also discards any input you have typed
ahead.

   Some commands display informative messages in the echo area.  These
messages look much like error messages, but they are not announced with
a beep and do not throw away input.  Sometimes the message tells you
what the command has done, when this is not obvious from looking at the
text being edited.  Sometimes the sole purpose of a command is to show
you a message giving you specific information--for example, `C-x ='
(hold down <CTRL> and type `x', then let go of <CTRL> and type `=')
displays a message describing the character position of point in the
text and its current column in the window.  Commands that take a long
time often display messages ending in `...' while they are working, and
add `done' at the end when they are finished.  They may also indicate
progress with percentages.

   Echo-area informative messages are saved in an editor buffer named
`*Messages*'.  (We have not explained buffers yet; see *Note Buffers::,
for more information about them.)  If you miss a message that appears
briefly on the screen, you can switch to the `*Messages*' buffer to see
it again.  (Successive progress messages are often collapsed into one
in that buffer.)

   The size of `*Messages*' is limited to a certain number of lines.
The variable `message-log-max' specifies how many lines.  Once the
buffer has that many lines, adding lines at the end deletes lines from
the beginning, to keep the size constant.  *Note Variables::, for how
to set variables such as `message-log-max'.

   The echo area is also used to display the "minibuffer", a window
where you can input arguments to commands, such as the name of a file
to be edited.  When the minibuffer is in use, the echo area begins with
a prompt string that usually ends with a colon; also, the cursor
appears in that line because it is the selected window.  You can always
get out of the minibuffer by typing `C-g'.  *Note Minibuffer::.


File: emacs,  Node: Mode Line,  Next: Menu Bar,  Prev: Echo Area,  Up: Screen

1.3 The Mode Line
=================

Each text window's last line is a "mode line", which describes what is
going on in that window.  The mode line starts and ends with dashes.
When there is only one text window, the mode line appears right above
the echo area; it is the next-to-last line in the frame.  On a
text-only terminal, the mode line is in inverse video if the terminal
supports that; on a graphics display, the mode line has a 3D box
appearance to help it stand out.  The mode line of the selected window
is highlighted if possible; see *Note Optional Mode Line::, for more
information.

   Normally, the mode line looks like this:

     -CS:CH-FR  BUF      POS LINE   (MAJOR MINOR)------

This gives information about the window and the buffer it displays: the
buffer's name, what major and minor modes are in use, whether the
buffer's text has been changed, and how far down the buffer you are
currently looking.

   CH contains two stars `**' if the text in the buffer has been edited
(the buffer is "modified"), or `--' if the buffer has not been edited.
For a read-only buffer, it is `%*' if the buffer is modified, and `%%'
otherwise.

   FR gives the selected frame name (*note Frames::).  It appears only
on text-only terminals.  The initial frame's name is `F1'.

   BUF is the name of the window's "buffer".  Usually this is the same
as the name of a file you are editing.  *Note Buffers::.

   The buffer displayed in the selected window (the window with the
cursor) is the "current buffer", where editing happens.  When a
command's effect applies to "the buffer," we mean it does those things
to the current buffer.

   POS tells you whether there is additional text above the top of the
window, or below the bottom.  If your buffer is small and it is all
visible in the window, POS is `All'.  Otherwise, it is `Top' if you are
looking at the beginning of the buffer, `Bot' if you are looking at the
end of the buffer, or `NN%', where NN is the percentage of the buffer
above the top of the window.  With Size Indication mode, you can
display the size of the buffer as well.  *Note Optional Mode Line::.

   LINE is `L' followed by the current line number of point.  This is
present when Line Number mode is enabled (it normally is).  You can
display the current column number too, by turning on Column Number
mode.  It is not enabled by default because it is somewhat slower.
*Note Optional Mode Line::.

   MAJOR is the name of the "major mode" in effect in the buffer.  A
buffer can only be in one major mode at a time.  The major modes
available include Fundamental mode (the least specialized), Text mode,
Lisp mode, C mode, Texinfo mode, and many others.  *Note Major Modes::,
for details of how the modes differ and how to select them.

   Some major modes display additional information after the major mode
name.  For example, Rmail buffers display the current message number and
the total number of messages.  Compilation buffers and Shell buffers
display the status of the subprocess.

   MINOR is a list of some of the "minor modes" that are turned on at
the moment in the window's chosen buffer.  For example, `Fill' means
that Auto Fill mode is on.  `Abbrev' means that Word Abbrev mode is on.
`Ovwrt' means that Overwrite mode is on.  *Note Minor Modes::, for
more information.

   `Narrow' means that the buffer being displayed has editing
restricted to only a portion of its text.  (This is not really a minor
mode, but is like one.)  *Note Narrowing::.  `Def' means that a
keyboard macro is being defined.  *Note Keyboard Macros::.

   In addition, if Emacs is inside a recursive editing level, square
brackets (`[...]') appear around the parentheses that surround the
modes.  If Emacs is in one recursive editing level within another,
double square brackets appear, and so on.  Since recursive editing
levels affect Emacs globally, not just one buffer, the square brackets
appear in every window's mode line or not in any of them.  *Note
Recursive Edit::.

   CS states the coding system used for the file you are editing.  A
dash indicates the default state of affairs: no code conversion, except
for end-of-line translation if the file contents call for that.  `='
means no conversion whatsoever.  Nontrivial code conversions are
represented by various letters--for example, `1' refers to ISO Latin-1.
*Note Coding Systems::, for more information.

   On a text-only terminal, CS includes two additional characters which
describe the coding system for keyboard input and the coding system for
terminal output.  They come right before the coding system used for the
file you are editing.

   If you are using an input method, a string of the form `I>' is added
to the beginning of CS; I identifies the input method.  (Some input
methods show `+' or `@' instead of `>'.)  *Note Input Methods::.

   When multibyte characters are not enabled, CS does not appear at
all.  *Note Enabling Multibyte::.

   The colon after CS changes to another string in some cases.  Emacs
uses newline characters to separate lines in the buffer.  Some files
use different conventions for separating lines: either carriage-return
linefeed (the MS-DOS convention) or just carriage-return (the Macintosh
convention).  If the buffer's file uses carriage-return linefeed, the
colon changes to either a backslash (`\') or `(DOS)', depending on the
operating system.  If the file uses just carriage-return, the colon
indicator changes to either a forward slash (`/') or `(Mac)'.  On some
systems, Emacs displays `(Unix)' instead of the colon for files that
use newline as the line separator.

   *Note Optional Mode Line::, to add other handy information to the
mode line, such as the size of the buffer, the current column number of
point, and whether new mail for you has arrived.

   The mode line is mouse-sensitive; when you move the mouse across
various parts of it, Emacs displays help text to say what a click in
that place will do.  *Note Mode Line Mouse::.


File: emacs,  Node: Menu Bar,  Prev: Mode Line,  Up: Screen

1.4 The Menu Bar
================

Each Emacs frame normally has a "menu bar" at the top which you can use
to perform common operations.  There's no need to list them here, as
you can more easily see them yourself.

   On a graphical display, you can use the mouse to choose a command
from the menu bar.  A right-arrow at the end of the menu item means it
leads to a subsidiary menu; `...' at the end means that the command
invoked will read arguments (further input from you) before it actually
does anything.

   You can also invoke the first menu bar item by pressing <F10> (to run
the command `menu-bar-open').  You can then navigate the menus with the
arrow keys.  You select an item by pressing <RET> and cancel menu
navigation with <ESC>.

   To view the full command name and documentation for a menu item, type
`C-h k', and then select the menu bar with the mouse in the usual way
(*note Key Help::).

   On text-only terminals with no mouse, you can use the menu bar by
typing `M-`' or <F10> (these run the command `tmm-menubar').  This lets
you select a menu item with the keyboard.  A provisional choice appears
in the echo area.  You can use the up and down arrow keys to move
through the menu to different items, and then you can type <RET> to
select the item.

   Each menu item also has an assigned letter or digit which designates
that item; it is usually the initial of some word in the item's name.
This letter or digit is separated from the item name by `=>'.  You can
type the item's letter or digit to select the item.

   Some of the commands in the menu bar have ordinary key bindings as
well; one such binding is shown in parentheses after the item itself.


File: emacs,  Node: User Input,  Next: Keys,  Prev: Screen,  Up: Top

2 Kinds of User Input
*********************

GNU Emacs is designed for use with keyboard commands because that is
the most efficient way to edit.  You can do editing with the mouse, as
in other editors, and you can give commands with the menu bar and tool
bar, and scroll with the scroll bar.  But if you keep on editing that
way, you won't get the benefits of Emacs.  Therefore, this manual
documents primarily how to edit with the keyboard.  You can force
yourself to practice using the keyboard by using the shell command
`emacs -nw' to start Emacs, so that the mouse won't work.

   Emacs uses an extension of the ASCII character set for keyboard
input; it also accepts non-character input events including function
keys and mouse button actions.

   ASCII consists of 128 character codes.  Some of these codes are
assigned graphic symbols such as `a' and `='; the rest are control
characters, such as `Control-a' (usually written `C-a' for short).
`C-a' gets its name from the fact that you type it by holding down the
<CTRL> key while pressing `a'.

   Some ASCII control characters have special names, and most terminals
have special keys you can type them with: for example, <RET>, <TAB>,
<DEL> and <ESC>.  The space character is usually known as <SPC>, even
though strictly speaking it is a graphic character that is blank.

   Emacs extends the ASCII character set with thousands more printing
characters (*note International::), additional control characters, and a
few more modifiers that can be combined with any character.

   On ASCII terminals, there are only 32 possible control characters.
These are the control variants of letters and `@[]\^_'.  In addition,
the shift key is meaningless with control characters: `C-a' and `C-A'
are the same character, and Emacs cannot distinguish them.

   The Emacs character set has room for control variants of all
printing characters, and distinguishes `C-A' from `C-a'.  Graphical
terminals make it possible to enter all these characters.  For example,
`C--' (that's Control-Minus) and `C-5' are meaningful Emacs commands on
a graphical terminal.

   Another Emacs character-set extension is additional modifier bits.
Only one modifier bit is commonly used; it is called Meta.  Every
character has a Meta variant; examples include `Meta-a' (normally
written `M-a', for short), `M-A' (different from `M-a', but they are
normally equivalent in Emacs), `M-<RET>', and `M-C-a'.  That last means
`a' with both the <CTRL> and <META> modifiers.  We usually write it as
`C-M-a' rather than `M-C-a', for reasons of tradition.

   Some terminals have a <META> key, and allow you to type Meta
characters by holding this key down.  Thus, you can type `Meta-a' by
holding down <META> and pressing `a'.  The <META> key works much like
the <SHIFT> key.  In fact, this key is more often labeled <ALT> or
<EDIT>, instead of <META>; on a Sun keyboard, it may have a diamond on
it.

   If there is no <META> key, you can still type Meta characters using
two-character sequences starting with <ESC>.  Thus, you can enter `M-a'
by typing `<ESC> a'.  You can enter `C-M-a' by typing `<ESC> C-a'.
Unlike <META>, which modifies other characters, <ESC> is a separate
character.  You don't hold down <ESC> while typing the next character;
instead, you press it and release it, then you enter the next character.
<ESC> is allowed on terminals with <META> keys, too, in case you have
formed a habit of using it.

   Emacs defines several other modifier keys that can be applied to any
input character.  These are called <SUPER>, <HYPER> and <ALT>.  We
write `s-', `H-' and `A-' to say that a character uses these modifiers.
Thus, `s-H-C-x' is short for `Super-Hyper-Control-x'.  Not all
graphical terminals actually provide keys for these modifier flags--in
fact, many terminals have a key labeled <ALT> which is really a <META>
key.  The standard key bindings of Emacs do not include any characters
with these modifiers.  But you can assign them meanings of your own by
customizing Emacs.

   If your keyboard lacks one of these modifier keys, you can enter it
using `C-x @': `C-x @ h' adds the "hyper" flag to the next character,
`C-x @ s' adds the "super" flag, and `C-x @ a' adds the "alt" flag.
For instance, `C-x @ h C-a' is a way to enter `Hyper-Control-a'.
(Unfortunately there is no way to add two modifiers by using `C-x @'
twice for the same character, because the first one goes to work on the
`C-x'.)

   Keyboard input includes keyboard keys that are not characters at
all, such as function keys and arrow keys.  Mouse buttons are also not
characters.  However, you can modify these events with the modifier
keys <CTRL>, <META>, <SUPER>, <HYPER> and <ALT>, just like keyboard
characters.

   Input characters and non-character inputs are collectively called
"input events".  *Note Input Events: (elisp)Input Events, for the full
Lisp-level details.  If you are not doing Lisp programming, but simply
want to redefine the meaning of some characters or non-character
events, see *Note Customization::.

   ASCII terminals cannot really send anything to the computer except
ASCII characters.  These terminals use a sequence of characters to
represent each function key.  But that is invisible to the Emacs user,
because the keyboard input routines catch these special sequences and
convert them to function key events before any other part of Emacs gets
to see them.

   On graphical displays, the window manager is likely to block the
character `Meta-<TAB>' before Emacs can see it.  It may also block
`Meta-<SPC>', `C-M-d' and `C-M-l'.  If you have these problems, we
recommend that you customize your window manager to turn off those
commands, or put them on key combinations that Emacs does not use.


File: emacs,  Node: Keys,  Next: Commands,  Prev: User Input,  Up: Top

3 Keys
******

A "key sequence" ("key", for short) is a sequence of input events that
is meaningful as a unit--a "single command."  Some Emacs command
sequences are invoked by just one character or one event; for example,
just `C-f' moves forward one character in the buffer.  But Emacs also
has commands that take two or more events to invoke.

   If a sequence of events is enough to invoke a command, it is a
"complete key".  Examples of complete keys include `C-a', `X', <RET>,
<NEXT> (a function key), <DOWN> (an arrow key), `C-x C-f', and `C-x 4
C-f'.  If it isn't long enough to be complete, we call it a "prefix
key".  The above examples show that `C-x' and `C-x 4' are prefix keys.
Every key sequence is either a complete key or a prefix key.

   Most single characters constitute complete keys in the standard Emacs
command bindings.  A few of them are prefix keys.  A prefix key combines
with the following input event to make a longer key sequence, which may
itself be complete or a prefix.  For example, `C-x' is a prefix key, so
`C-x' and the next input event combine to make a two-event key
sequence.  Most of these key sequences are complete keys, including
`C-x C-f' and `C-x b'.  A few, such as `C-x 4' and `C-x r', are
themselves prefix keys that lead to three-event key sequences.  There's
no limit to the length of a key sequence, but in practice people rarely
use sequences longer than four events.

   You can't add input events onto a complete key.  For example, the
two-event sequence `C-f C-k' is not a key, because the `C-f' is a
complete key in itself.  It's impossible to give `C-f C-k' an
independent meaning as a command.  `C-f C-k' is two key sequences, not
one.

   All told, the prefix keys in Emacs are `C-c', `C-h', `C-x', `C-x
<RET>', `C-x @', `C-x a', `C-x n', `C-x r', `C-x v', `C-x 4', `C-x 5',
`C-x 6', <ESC>, `M-g', and `M-o'.  (<F1> and <F2> are aliases for `C-h'
and `C-x 6'.)  This list is not cast in stone; it describes the
standard key bindings.  If you customize Emacs, you can make new prefix
keys, or eliminate some of the standard ones (not recommended for most
users).  *Note Key Bindings::.

   If you make or eliminate prefix keys, that changes the set of
possible key sequences.  For example, if you redefine `C-f' as a
prefix, `C-f C-k' automatically becomes a key (complete, unless you
define that too as a prefix).  Conversely, if you remove the prefix
definition of `C-x 4', then `C-x 4 f' and `C-x 4 ANYTHING' are no
longer keys.

   Typing the help character (`C-h' or <F1>) after a prefix key
displays a list of the commands starting with that prefix.  There are a
few prefix keys after which `C-h' does not work--for historical
reasons, they define other meanings for `C-h' which are painful to
change.  <F1> works after all prefix keys.


File: emacs,  Node: Commands,  Next: Text Characters,  Prev: Keys,  Up: Top

4 Keys and Commands
*******************

This manual is full of passages that tell you what particular keys do.
But Emacs does not assign meanings to keys directly.  Instead, Emacs
assigns meanings to named "commands", and then gives keys their
meanings by "binding" them to commands.

   Every command has a name chosen by a programmer.  The name is
usually made of a few English words separated by dashes; for example,
`next-line' or `forward-word'.  A command also has a "function
definition" which is a Lisp program; this is how the command does its
work.  In Emacs Lisp, a command is a Lisp function with special options
to read arguments and for interactive use.  For more information on
commands and functions, see *Note What Is a Function: (elisp)What Is a
Function.  (The definition here is simplified slightly.)

   The bindings between keys and commands are recorded in tables called
"keymaps".  *Note Keymaps::.

   When we say that "`C-n' moves down vertically one line" we are
glossing over a subtle distinction that is irrelevant in ordinary use,
but vital for Emacs customization.  The command `next-line' does a
vertical move downward.  `C-n' has this effect _because_ it is bound to
`next-line'.  If you rebind `C-n' to the command `forward-word', `C-n'
will move forward one word instead.  Rebinding keys is an important
method of customization.

   In the rest of this manual, we usually ignore this distinction to
keep things simple.  We will often speak of keys like `C-n' as
commands, even though strictly speaking the key is bound to a command.
Usually we state the name of the command which really does the work in
parentheses after mentioning the key that runs it.  For example, we
will say that "The command `C-n' (`next-line') moves point vertically
down," meaning that the command `next-line' moves vertically down, and
the key `C-n' is normally bound to it.

   Since we are discussing customization, we should tell you about
"variables".  Often the description of a command will say, "To change
this, set the variable `mumble-foo'."  A variable is a name used to
store a value.  Most of the variables documented in this manual are
meant for customization: some command or other part of Emacs examines
the variable and behaves differently according to the value that you
set.  You can ignore the information about variables until you are
interested in customizing them.  Then read the basic information on
variables (*note Variables::) and the information about specific
variables will make sense.


File: emacs,  Node: Text Characters,  Next: Entering Emacs,  Prev: Commands,  Up: Top

5 Character Set for Text
************************

Text in Emacs buffers is a sequence of characters.  In the simplest
case, these are ASCII characters, each stored in one 8-bit byte.  Both
ASCII control characters (octal codes 000 through 037, and 0177) and
ASCII printing characters (codes 040 through 0176) are allowed.  The
other modifier flags used in keyboard input, such as Meta, are not
allowed in buffers.

   Non-ASCII printing characters can also appear in buffers, when
multibyte characters are enabled.  They have character codes starting
at 256, octal 0400, and each one is represented as a sequence of two or
more bytes.  *Note International::.  Single-byte characters with codes
128 through 255 can also appear in multibyte buffers.  However,
non-ASCII control characters cannot appear in a buffer.

   Some ASCII control characters serve special purposes in text, and
have special names.  For example, the newline character (octal code
012) is used in the buffer to end a line, and the tab character (octal
code 011) is used for indenting to the next tab stop column (normally
every 8 columns).  *Note Text Display::.

   If you disable multibyte characters, then you can use only one
alphabet of non-ASCII characters, which all fit in one byte.  They use
octal codes 0200 through 0377.  *Note Unibyte Mode::.


File: emacs,  Node: Entering Emacs,  Next: Exiting,  Prev: Text Characters,  Up: Top

6 Entering and Exiting Emacs
****************************

The usual way to invoke Emacs is with the shell command `emacs'.  Emacs
clears the screen, then displays an initial help message and copyright
notice.  Some operating systems discard your type-ahead when Emacs
starts up; they give Emacs no way to prevent this.  On those systems,
wait for Emacs to clear the screen before you start typing.

   From a shell window under the X Window System, run Emacs in the
background with `emacs&'.  This way, Emacs won't tie up the shell
window, so you can use it to run other shell commands while Emacs is
running.  You can type Emacs commands as soon as you direct your
keyboard input to an Emacs frame.

   When Emacs starts up, it creates a buffer named `*scratch*'.  That's
the buffer you start out in.  The `*scratch*' buffer uses Lisp
Interaction mode; you can use it to type Lisp expressions and evaluate
them.  You can also ignore that capability and just write notes there.
You can specify a different major mode for this buffer by setting the
variable `initial-major-mode' in your init file.  *Note Init File::.

   It is possible to specify files to be visited, Lisp files to be
loaded, and functions to be called through Emacs command-line
arguments.  *Note Emacs Invocation::.  The feature exists mainly for
compatibility with other editors, and for scripts.

   Many editors are designed to edit one file.  When done with that
file, you exit the editor.  The next time you want to edit a file, you
must start the editor again.  Working this way, it is convenient to use
a command-line argument to say which file to edit.

   However, killing Emacs after editing one each and starting it afresh
for the next file is both unnecessary and harmful, since it denies you
the full power of Emacs.  Emacs can visit more than one file in a
single editing session, and that is the right way to use it.  Exiting
the Emacs session loses valuable accumulated context, such as the kill
ring, registers, undo history, and mark ring.  These features are
useful for operating on multiple files, or even continuing to edit one
file.  If you kill Emacs after each file, you don't take advantage of
them.

   The recommended way to use GNU Emacs is to start it only once, just
after you log in, and do all your editing in the same Emacs session.
Each time you edit a file, you visit it with the existing Emacs, which
eventually has many files in it ready for editing.  Usually you do not
kill Emacs until you are about to log out.  *Note Files::, for more
information on visiting more than one file.

   To edit a file from another program while Emacs is running, you can
use the `emacsclient' helper program to open a file in the already
running Emacs.  *Note Emacs Server::.


File: emacs,  Node: Exiting,  Next: Basic,  Prev: Entering Emacs,  Up: Top

7 Exiting Emacs
***************

There are two commands for exiting Emacs, and three kinds of exiting:
"iconifying" Emacs, "suspending" Emacs, and "killing" Emacs.

   "Iconifying" means replacing the Emacs frame with a small box or
"icon" on the screen.  This is the usual way to exit Emacs when you're
using a graphical display--if you bother to "exit" at all.  (Just
switching to another application is usually sufficient.)

   "Suspending" means stopping Emacs temporarily and returning control
to its parent process (usually a shell), allowing you to resume editing
later in the same Emacs job.  This is the usual way to exit Emacs when
running it on a text terminal.

   "Killing" Emacs means destroying the Emacs job.  You can run Emacs
again later, but you will get a fresh Emacs; there is no way to resume
the same editing session after it has been killed.

`C-z'
     Suspend Emacs (`suspend-emacs') or iconify a frame
     (`iconify-or-deiconify-frame').

`C-x C-c'
     Kill Emacs (`save-buffers-kill-emacs').

   On graphical displays, `C-z' runs the command
`iconify-or-deiconify-frame', which temporarily iconifies (or
"minimizes") the selected Emacs frame (*note Frames::).  You can then
use the window manager to select some other application.  (You could
select another application without iconifying Emacs first, but getting
the Emacs frame out of the way can make it more convenient to find the
other application.)

   On a text terminal, `C-z' runs the command `suspend-emacs'.
Suspending Emacs takes you back to the shell from which you invoked
Emacs.  You can resume Emacs with the shell command `%emacs' in most
common shells.  On systems that don't support suspending programs,
`C-z' starts an inferior shell that communicates directly with the
terminal, and Emacs waits until you exit the subshell.  (The way to do
that is probably with `C-d' or `exit', but it depends on which shell
you use.)  On these systems, you can only get back to the shell from
which Emacs was run (to log out, for example) when you kill Emacs.

   Suspending can fail if you run Emacs under a shell that doesn't
support suspendion of its subjobs, even if the system itself does
support it.  In such a case, you can set the variable `cannot-suspend'
to a non-`nil' value to force `C-z' to start an inferior shell.

   To exit and kill Emacs, type `C-x C-c' (`save-buffers-kill-emacs').
A two-character key is used to make it harder to type by accident.
This command first offers to save any modified file-visiting buffers.
If you do not save them all, it asks for confirmation with `yes' before
killing Emacs, since any changes not saved now will be lost forever.
Also, if any subprocesses are still running, `C-x C-c' asks for
confirmation about them, since killing Emacs will also kill the
subprocesses.

   If the value of the variable `confirm-kill-emacs' is non-`nil', `C-x
C-c' assumes that its value is a predicate function, and calls that
function.  If the result is non-`nil', the session is killed, otherwise
Emacs continues to run.  One convenient function to use as the value of
`confirm-kill-emacs' is the function `yes-or-no-p'.  The default value
of `confirm-kill-emacs' is `nil'.

   You can't resume an Emacs session after killing it.  Emacs can,
however, record certain session information when you kill it, such as
which files you visited, so the next time you start Emacs it will try
to visit the same files.  *Note Saving Emacs Sessions::.

   The operating system usually listens for certain special characters
whose meaning is to kill or suspend the program you are running.  This
operating system feature is turned off while you are in Emacs.  The
meanings of `C-z' and `C-x C-c' as keys in Emacs were inspired by the
use of `C-z' and `C-c' on several operating systems as the characters
for stopping or killing a program, but that is their only relationship
with the operating system.  You can customize these keys to run any
commands of your choice (*note Keymaps::).


File: emacs,  Node: Basic,  Next: Minibuffer,  Prev: Exiting,  Up: Top

8 Basic Editing Commands
************************

Here we explain the basics of how to enter text, make corrections, and
save the text in a file.  If this material is new to you, we suggest
you first run the Emacs learn-by-doing tutorial, by typing `Control-h
t' inside Emacs.  (`help-with-tutorial').

   To clear and redisplay the screen, type `C-l' (`recenter').

* Menu:


* Inserting Text::      Inserting text by simply typing it.
* Moving Point::        Moving the cursor to the place where you want to
			  change something.
* Erasing::	        Deleting and killing text.
* Basic Undo::	        Undoing recent changes in the text.
* Files: Basic Files.   Visiting, creating, and saving files.
* Help: Basic Help.     Asking what a character does.
* Blank Lines::	        Making and deleting blank lines.
* Continuation Lines::  How Emacs displays lines too wide for the screen.
* Position Info::       What page, line, row, or column is point on?
* Arguments::	        Numeric arguments for repeating a command N times.
* Repeating::           Repeating the previous command quickly.


File: emacs,  Node: Inserting Text,  Next: Moving Point,  Up: Basic

8.1 Inserting Text
==================

Typing printing characters inserts them into the text you are editing.
It inserts them into the buffer at the cursor; more precisely, it
inserts them at "point", but the cursor normally shows where point is.
*Note Point::.

   Insertion moves the cursor forward, and the following text moves
forward with the cursor.  If the text in the buffer is `FOOBAR', with
the cursor before the `B', and you type `XX', you get `FOOXXBAR', with
the cursor still before the `B'.

   To "delete" text you have just inserted, use the large key labeled
<DEL>, <BACKSPACE> or <DELETE> which is a short distance above the
<RET> or <ENTER> key.  Regardless of the label on that key, Emacs
thinks of it as <DEL>, and that's what we call it in this manual.
<DEL> is the key you normally use outside Emacs to erase the last
character that you typed.

   The <DEL> key deletes the character _before_ the cursor.  As a
consequence, the cursor and all the characters after it move backwards.
If you type a printing character and then type <DEL>, they cancel out.

   On most computers, Emacs sets up <DEL> automatically.  In some
cases, especially with text-only terminals, Emacs may guess wrong.  If
the key that ought to erase the last character doesn't do it in Emacs,
see *Note DEL Does Not Delete::.

   Most PC keyboards have both a <BACKSPACE> key a little ways above
<RET> or <ENTER>, and a <DELETE> key elsewhere.  On these keyboards,
Emacs tries to set up <BACKSPACE> as <DEL>.  The <DELETE> key deletes
"forwards" like `C-d' (see below), which means it deletes the character
underneath the cursor (after point).

   To end a line and start typing a new one, type <RET>.  (This key may
be labeled <RETURN> or <ENTER>, but in Emacs we call it <RET>.)  This
inserts a newline character in the buffer.  If point is at the end of
the line, this creates a new blank line after it.  If point is in the
middle of a line, the effect is to split that line.  Typing <DEL> when
the cursor is at the beginning of a line deletes the preceding newline
character, thus joining the line with the one before it.

   Emacs can split lines automatically when they become too long, if
you turn on a special minor mode called "Auto Fill" mode.  *Note
Filling::, for Auto Fill mode and other methods of "filling" text.

   If you prefer printing characters to replace (overwrite) existing
text, rather than shove it to the right, you should enable Overwrite
mode, a minor mode.  *Note Minor Modes::.

   Only printing characters and <SPC> insert themselves in Emacs.
Other characters act as editing commands and do not insert themselves.
These include control characters, and characters with codes above 200
octal.  If you need to insert one of these characters in the buffer,
you must "quote" it by typing the character `Control-q'
(`quoted-insert') first.  (This character's name is normally written
`C-q' for short.)  There are two ways to use `C-q':

   * `C-q' followed by any non-graphic character (even `C-g') inserts
     that character.

   * `C-q' followed by a sequence of octal digits inserts the character
     with the specified octal character code.  You can use any number of
     octal digits; any non-digit terminates the sequence.  If the
     terminating character is <RET>, it serves only to terminate the
     sequence.  Any other non-digit terminates the sequence and then
     acts as normal input--thus, `C-q 1 0 1 B' inserts `AB'.

     The use of octal sequences is disabled in ordinary non-binary
     Overwrite mode, to give you a convenient way to insert a digit
     instead of overwriting with it.

When multibyte characters are enabled, if you specify a code in the
range 0200 through 0377 octal, `C-q' assumes that you intend to use
some ISO 8859-N character set, and converts the specified code to the
corresponding Emacs character code.  *Note Enabling Multibyte::.  You
select _which_ of the ISO 8859 character sets to use through your
choice of language environment (*note Language Environments::).

   To use decimal or hexadecimal instead of octal, set the variable
`read-quoted-char-radix' to 10 or 16.  If the radix is greater than 10,
some letters starting with `a' serve as part of a character code, just
like digits.

   A numeric argument tells `C-q' how many copies of the quoted
character to insert (*note Arguments::).

   Customization information: <DEL> in most modes runs the command
`delete-backward-char'; <RET> runs the command `newline', and
self-inserting printing characters run the command `self-insert', which
inserts whatever character you typed.  Some major modes rebind <DEL> to
other commands.


File: emacs,  Node: Moving Point,  Next: Erasing,  Prev: Inserting Text,  Up: Basic

8.2 Changing the Location of Point
==================================

To do more than insert characters, you have to know how to move point
(*note Point::).  The simplest way to do this is with arrow keys, or by
clicking the left mouse button where you want to move to.

   There are also control and meta characters for cursor motion.  Some
are equivalent to the arrow keys (it is faster to use these control
keys than move your hand over to the arrow keys).  Others do more
sophisticated things.

`C-a'
     Move to the beginning of the line (`move-beginning-of-line').

`C-e'
     Move to the end of the line (`move-end-of-line').

`C-f'
     Move forward one character (`forward-char').  The right-arrow key
     does the same thing.

`C-b'
     Move backward one character (`backward-char').  The left-arrow key
     has the same effect.

`M-f'
     Move forward one word (`forward-word').

`M-b'
     Move backward one word (`backward-word').

`C-n'
     Move down one line vertically (`next-line').  This command
     attempts to keep the horizontal position unchanged, so if you
     start in the middle of one line, you move to the middle of the
     next.  The down-arrow key does the same thing.

`C-p'
     Move up one line, vertically (`previous-line').  The up-arrow key
     has the same effect.  This command preserves position within the
     line, like `C-n'.

`M-r'
     Move point to left margin, vertically centered in the window
     (`move-to-window-line').  Text does not move on the screen.  A
     numeric argument says which screen line to place point on, counting
     downward from the top of the window (zero means the top line).  A
     negative argument counts lines up from the bottom (-1 means the
     bottom line).

`M-<'
     Move to the top of the buffer (`beginning-of-buffer').  With
     numeric argument N, move to N/10 of the way from the top.  *Note
     Arguments::, for more information on numeric arguments.

`M->'
     Move to the end of the buffer (`end-of-buffer').

`C-v'
`<PAGEDOWN>'
`<PRIOR>'
     Scroll the display one screen forward, and move point if necessary
     to put it on the screen (`scroll-up').  This doesn't always move
     point, but it is commonly used to do so.  If your keyboard has a
     <PAGEDOWN> or <PRIOR> key, it does the same thing.

     Scrolling commands are described further in *Note Scrolling::.

`M-v'
`<PAGEUP>'
`<NEXT>'
     Scroll one screen backward, and move point if necessary to put it
     on the screen (`scroll-down').  This doesn't always move point, but
     it is commonly used to do so.  If your keyboard has a <PAGEUP> or
     <NEXT> key, it does the same thing.

`M-x goto-char'
     Read a number N and move point to buffer position N.  Position 1
     is the beginning of the buffer.

`M-g M-g'
`M-g g'
`M-x goto-line'
     Read a number N and move point to the beginning of line number N.
     Line 1 is the beginning of the buffer.  If point is on or just
     after a number in the buffer, and you type <RET> with the
     minibuffer empty, that number is used for N.

`C-x C-n'
     Use the current column of point as the "semipermanent goal column"
     for `C-n' and `C-p' (`set-goal-column').  When a semipermanent
     goal column is in effect, those commands always try to move to
     this column, or as close as possible to it, after moving
     vertically.  The goal column remains in effect until canceled.

`C-u C-x C-n'
     Cancel the goal column.  Henceforth, `C-n' and `C-p' try to
     preserve the horizontal position, as usual.

   If you set the variable `track-eol' to a non-`nil' value, then `C-n'
and `C-p', when starting at the end of the line, move to the end of
another line.  Normally, `track-eol' is `nil'.  *Note Variables::, for
how to set variables such as `track-eol'.

   `C-n' normally stops at the end of the buffer when you use it on the
last line of the buffer.  However, if you set the variable
`next-line-add-newlines' to a non-`nil' value, `C-n' on the last line
of a buffer creates an additional line at the end and moves down into
it.


File: emacs,  Node: Erasing,  Next: Basic Undo,  Prev: Moving Point,  Up: Basic

8.3 Erasing Text
================

`<DEL>'
     Delete the character before point (`delete-backward-char').

`C-d'
     Delete the character after point (`delete-char').

`<DELETE>'
`<BACKSPACE>'
     One of these keys, whichever is the large key above the <RET> or
     <ENTER> key, deletes the character before point--it is <DEL>.  If
     <BACKSPACE> is <DEL>, and your keyboard also has <DELETE>, then
     <DELETE> deletes forwards, like `C-d'.

`C-k'
     Kill to the end of the line (`kill-line').

`M-d'
     Kill forward to the end of the next word (`kill-word').

`M-<DEL>'
     Kill back to the beginning of the previous word
     (`backward-kill-word').

   You already know about the <DEL> key which deletes the character
before point (that is, before the cursor).  Another key, `Control-d'
(`C-d' for short), deletes the character after point (that is, the
character that the cursor is on).  This shifts the rest of the text on
the line to the left.  If you type `C-d' at the end of a line, it joins
that line with the following line.

   To erase a larger amount of text, use the `C-k' key, which erases
(kills) a line at a time.  If you type `C-k' at the beginning or middle
of a line, it kills all the text up to the end of the line.  If you
type `C-k' at the end of a line, it joins that line with the following
line.

   *Note Killing::, for more flexible ways of killing text.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Undo,  Next: Basic Files,  Prev: Erasing,  Up: Basic

8.4 Undoing Changes
===================

Emacs records a list of changes made in the buffer text, so you can you
can undo recent changes, as far as the records go.  Usually each
editing command makes a separate entry in the undo records, but
sometimes an entry covers just part of a command, and very simple
commands may be grouped.

`C-x u'
     Undo one entry of the undo records--usually, one command worth
     (`undo').

`C-_'
`C-/'
     The same.

   The command `C-x u' (or `C-_' or `C-/') is how you undo.  Normally
this command undoes the last change, and moves point back to where it
was before the change.

   If you repeat `C-x u' (or its aliases), each repetition undoes
another, earlier change, back to the limit of the undo information
available.  If all recorded changes have already been undone, the undo
command displays an error message and does nothing.

   The undo command applies only to changes in the buffer; you can't
use it to undo mere cursor motion.  However, some cursor motion
commands set the mark, so if you use these commands from time to time,
you can move back to the neighborhoods you have moved through by
popping the mark ring (*note Mark Ring::).


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Files,  Next: Basic Help,  Prev: Basic Undo,  Up: Basic

8.5 Files
=========

Text that you insert in an Emacs buffer lasts only as long as the Emacs
session.  To keep any text permanently you must put it in a "file".
Files are named units of text which are stored by the operating system
for you to retrieve later by name.  To use the contents of a file in
any way, you must specify the file name.  That includes editing the
file with Emacs.

   Suppose there is a file named `test.emacs' in your home directory.
To begin editing this file in Emacs, type

     C-x C-f test.emacs <RET>

Here the file name is given as an "argument" to the command `C-x C-f'
(`find-file').  That command uses the "minibuffer" to read the
argument, and you type <RET> to terminate the argument (*note
Minibuffer::).

   Emacs obeys this command by "visiting" the file: it creates a
buffer, it copies the contents of the file into the buffer, and then
displays the buffer for editing.  If you alter the text, you can "save"
the new text in the file by typing `C-x C-s' (`save-buffer').  This
copies the altered buffer contents back into the file `test.emacs',
making them permanent.  Until you save, the changed text exists only
inside Emacs, and the file `test.emacs' is unaltered.

   To create a file, just visit it with `C-x C-f' as if it already
existed.  This creates an empty buffer, in which you can insert the
text you want to put in the file.  Emacs actually creates the file the
first time you save this buffer with `C-x C-s'.

   To learn more about using files in Emacs, see *Note Files::.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Help,  Next: Blank Lines,  Prev: Basic Files,  Up: Basic

8.6 Help
========

If you forget what a key does, you can find out with the Help
character, which is `C-h' (or <F1>, which is an alias for `C-h').  Type
`C-h k' followed by the key of interest; for example, `C-h k C-n' tells
you what `C-n' does.  `C-h' is a prefix key; `C-h k' is just one of its
subcommands (the command `describe-key').  The other subcommands of
`C-h' provide different kinds of help.  Type `C-h' twice to get a
description of all the help facilities.  *Note Help::.


File: emacs,  Node: Blank Lines,  Next: Continuation Lines,  Prev: Basic Help,  Up: Basic

8.7 Blank Lines
===============

Here are special commands and techniques for inserting and deleting
blank lines.

`C-o'
     Insert one or more blank lines after the cursor (`open-line').

`C-x C-o'
     Delete all but one of many consecutive blank lines
     (`delete-blank-lines').

   To insert a new line of text before an existing line, type the new
line of text, followed by <RET>.  However, it may be easier to see what
you are doing if you first make a blank line and then insert the
desired text into it.  This is easy to do using the key `C-o'
(`open-line'), which inserts a newline after point but leaves point in
front of the newline.  After `C-o', type the text for the new line.
`C-o F O O' has the same effect as `F O O <RET>', except for the final
location of point.

   You can make several blank lines by typing `C-o' several times, or
by giving it a numeric argument specifying how many blank lines to make.
*Note Arguments::, for how.  If you have a fill prefix, the `C-o'
command inserts the fill prefix on the new line, if typed at the
beginning of a line.  *Note Fill Prefix::.

   The easy way to get rid of extra blank lines is with the command
`C-x C-o' (`delete-blank-lines').  `C-x C-o' in a run of several blank
lines deletes all but one of them.  `C-x C-o' on a lone blank line
deletes that one.  When point is on a nonblank line, `C-x C-o' deletes
all following blank lines (if any).


File: emacs,  Node: Continuation Lines,  Next: Position Info,  Prev: Blank Lines,  Up: Basic

8.8 Continuation Lines
======================

When a text line is too long to fit in one screen line, Emacs displays
it on two or more screen lines.  This is called "continuation" or "line
wrapping".  On graphical displays, Emacs indicates line wrapping with
small bent arrows in the left and right window fringes.  On text-only
terminals, Emacs displays a `\' character at the right margin of a
screen line if it is not the last in its text line.  This `\' character
says that the following screen line is not really a new text line.

   When line wrapping occurs just before a character that is wider than
one column, some columns at the end of the previous screen line may be
"empty."  In this case, Emacs displays additional `\' characters in the
"empty" columns before the `\' character that indicates continuation.

   Continued lines can be difficult to read, since lines can break in
the middle of a word.  If you prefer, you can make Emacs insert a
newline automatically when a line gets too long, by using Auto Fill
mode.  Or enable Long Lines mode, which ensures that wrapping only
occurs between words.  *Note Filling::.

   Emacs can optionally "truncate" long lines--this means displaying
just one screen line worth, and the rest of the long line does not
appear at all.  `$' in the last column or a small straight arrow in the
window's right fringe indicates a truncated line.

   *Note Line Truncation::, for more about line truncation, and other
variables that control how text is displayed.


File: emacs,  Node: Position Info,  Next: Arguments,  Prev: Continuation Lines,  Up: Basic

8.9 Cursor Position Information
===============================

Here are commands to get information about the size and position of
parts of the buffer, and to count lines.

`M-x what-page'
     Display the page number of point, and the line number within that
     page.

`M-x what-line'
     Display the line number of point in the whole buffer.

`M-x line-number-mode'
`M-x column-number-mode'
     Toggle automatic display of the current line number or column
     number.  *Note Optional Mode Line::.

`M-='
     Display the number of lines in the current region
     (`count-lines-region').  *Note Mark::, for information about the
     region.

`C-x ='
     Display the character code of character after point, character
     position of point, and column of point (`what-cursor-position').

`M-x hl-line-mode'
     Enable or disable highlighting of the current line.  *Note Cursor
     Display::.

`M-x size-indication-mode'
     Toggle automatic display of the size of the buffer.  *Note
     Optional Mode Line::.

   `M-x what-line' displays the current line number in the echo area.
You can also see the current line number in the mode line; see *Note
Mode Line::; but if you narrow the buffer, the line number in the mode
line is relative to the accessible portion (*note Narrowing::).  By
contrast, `what-line' shows both the line number relative to the
narrowed region and the line number relative to the whole buffer.

   `M-x what-page' counts pages from the beginning of the file, and
counts lines within the page, showing both numbers in the echo area.
*Note Pages::.

   Use `M-=' (`count-lines-region') to displays the number of lines in
the region (*note Mark::).  *Note Pages::, for the command `C-x l'
which counts the lines in the current page.

   The command `C-x =' (`what-cursor-position') shows what cursor's
column position, and other information about point and the character
after it.  It displays a line in the echo area that looks like this:

     Char: c (99, #o143, #x63) point=28062 of 36168 (78%) column=53

   The four values after `Char:' describe the character that follows
point, first by showing it and then by giving its character code in
decimal, octal and hex.  For a non-ASCII multibyte character, these are
followed by `file' and the character's representation, in hex, in the
buffer's coding system, if that coding system encodes the character
safely and with a single byte (*note Coding Systems::).  If the
character's encoding is longer than one byte, Emacs shows `file ...'.

   However, if the character displayed is in the range 0200 through
0377 octal, it may actually stand for an invalid UTF-8 byte read from a
file.  In Emacs, that byte is represented as a sequence of 8-bit
characters, but all of them together display as the original invalid
byte, in octal code.  In this case, `C-x =' shows `part of display ...'
instead of `file'.

   `point=' is followed by the position of point expressed as a
character count.  The start of the buffer is position 1, one character
later is position 2, and so on.  The next, larger, number is the total
number of characters in the buffer.  Afterward in parentheses comes the
position expressed as a percentage of the total size.

   `column=' is followed by the horizontal position of point, in
columns from the left edge of the window.

   If the buffer has been narrowed, making some of the text at the
beginning and the end temporarily inaccessible, `C-x =' displays
additional text describing the currently accessible range.  For
example, it might display this:

     Char: C (67, #o103, #x43) point=252 of 889 (28%) <231-599> column=0

where the two extra numbers give the smallest and largest character
position that point is allowed to assume.  The characters between those
two positions are the accessible ones.  *Note Narrowing::.

   If point is at the end of the buffer (or the end of the accessible
part), the `C-x =' output does not describe a character after point.
The output might look like this:

     point=36169 of 36168 (EOB) column=0

   `C-u C-x =' displays the following additional information about a
character.

   * The character set name, and the codes that identify the character
     within that character set; ASCII characters are identified as
     belonging to the `ascii' character set.

   * The character's syntax and categories.

   * The character's encodings, both internally in the buffer, and
     externally if you were to save the file.

   * What keys to type to input the character in the current input
     method (if it supports the character).

   * If you are running Emacs on a graphical display, the font name and
     glyph code for the character.  If you are running Emacs on a
     text-only terminal, the code(s) sent to the terminal.

   * The character's text properties (*note Text Properties:
     (elisp)Text Properties.), and any overlays containing it (*note
     Overlays: (elisp)Overlays.).

   Here's an example showing the Latin-1 character A with grave accent,
in a buffer whose coding system is `iso-latin-1', whose terminal coding
system is `iso-latin-1' (so the terminal actually displays the
character as `A`'), and which has font-lock-mode (*note Font Lock::)
enabled:

       character: A` (2240, #o4300, #x8c0, U+00C0)
         charset: latin-iso8859-1
                  (Right-Hand Part of Latin Alphabet 1...
      code point: #x40
          syntax: w 	which means: word
        category: l:Latin
        to input: type "`A" with latin-1-prefix
     buffer code: #x81 #xC0
       file code: #xC0 (encoded by coding system iso-latin-1)
         display: terminal code #xC0

     There are text properties here:
       fontified            t


File: emacs,  Node: Arguments,  Next: Repeating,  Prev: Position Info,  Up: Basic

8.10 Numeric Arguments
======================

In mathematics and computer usage, "argument" means "data provided to a
function or operation."  You can give any Emacs command a "numeric
argument" (also called a "prefix argument").  Some commands interpret
the argument as a repetition count.  For example, `C-f' with an
argument of ten moves forward ten characters instead of one.  With
these commands, no argument is equivalent to an argument of one.
Negative arguments tell most such commands to move or act in the
opposite direction.

   If your terminal keyboard has a <META> key (labeled <ALT> on PC
keyboards), the easiest way to specify a numeric argument is to type
digits and/or a minus sign while holding down the <META> key.  For
example,

     M-5 C-n

moves down five lines.  The characters `Meta-1', `Meta-2', and so on,
as well as `Meta--', do this because they are keys bound to commands
(`digit-argument' and `negative-argument') that are defined to set up
an argument for the next command.  `Meta--' without digits normally
means -1.  Digits and `-' modified with Control, or Control and Meta,
also specify numeric arguments.

   You can also specify a numeric argument by typing `C-u'
(`universal-argument') followed by the digits.  The advantage of `C-u'
is that you can type the digits without modifier keys; thus, `C-u'
works on all terminals.  For a negative argument, type a minus sign
after `C-u'.  A minus sign without digits normally means -1.

   `C-u' alone has the special meaning of "four times": it multiplies
the argument for the next command by four.  `C-u C-u' multiplies it by
sixteen.  Thus, `C-u C-u C-f' moves forward sixteen characters.  This
is a good way to move forward "fast," since it moves about 1/5 of a
line in the usual size screen.  Other useful combinations are `C-u
C-n', `C-u C-u C-n' (move down a good fraction of a screen), `C-u C-u
C-o' (make "a lot" of blank lines), and `C-u C-k' (kill four lines).

   Some commands care whether there is an argument, but ignore its
value.  For example, the command `M-q' (`fill-paragraph') fills text;
with an argument, it justifies the text as well.  (*Note Filling::, for
more information on `M-q'.)  Plain `C-u' is a handy way of providing an
argument for such commands.

   Some commands use the value of the argument as a repeat count, but do
something peculiar when there is no argument.  For example, the command
`C-k' (`kill-line') with argument N kills N lines, including their
terminating newlines.  But `C-k' with no argument is special: it kills
the text up to the next newline, or, if point is right at the end of
the line, it kills the newline itself.  Thus, two `C-k' commands with
no arguments can kill a nonblank line, just like `C-k' with an argument
of one.  (*Note Killing::, for more information on `C-k'.)

   A few commands treat a plain `C-u' differently from an ordinary
argument.  A few others may treat an argument of just a minus sign
differently from an argument of -1.  These unusual cases are described
when they come up; they exist to make an individual command more
convenient, and they are documented in that command's documentation
string.

   You can use a numeric argument before a self-inserting character to
insert multiple copies of it.  This is straightforward when the
character is not a digit; for example, `C-u 6 4 a' inserts 64 copies of
the character `a'.  But this does not work for inserting digits; `C-u 6
4 1' specifies an argument of 641.  You can separate the argument from
the digit to insert with another `C-u'; for example, `C-u 6 4 C-u 1'
does insert 64 copies of the character `1'.

   We use the term "prefix argument" as well as "numeric argument," to
emphasize that you type these argument before the command, and to
distinguish them from minibuffer arguments that come after the command.


File: emacs,  Node: Repeating,  Prev: Arguments,  Up: Basic

8.11 Repeating a Command
========================

Many simple commands, such as those invoked with a single key or with
`M-x COMMAND-NAME <RET>', can be repeated by invoking them with a
numeric argument that serves as a repeat count (*note Arguments::).
However, if the command you want to repeat prompts for input, or uses a
numeric argument in another way, that method won't work.

   The command `C-x z' (`repeat') provides another way to repeat an
Emacs command many times.  This command repeats the previous Emacs
command, whatever that was.  Repeating a command uses the same arguments
that were used before; it does not read new arguments each time.

   To repeat the command more than once, type additional `z''s: each
`z' repeats the command one more time.  Repetition ends when you type a
character other than `z', or press a mouse button.

   For example, suppose you type `C-u 2 0 C-d' to delete 20 characters.
You can repeat that command (including its argument) three additional
times, to delete a total of 80 characters, by typing `C-x z z z'.  The
first `C-x z' repeats the command once, and each subsequent `z' repeats
it once again.


File: emacs,  Node: Minibuffer,  Next: M-x,  Prev: Basic,  Up: Top

9 The Minibuffer
****************

The "minibuffer" is where Emacs commands read complicated arguments
(anything more a single number).  We call it the "minibuffer" because
it's a special-purpose buffer with a small amount of screen space.
Minibuffer arguments can be file names, buffer names, Lisp function
names, Emacs command names, Lisp expressions, and many other
things--whatever the command wants to read.  You can use the usual
Emacs editing commands in the minibuffer to edit the argument text.

   When the minibuffer is in use, it appears in the echo area, with a
cursor.  The minibuffer display starts with a "prompt" in a distinct
color; it says what kind of input is expected and how it will be used.
Often the prompt is derived from the name of the command that is
reading the argument.  The prompt normally ends with a colon.

   Sometimes a "default argument" appears in the prompt, inside
parentheses before the colon.  The default will be used as the argument
value if you just type <RET>.  For example, commands that read buffer
names show a buffer name as the default.  You can type <RET> to operate
on that default buffer.

   The simplest way to enter a minibuffer argument is to type the text,
then <RET> to exit the minibuffer.  You can cancel the minibuffer, and
the command that wants the argument, by typing `C-g'.

   Since the minibuffer appears in the echo area, it can conflict with
other uses of the echo area.  Here is how Emacs handles such conflicts:

   * An error occurs while the minibuffer is active.

     The error message hides the minibuffer for a few seconds, or until
     you type something.  Then the minibuffer comes back.

   * A command such as `C-x =' needs to display a message in the echo
     area.

     The message hides the minibuffer for a few seconds, or until you
     type something.  Then the minibuffer comes back.

   * Keystrokes don't echo while the minibuffer is in use.

* Menu:

* File: Minibuffer File.  Entering file names with the minibuffer.
* Edit: Minibuffer Edit.  How to edit in the minibuffer.
* Completion::		  An abbreviation facility for minibuffer input.
* Minibuffer History::    Reusing recent minibuffer arguments.
* Repetition::		  Re-executing commands that used the minibuffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Minibuffer File,  Next: Minibuffer Edit,  Up: Minibuffer

9.1 Minibuffers for File Names
==============================

When you use the minibuffer to enter a file name, it starts out with
some initial text--the "default directory", ending in a slash.  The
file you specify will be in this directory unless you alter or replace
it.

   For example, if the minibuffer starts out with these contents:

     Find File: /u2/emacs/src/

(where `Find File: ' is the prompt), and you type `buffer.c' as input,
that specifies the file `/u2/emacs/src/buffer.c'.  You can specify the
parent directory by adding `..'; thus, if you type `../lisp/simple.el',
you will get `/u2/emacs/lisp/simple.el'.  Alternatively, you can use
`M-<DEL>' to kill the directory names you don't want (*note Words::).

   You can kill the entire default with `C-a C-k', but there's no need
to do that.  It's easier to ignore the default, and enter an absolute
file name starting with a slash or a tilde after the default directory.
For example, to specify `/etc/termcap', just type that name:

     Find File: /u2/emacs/src//etc/termcap

GNU Emacs interprets a double slash (which is not normally useful in
file names) as, "ignore everything before the second slash in the
pair."  In the example above. `/u2/emacs/src/' is ignored, so you get
`/etc/termcap'.  The ignored part of the file name is dimmed if the
terminal allows it; to disable this dimming, turn off File Name Shadow
mode (a minor mode) with the command `M-x file-name-shadow-mode'.

   If the variable `insert-default-directory' is `nil', the default
directory is never inserted in the minibuffer--so the minibuffer starts
out empty.  Nonetheless, relative file name arguments are still
interpreted based on the same default directory.


File: emacs,  Node: Minibuffer Edit,  Next: Completion,  Prev: Minibuffer File,  Up: Minibuffer

9.2 Editing in the Minibuffer
=============================

The minibuffer is an Emacs buffer (albeit a peculiar one), and the
usual Emacs commands are available for editing the argument text.

   Since <RET> in the minibuffer is defined to exit the minibuffer, you
can't use it to insert a newline in the minibuffer.  To do that, type
`C-o' or `C-q C-j'.  (The newline character is really the ASCII
character control-J.)

   The minibuffer has its own window, which normally has space in the
frame at all times, but it only acts like an Emacs window when the
minibuffer is active.  When active, this window is much like any other
Emacs window; for instance, you can switch to another window (with `C-x
o'), edit text there, then return to the minibuffer window to finish
the argument.  You can even kill text in another window, return to the
minibuffer window, and then yank the text into the argument.  *Note
Windows::.

   There are some restrictions on the minibuffer window, however: you
cannot kill it, or split it, or switch buffers in it--the minibuffer
and its window are permanently attached.

   The minibuffer window expands vertically as necessary to hold the
text that you put in the minibuffer.  If `resize-mini-windows' is `t'
(the default), the window always resizes as needed by its contents.  If
its value is the symbol `grow-only', the window grows automatically as
needed, but shrinks (back to the normal size) only when the minibuffer
becomes inactive.  If its value is `nil', you have to adjust the height
yourself.

   The variable `max-mini-window-height' controls the maximum height
for resizing the minibuffer window: a floating-point number specifies a
fraction of the frame's height; an integer specifies the maximum number
of lines; `nil' means do not resize the minibuffer window
automatically.  The default value is 0.25.

   The `C-M-v' command in the minibuffer scrolls the help text from
commands that display help text of any sort in another window.
`M-<PAGEUP>' and `M-<PAGEDOWN>' also operate on that help text.  This
is especially useful with long lists of possible completions.  *Note
Other Window::.

   Emacs normally disallows most commands that use the minibuffer while
the minibuffer is active.  (Entering the minibuffer from the minibuffer
can be confusing.)  To allow such commands in the minibuffer, set the
variable `enable-recursive-minibuffers' to `t'.


File: emacs,  Node: Completion,  Next: Minibuffer History,  Prev: Minibuffer Edit,  Up: Minibuffer

9.3 Completion
==============

Some arguments allow "completion" to enter their value.  This means
that after you type part of the argument, Emacs can fill in the rest,
or some of it, based on what you have typed so far.

   When completion is available, certain keys--<TAB>, <RET>, and
<SPC>--are rebound to complete the text in the minibuffer before point
into a longer string chosen from a set of "completion alternatives"
provided by the command that requested the argument.  (<SPC> does not
do completion in reading file names, because it is common to use spaces
in file names on some systems.)  `?' displays a list of the possible
completions at any time.

   For example, `M-x' uses the minibuffer to read the name of a
command, so it provides a list of all Emacs command names for
completion candidates.  The completion keys match the minibuffer text
against these candidates, find any additional name characters implied
by the text already present in the minibuffer, and add those
characters.  This makes it possible to type `M-x ins <SPC> b <RET>'
instead of `M-x insert-buffer <RET>', for example.

   Case is significant in completion when it is significant in the
argument you are entering (buffer names, file names, command names, for
instance).  Thus, `fo' does not complete to `Foo'.  Completion ignores
case distinctions for certain arguments in which case does not matter.

   Completion acts only on the text before point.  If there is text in
the minibuffer after point--i.e., if you move point backward after
typing some text into the minibuffer--it remains unchanged.

* Menu:

* Example: Completion Example.    Examples of using completion.
* Commands: Completion Commands.  A list of completion commands.
* Strict Completion::             Different types of completion.
* Options: Completion Options.    Options for completion.


File: emacs,  Node: Completion Example,  Next: Completion Commands,  Up: Completion

9.3.1 Completion Example
------------------------

A concrete example may help here.  If you type `M-x au <TAB>', the
<TAB> looks for alternatives (in this case, command names) that start
with `au'.  There are several, including `auto-fill-mode' and
`auto-save-mode', but they all begin with `auto-', so the `au' in the
minibuffer completes to `auto-'.

   If you type <TAB> again immediately, it cannot determine the next
character; it could be any of `cfilrs'.  So it does not add any
characters; instead, <TAB> displays a list of all possible completions
in another window.

   Now type `f <TAB>'.  This <TAB> sees `auto-f'.  The only command
name starting with that is `auto-fill-mode', so completion fills in the
rest of that.  You have been able to enter `auto-fill-mode' by typing
just `au <TAB> f <TAB>'.


File: emacs,  Node: Completion Commands,  Next: Strict Completion,  Prev: Completion Example,  Up: Completion

9.3.2 Completion Commands
-------------------------

Here is a list of the completion commands defined in the minibuffer
when completion is allowed.

`<TAB>'
     Complete the text before point in the minibuffer as much as
     possible (`minibuffer-complete').

`<SPC>'
     Complete up to one word from the minibuffer text before point
     (`minibuffer-complete-word').  <SPC> for completion is not
     available when entering a file name, since file names often include
     spaces.

`<RET>'
     Submit the text in the minibuffer as the argument, possibly
     completing first as described in the next node
     (`minibuffer-complete-and-exit').  *Note Strict Completion::.

`?'
     Display a list of possible completions of the text before point
     (`minibuffer-completion-help').

   <SPC> completes like <TAB>, but only up to the next hyphen or space.
If you have `auto-f' in the minibuffer and type <SPC>, it finds that
the completion is `auto-fill-mode', but it only inserts `ill-', giving
`auto-fill-'.  Another <SPC> at this point completes all the way to
`auto-fill-mode'.  The command that implements this behavior is called
`minibuffer-complete-word'.

   When you display a list of possible completions, you can choose one
from it:

`Mouse-1'
`Mouse-2'
     Clicking mouse button 1 or 2 on a completion possibility chooses
     that completion (`mouse-choose-completion').  You must click in the
     list of completions, not in the minibuffer.

`<PRIOR>'
`M-v'
     Typing <PRIOR> or <PAGE-UP>, or `M-v', while in the minibuffer,
     selects the window showing the completion list buffer
     (`switch-to-completions').  This paves the way for using the
     commands below.  (Selecting that window in other ways has the same
     effect.)

`<RET>'
     Typing <RET> _in the completion list buffer_ chooses the
     completion that point is in or next to (`choose-completion').  To
     use this command, you must first switch to the completion list
     window.

`<RIGHT>'
     Typing the right-arrow key <RIGHT> _in the completion list buffer_
     moves point to the following completion possibility
     (`next-completion').

`<LEFT>'
     Typing the left-arrow key <LEFT> _in the completion list buffer_
     moves point to the previous completion possibility
     (`previous-completion').


File: emacs,  Node: Strict Completion,  Next: Completion Options,  Prev: Completion Commands,  Up: Completion

9.3.3 Strict Completion
-----------------------

There are three different ways that <RET> can do completion, depending
on how the argument will be used.

   * "Strict" completion accepts only known completion candidates.  For
     example, when `C-x k' reads the name of a buffer to kill, only the
     name of an existing buffer makes sense.  In strict completion,
     <RET> refuses to exit if the text in the minibuffer does not
     complete to an exact match.

   * "Cautious" completion is similar to strict completion, except that
     <RET> exits only if the text is an already exact match.
     Otherwise, <RET> does not exit, but it does complete the text.  If
     that completes to an exact match, a second <RET> will exit.

     Cautious completion is used for reading file names for files that
     must already exist, for example.

   * "Permissive" completion allows any input; the completion
     candidates are just suggestions.  For example, when `C-x C-f'
     reads the name of a file to visit, any file name is allowed,
     including nonexistent file (in case you want to create a file).
     In permissive completion, <RET> does not complete, it just submits
     the argument as you have entered it.

   The completion commands display a list of all possible completions
whenever they can't determine even one more character by completion.
Also, typing `?' explicitly requests such a list.  You can scroll the
list with `C-M-v' (*note Other Window::).


File: emacs,  Node: Completion Options,  Prev: Strict Completion,  Up: Completion

9.3.4 Completion Options
------------------------

When completing file names, certain file names are usually ignored.
The variable `completion-ignored-extensions' contains a list of
strings; a file name ending in any of those strings is ignored as a
completion candidate.  The standard value of this variable has several
elements including `".o"', `".elc"', `".dvi"' and `"~"'.  The effect is
that, for example, `foo' can complete to `foo.c' even though `foo.o'
exists as well.  However, if _all_ the possible completions end in
"ignored" strings, then they are not ignored.  Displaying a list of
possible completions disregards `completion-ignored-extensions'; it
shows them all.

   If an element of `completion-ignored-extensions' ends in a slash
(`/'), it's a subdirectory name; then that directory and its contents
are ignored.  Elements of `completion-ignored-extensions' which do not
end in a slash are ordinary file names, and do not apply to names of
directories.

   If `completion-auto-help' is set to `nil', the completion commands
never display a list of possibilities; you must type `?' to display the
list.

   Partial Completion mode implements a more powerful kind of
completion that can complete multiple words in parallel.  For example,
it can complete the command name abbreviation `p-b' into `print-buffer'
if no other command starts with two words whose initials are `p' and
`b'.

   To enable this mode, use `M-x partial-completion-mode', or customize
the variable `partial-completion-mode'.  This mode binds special
partial completion commands to <TAB>, <SPC>, <RET>, and `?' in the
minibuffer.  The usual completion commands are available on `M-<TAB>'
(or `C-M-i'), `M-<SPC>', `M-<RET>' and `M-?'.

   Partial completion of directories in file names uses `*' to indicate
the places for completion; thus, `/u*/b*/f*' might complete to
`/usr/bin/foo'.  For remote files, partial completion enables
completion of methods, user names and host names.  *Note Remote Files::.

   Partial Completion mode also extends `find-file' so that `<INCLUDE>'
looks for the file named INCLUDE in the directories in the path
`PC-include-file-path'.  If you set `PC-disable-includes' to non-`nil',
this feature is disabled.

   Icomplete mode presents a constantly-updated display that tells you
what completions are available for the text you've entered so far.  The
command to enable or disable this minor mode is `M-x icomplete-mode'.


File: emacs,  Node: Minibuffer History,  Next: Repetition,  Prev: Completion,  Up: Minibuffer

9.4 Minibuffer History
======================

Every argument that you enter with the minibuffer is saved on a
"minibuffer history list" so you can easily use it again later.
Special commands fetch the text of an earlier argument into the
minibuffer, replacing the old minibuffer contents.  You can think of
them as moving through the history of previous arguments.

`<UP>'
`M-p'
     Move to the previous item in the minibuffer history, an earlier
     argument (`previous-history-element').

`<DOWN>'
`M-n'
     Move to the next item in the minibuffer history
     (`next-history-element').

`M-r REGEXP <RET>'
     Move to an earlier item in the minibuffer history that matches
     REGEXP (`previous-matching-history-element').

`M-s REGEXP <RET>'
     Move to a later item in the minibuffer history that matches REGEXP
     (`next-matching-history-element').

   To move through the minibuffer history list one item at a time, use
`M-p' or up-arrow (`previous-history-element') to fetch the next
earlier minibuffer input, and use `M-n' or down-arrow
(`next-history-element') to fetch the next later input.  These commands
don't move the cursor, they pull different saved strings into the
minibuffer.  But you can think of them as "moving" through the history
list.

   The input that you fetch from the history entirely replaces the
contents of the minibuffer.  To use it again unchanged, just type
<RET>.  You can also edit the text before you reuse it; this does not
change the history element that you "moved" to, but your new argument
does go at the end of the history list in its own right.

   For many minibuffer arguments there is a "default" value.  You can
insert the default value into the minibuffer as text by using `M-n'.
You can think of this as moving "into the future" in the history.

   There are also commands to search forward or backward through the
history; they search for history elements that match a regular
expression.  `M-r' (`previous-matching-history-element') searches older
elements in the history, while `M-s' (`next-matching-history-element')
searches newer elements.  These commands are unusual; they use the
minibuffer to read the regular expression even though they are invoked
from the minibuffer.  As with incremental searching, an upper-case
letter in the regular expression makes the search case-sensitive (*note
Search Case::).

   All uses of the minibuffer record your input on a history list, but
there are separate history lists for different kinds of arguments.  For
example, there is a list for file names, used by all the commands that
read file names.  (As a special feature, this history list records the
absolute file name, even if the name you entered was not absolute.)

   There are several other specific history lists, including one for
buffer names, one for arguments of commands like `query-replace', one
used by `M-x' for command names, and one used by `compile' for
compilation commands.  Finally, there is one "miscellaneous" history
list that most minibuffer arguments use.

   The variable `history-length' specifies the maximum length of a
minibuffer history list; adding a new element deletes the oldest
element if the list gets too long.  If the value of `history-length' is
`t', though, there is no maximum length.

   The variable `history-delete-duplicates' specifies whether to delete
duplicates in history.  If it is `t', adding a new element deletes from
the list all other elements that are equal to it.


File: emacs,  Node: Repetition,  Prev: Minibuffer History,  Up: Minibuffer

9.5 Repeating Minibuffer Commands
=================================

Every command that uses the minibuffer once is recorded on a special
history list, the "command history", together with the values of its
arguments, so that you can repeat the entire command.  In particular,
every use of `M-x' is recorded there, since `M-x' uses the minibuffer
to read the command name.

`C-x <ESC> <ESC>'
     Re-execute a recent minibuffer command from the command history
     (`repeat-complex-command').

`M-x list-command-history'
     Display the entire command history, showing all the commands `C-x
     <ESC> <ESC>' can repeat, most recent first.

   `C-x <ESC> <ESC>' is used to re-execute a recent command that used
the minibuffer.  With no argument, it repeats the last such command.  A
numeric argument specifies which command to repeat; 1 means the last
one, 2 the previous, and so on.

   `C-x <ESC> <ESC>' works by turning the previous command into a Lisp
expression and then entering a minibuffer initialized with the text for
that expression.  Even if you don't understand Lisp syntax, it will
probably be obvious which command is displayed for repetition.  If you
type just <RET>, that repeats the command unchanged.  You can also
change the command by editing the Lisp expression before you execute
it.  The repeated command is added to the front of the command history
unless it is identical to the most recently item.

   Once inside the minibuffer for `C-x <ESC> <ESC>', you can use the
minibuffer history commands (`M-p', `M-n', `M-r', `M-s'; *note
Minibuffer History::) to move through the history list of saved entire
commands.  After finding the desired previous command, you can edit its
expression as usual and then repeat it by typing <RET>.

   Incremental search does not, strictly speaking, use the minibuffer.
Therefore, although it behaves like a complex command, it normally does
not appear in the history list for `C-x <ESC> <ESC>'.  You can make
incremental search commands appear in the history by setting
`isearch-resume-in-command-history' to a non-`nil' value.  *Note
Incremental Search::.

   The list of previous minibuffer-using commands is stored as a Lisp
list in the variable `command-history'.  Each element is a Lisp
expression which describes one command and its arguments.  Lisp programs
can re-execute a command by calling `eval' with the `command-history'
element.


File: emacs,  Node: M-x,  Next: Help,  Prev: Minibuffer,  Up: Top

10 Running Commands by Name
***************************

Every Emacs command has a name that you can use to run it.  For
convenience, many commands also have key bindings.  You can run those
commands by typing the keys, or run them by name.  Most Emacs commands
have no key bindings, so the only way to run them is by name.  (*Note
Key Bindings::, for how to set up key bindings.)

   By convention, a command name consists of one or more words,
separated by hyphens; for example, `auto-fill-mode' or `manual-entry'.
Command names mostly use complete English words to make them easier to
remember.

   To run a command by name, start with `M-x', type the command name,
then terminate it with <RET>.  `M-x' uses the minibuffer to read the
command name.  The string `M-x' appears at the beginning of the
minibuffer as a "prompt" to remind you to enter a command name to be
run.  <RET> exits the minibuffer and runs the command.  *Note
Minibuffer::, for more information on the minibuffer.

   You can use completion to enter the command name.  For example, to
invoke the command `forward-char', you can type

     M-x forward-char <RET>

or

     M-x forw <TAB> c <RET>

Note that `forward-char' is the same command that you invoke with the
key `C-f'.  The existence of a key binding does not stop you from
running the command by name.

   To cancel the `M-x' and not run a command, type `C-g' instead of
entering the command name.  This takes you back to command level.

   To pass a numeric argument to the command you are invoking with
`M-x', specify the numeric argument before `M-x'.  The argument value
appears in the prompt while the command name is being read, and finally
`M-x' passes the argument to that command.

   When the command you run with `M-x' has a key binding, Emacs
mentions this in the echo area after running the command.  For example,
if you type `M-x forward-word', the message says that you can run the
same command by typing `M-f'.  You can turn off these messages by
setting the variable `suggest-key-bindings' to `nil'.

   In this manual, when we speak of running a command by name, we often
omit the <RET> that terminates the name.  Thus we might say `M-x
auto-fill-mode' rather than `M-x auto-fill-mode <RET>'.  We mention the
<RET> only for emphasis, such as when the command is followed by
arguments.

   `M-x' works by running the command `execute-extended-command', which
is responsible for reading the name of another command and invoking it.


File: emacs,  Node: Help,  Next: Mark,  Prev: M-x,  Up: Top

11 Help
*******

Emacs provides extensive help features, all accessible through the
"help character", `C-h'.  This is a prefix key that is used for
commands that display documentation; the next character you type should
be a "help options", to ask for a particular kind of help.  You can
cancel the `C-h' command with `C-g'.  The function key <F1> is
equivalent to `C-h'.

   `C-h' itself is one of the help options; `C-h C-h' displays a list
of help options, with a brief description of each one
(`help-for-help').  You can scroll the list with <SPC> and <DEL>, then
type the help option you want.  To cancel, type `C-g'.

   `C-h' or <F1> means "help" in various other contexts as well.  For
instance, you can type them after a prefix key to display list of the
keys that can follow the prefix key.  (A few prefix keys don't support
`C-h' in this way, because they define other meanings for it, but they
all support <F1> for help.)

   Most help buffers use a special major mode, Help mode, which lets
you scroll conveniently with <SPC> and <DEL>.  You can also follow
hyperlinks to URLs, and to other facilities including Info nodes and
customization buffers.  *Note Help Mode::.

   If you are looking for a certain feature, but don't know what it is
called or where to look, we recommend three methods.  First, try an
apropos command, then try searching the manual index, then look in the
FAQ and the package keywords.

`C-h a TOPICS <RET>'
     This searches for commands whose names match the argument TOPICS.
     The argument can be a keyword, a list of keywords, or a regular
     expression (*note Regexps::).  This command displays all the
     matches in a new buffer.  *Note Apropos::.

`C-h i d m emacs <RET> i TOPIC <RET>'
     This searches for TOPIC in the indices of the on-line Emacs
     manual, and displays the first match found.  Press `,' to see
     subsequent matches.  You can use a regular expression as TOPIC.

`C-h i d m emacs <RET> s TOPIC <RET>'
     Similar, but searches the _text_ of the manual rather than the
     indices.

`C-h C-f'
     This displays the Emacs FAQ.  You can use the Info commands to
     browse it.

`C-h p'
     This displays the available Emacs packages based on keywords.
     *Note Library Keywords::.

* Menu:

* Help Summary::	Brief list of all Help commands.
* Key Help::		Asking what a key does in Emacs.
* Name Help::		Asking about a command, variable or function name.
* Apropos::		Asking what pertains to a given topic.
* Help Mode::           Special features of Help mode and Help buffers.
* Library Keywords::	Finding Lisp libraries by keywords (topics).
* Language Help::       Help relating to international language support.
* Misc Help::		Other help commands.
* Help Files::          Commands to display pre-written help files.
* Help Echo::           Help on active text and tooltips (`balloon help')


File: emacs,  Node: Help Summary,  Next: Key Help,  Up: Help

11.1 Help Summary
=================

   Here is a summary of the Emacs interactive help commands.  (The
character that follows `C-h' is the "help option.")  *Note Help
Files::, for other help commands that display fixed files of
information.

`C-h a TOPICS <RET>'
     Display a list of commands whose names match TOPICS
     (`apropos-command'; *note Apropos::).

`C-h b'
     Display all active key bindings; minor mode bindings first, then
     those of the major mode, then global bindings
     (`describe-bindings').

`C-h c KEY'
     Given a key sequence KEY, show the name of the command that it
     runs (`describe-key-briefly').  Here `c' stands for "character."
     For more extensive information on KEY, use `C-h k'.

`C-h d TOPICS <RET>'
     Display the commands and variables whose documentation matches
     TOPICS (`apropos-documentation').

`C-h e'
     Display the `*Messages*' buffer (`view-echo-area-messages').

`C-h f FUNCTION <RET>'
     Display documentation on the Lisp function named FUNCTION
     (`describe-function').  Since commands are Lisp functions, this
     works for commands too.

`C-h h'
     Display the `HELLO' file, which shows examples of various character
     sets.

`C-h i'
     Run Info, the GNU documentation browser (`info').  The complete
     Emacs manual is available on-line in Info.

`C-h k KEY'
     Display the name and documentation of the command that KEY runs
     (`describe-key').

`C-h l'
     Display a description of the last 100 characters you typed
     (`view-lossage').

`C-h m'
     Display documentation of the current major mode (`describe-mode').

`C-h p'
     Find packages by topic keyword (`finder-by-keyword').

`C-h s'
     Display the current contents of the syntax table, with an
     explanation of what they mean (`describe-syntax').  *Note Syntax::.

`C-h t'
     Enter the Emacs interactive tutorial (`help-with-tutorial').

`C-h v VAR <RET>'
     Display the documentation of the Lisp variable VAR
     (`describe-variable').

`C-h w COMMAND <RET>'
     Show which keys run the command named COMMAND (`where-is').

`C-h C CODING <RET>'
     Describe the coding system CODING (`describe-coding-system').

`C-h C <RET>'
     Describe the coding systems currently in use.

`C-h I METHOD <RET>'
     Describe the input method METHOD (`describe-input-method').

`C-h L LANGUAGE-ENV <RET>'
     Display information on the character sets, coding systems, and
     input methods used in language environment LANGUAGE-ENV
     (`describe-language-environment').

`C-h F FUNCTION <RET>'
     Enter Info and goes to the node that documents the Emacs function
     FUNCTION (`Info-goto-emacs-command-node').

`C-h K KEY'
     Enter Info and goes to the node that documents the key sequence
     KEY (`Info-goto-emacs-key-command-node').

`C-h S SYMBOL <RET>'
     Display the Info documentation on symbol SYMBOL according to the
     programming language you are editing (`info-lookup-symbol').

`C-h .'
     Display the help message for a special text area, if point is in
     one (`display-local-help').  (These include, for example, links in
     `*Help*' buffers.)


File: emacs,  Node: Key Help,  Next: Name Help,  Prev: Help Summary,  Up: Help

11.2 Documentation for a Key
============================

The help commands to get information about a key sequence are `C-h c'
and `C-h k'.  `C-h c KEY' displays in the echo area the name of the
command that KEY is bound to.  For example, `C-h c C-f' displays
`forward-char'.  Since command names are chosen to describe what the
commands do, this gives you a very brief description of what KEY does.

   `C-h k KEY' is similar but gives more information: it displays the
documentation string of the command as well as its name.  It displays
this information in a window, since it may not fit in the echo area.

   To find the documentation of a key sequence KEY, type `C-h K KEY'.
This displays the appropriate manual section which contains the
documentation of KEY.

   `C-h c', `C-h k' and `C-h K' work for any sort of key sequences,
including function keys, menus, and mouse events.  For instance, after
`C-h k' you can select a menu item from the menu bar, to view the
documentation string of the command it runs.

   `C-h w COMMAND <RET>' lists the keys that are bound to COMMAND.  It
displays the list in the echo area.  If it says the command is not on
any key, that means you must use `M-x' to run it.  `C-h w' runs the
command `where-is'.


File: emacs,  Node: Name Help,  Next: Apropos,  Prev: Key Help,  Up: Help

11.3 Help by Command or Variable Name
=====================================

`C-h f FUNCTION <RET>' (`describe-function') displays the documentation
of Lisp function FUNCTION, in a window.  Since commands are Lisp
functions, you can use this method to view the documentation of any
command whose name you know.  For example,

     C-h f auto-fill-mode <RET>

displays the documentation of `auto-fill-mode'.  This is the only way
to get the documentation of a command that is not bound to any key (one
which you would normally run using `M-x').

   `C-h f' is also useful for Lisp functions that you use in a Lisp
program.  For example, if you have just written the expression
`(make-vector len)' and want to check that you are using `make-vector'
properly, type `C-h f make-vector <RET>'.  Because `C-h f' allows all
function names, not just command names, you may find that some of your
favorite completion abbreviations that work in `M-x' don't work in `C-h
f'.  An abbreviation that is unique among command names may not be
unique among all function names.

   If you type `C-h f <RET>', it describes the function called by the
innermost Lisp expression in the buffer around point, _provided_ that
function name is a valid, defined Lisp function.  (That name appears as
the default while you enter the argument.)  For example, if point is
located following the text `(make-vector (car x)', the innermost list
containing point is the one that starts with `(make-vector', so `C-h f
<RET>' will describe the function `make-vector'.

   `C-h f' is also useful just to verify that you spelled a function
name correctly.  If the minibuffer prompt for `C-h f' shows the
function name from the buffer as the default, it means that name is
defined as a Lisp function.  Type `C-g' to cancel the `C-h f' command
if you don't really want to view the documentation.

   `C-h v' (`describe-variable') is like `C-h f' but describes Lisp
variables instead of Lisp functions.  Its default is the Lisp symbol
around or before point, if that is the name of a defined Lisp variable.
*Note Variables::.

   Help buffers that describe Emacs variables and functions normally
have hyperlinks to the corresponding source definition, if you have the
source files installed.  (*Note Hyperlinking::.)  If you know Lisp (or
C), this provides the ultimate documentation.  If you don't know Lisp,
you should learn it.  (The Introduction to Emacs Lisp Programming,
available from the FSF through fsf.org, is a good way to get started.)
If Emacs feels you are just _using_ it, treating it as an object
program, its feelings may be hurt.  For real intimacy, read the Emacs
source code.

   To find a function's documentation in a manual, use `C-h F'
(`Info-goto-emacs-command-node').  This knows about various manuals,
not just the Emacs manual, and finds the right one.


File: emacs,  Node: Apropos,  Next: Help Mode,  Prev: Name Help,  Up: Help

11.4 Apropos
============

The "apropos" commands answer questions like, "What are the commands
for working with files?"  More precisely, you specify an "apropos
pattern", which means either a word, a list of words, or a regular
expression.  Each apropos command displays a list of items that match
the pattern, in a separate buffer.

`C-h a PATTERN <RET>'
     Search for commands whose names match PATTERN.

`M-x apropos <RET> PATTERN <RET>'
     Search for functions and variables whose names match PATTERN.
     Both interactive functions (commands) and noninteractive functions
     can be found by this command.

`M-x apropos-variable <RET> PATTERN <RET>'
     Search for user-option variables whose names match PATTERN.

`M-x apropos-value <RET> PATTERN <RET>'
     Search for functions whose definitions PATTERN, and variables
     whose values match PATTERN.

`C-h d PATTERN <RET>'
     Search for functions and variables whose *documentation strings*
     match PATTERN.

   The simplest kind of apropos pattern is one word.  Anything which
contains that word matches the pattern.  Thus, to find the commands
that work on files, type `C-h a file <RET>'.  This displays a list of
all command names that contain `file', including `copy-file',
`find-file', and so on.  Each command name comes with a brief
description and a list of keys you can currently invoke it with.  In
our example, it would say that you can invoke `find-file' by typing
`C-x C-f'.

   The `a' in `C-h a' stands for "Apropos"; `C-h a' runs the command
`apropos-command'.  This command normally checks only commands
(interactive functions); if you specify a prefix argument, it checks
noninteractive functions as well.

   For more information about a function definition, variable or symbol
property listed in the apropos buffer, you can click on it with
`Mouse-1' or `Mouse-2', or move there and type <RET>.

   When you specify more than one word in the apropos pattern, a name
must contain at least two of the words in order to match.  Thus, if you
are looking for commands to kill a chunk of text before point, you
could try `C-h a kill back backward behind before <RET>'.  The real
command name `kill-backward' will match that; if there were a command
`kill-text-before', it would also match, since it contains two of the
specified words.

   For even greater flexibility, you can specify a regular expression
(*note Regexps::).  An apropos pattern is interpreted as a regular
expression if it contains any of the regular expression special
characters, `^$*+?.\['.

   Following the conventions for naming Emacs commands, here are some
words that you'll find useful in apropos patterns.  By using them in
`C-h a', you will also get a feel for the naming conventions.

     char, line, word, sentence, paragraph, region, page, sexp, list,
     defun, rect, buffer, frame, window, face, file, dir, register,
     mode, beginning, end, forward, backward, next, previous, up, down,
     search, goto, kill, delete, mark, insert, yank, fill, indent,
     case, change, set, what, list, find, view, describe, default.

   Use `M-x apropos' instead of `C-h a' to list all the Lisp symbols
that match an apropos pattern, not just the symbols that are commands.
This command does not list key bindings by default; specify a numeric
argument if you want it to list them.

   Use `M-x apropos-variable' to list user-customizable variables that
match an apropos pattern.  If you specify a prefix argument, it lists
all matching variables.

   The `apropos-documentation' command is like `apropos' except that it
searches documentation strings instead of symbol names for matches.

   The `apropos-value' command is like `apropos' except that it
searches variables' values for matches for the apropos pattern.  With a
prefix argument, it also checks symbols' function definitions and
property lists.

   If the variable `apropos-do-all' is non-`nil', the apropos commands
always behave as if they had been given a prefix argument.

   By default, apropos lists the search results in alphabetical order.
If the variable `apropos-sort-by-scores' is non-`nil', the apropos
commands try to guess the relevance of each result, and display the
most relevant ones first.

   By default, apropos lists the search results for
`apropos-documentation' in order of relevance of the match.  If the
variable `apropos-documentation-sort-by-scores' is `nil', apropos lists
the symbols found in alphabetical order.


File: emacs,  Node: Help Mode,  Next: Library Keywords,  Prev: Apropos,  Up: Help

11.5 Help Mode Commands
=======================

Help buffers provide the same commands as View mode (*note Misc File
Ops::), plus a few special commands of their own.

`<SPC>'
     Scroll forward.

`<DEL>'
     Scroll backward.

`<RET>'
     Follow a cross reference at point.

`<TAB>'
     Move point forward to the next cross reference.

`S-<TAB>'
     Move point back to the previous cross reference.

`Mouse-1'
`Mouse-2'
     Follow a cross reference that you click on.

`C-c C-c'
     Show all documentation about the symbol at point.

   When a function name (*note Running Commands by Name: M-x.),
variable name (*note Variables::), or face name (*note Faces::) appears
in the documentation, it normally appears inside paired single-quotes.
To view the documentation of that command, variable or face, you can
click on the name with `Mouse-1' or `Mouse-2', or move point there and
type <RET>.  Use `C-c C-b' to retrace your steps.

   You can follow cross references to URLs (web pages) also.  This uses
the `browse-url' command to view the page in the browser you choose.
*Note Browse-URL::.

   There are convenient commands to move point to cross references in
the help text.  <TAB> (`help-next-ref') moves point down to the next
cross reference.  `S-<TAB>' moves up to the previous cross reference
(`help-previous-ref').

   To view all documentation about any symbol name that appears in the
text, move point to the symbol name and type `C-c C-c'
(`help-follow-symbol').  This shows all available documentation about
the symbol as a variable, function and/or face.  As above, use `C-c
C-b' to retrace your steps.


File: emacs,  Node: Library Keywords,  Next: Language Help,  Prev: Help Mode,  Up: Help

11.6 Keyword Search for Lisp Libraries
======================================

The `C-h p' command lets you search the standard Emacs Lisp libraries
by topic keywords.  Here is a partial list of keywords you can use:

abbrev        abbreviation handling, typing shortcuts, macros.
bib           code related to the `bib' bibliography processor.
c             support for the C language and related languages.
calendar      calendar and time management support.
comm          communications, networking, remote access to files.
convenience   convenience features for faster editing.
data          support for editing files of data.
docs          support for Emacs documentation.
emulations    emulations of other editors.
extensions    Emacs Lisp language extensions.
faces         support for multiple fonts.
files         support for editing and manipulating files.
frames        support for Emacs frames and window systems.
games         games, jokes and amusements.
hardware      support for interfacing with exotic hardware.
help          support for on-line help systems.
hypermedia    support for links between text or other media types.
i18n          internationalization and alternate character-set support.
internal      code for Emacs internals, build process, defaults.
languages     specialized modes for editing programming languages.
lisp          Lisp support, including Emacs Lisp.
local         code local to your site.
maint         maintenance aids for the Emacs development group.
mail          modes for electronic-mail handling.
matching      various sorts of searching and matching.
mouse         mouse support.
multimedia    images and sound support.
news          support for netnews reading and posting.
oop           support for object-oriented programming.
outlines      support for hierarchical outlining.
processes     process, subshell, compilation, and job control support.
terminals     support for terminal types.
tex           supporting code for the TeX formatter.
tools         programming tools.
unix          front-ends/assistants for, or emulators of, UNIX-like
              features.
wp            word processing.


File: emacs,  Node: Language Help,  Next: Misc Help,  Prev: Library Keywords,  Up: Help

11.7 Help for International Language Support
============================================

You can use the command `C-h L' (`describe-language-environment') to
get information about a specific language environment.  *Note Language
Environments::.  This tells you which languages this language
environment supports.  It also lists the character sets, coding
systems, and input methods that work with this language environment,
and finally shows some sample text to illustrate scripts.

   The command `C-h h' (`view-hello-file') displays the file
`etc/HELLO', which shows how to say "hello" in many languages.

   The command `C-h I' (`describe-input-method') describes an input
method--either a specified input method, or by default the input method
currently in use.  *Note Input Methods::.

   The command `C-h C' (`describe-coding-system') describes coding
systems--either a specified coding system, or the ones currently in
use.  *Note Coding Systems::.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc Help,  Next: Help Files,  Prev: Language Help,  Up: Help

11.8 Other Help Commands
========================

`C-h i' (`info') runs the Info program, which browses structured
documentation files.  The entire Emacs manual is available within Info,
along with many other manuals for the GNU system.  Type `h' after
entering Info to run a tutorial on using Info.

   With a numeric argument N, `C-h i' selects the Info buffer
`*info*<N>'.  This is useful if you want to browse multiple Info
manuals simultaneously.  If you specify just `C-u' as the prefix
argument, `C-h i' prompts for the name of a documentation file, so you
can browse a file which doesn't have an entry in the top-level Info
menu.

   The help commands `C-h F FUNCTION <RET>' and `C-h K KEY', described
above, enter Info and go straight to the documentation of FUNCTION or
KEY.

   When editing a program, if you have an Info version of the manual
for the programming language, you can use `C-h S'
(`info-lookup-symbol') to find symbol (keyword, function or variable)
in the proper manual.  The details of how this command works depend on
the major mode.

   If something surprising happens, and you are not sure what you
typed, use `C-h l' (`view-lossage').  `C-h l' displays the last 100
characters you typed in Emacs.  If you see commands that you don't
know, you can use `C-h c' to find out what they do.

   To review recent echo area messages, use `C-h e'
(`view-echo-area-messages').  This displays the buffer `*Messages*',
where those messages are kept.

   Each Emacs major mode typically redefines a few keys and makes other
changes in how editing works.  `C-h m' (`describe-mode') displays
documentation on the current major mode, which normally describes the
commands and features that are changed in this mode.

   `C-h b' (`describe-bindings') and `C-h s' (`describe-syntax') show
other information about the current environment within Emacs.  `C-h b'
displays a list of all the key bindings now in effect: first the local
bindings of the current minor modes, then the local bindings defined by
the current major mode, and finally the global bindings (*note Key
Bindings::).  `C-h s' displays the contents of the syntax table, with
explanations of each character's syntax (*note Syntax::).

   You can get a list of subcommands for a particular prefix key by
typing `C-h' after the prefix key.  (There are a few prefix keys for
which this does not work--those that provide their own bindings for
`C-h'.  One of these is <ESC>, because `<ESC> C-h' is actually `C-M-h',
which marks a defun.)


File: emacs,  Node: Help Files,  Next: Help Echo,  Prev: Misc Help,  Up: Help

11.9 Help Files
===============

The Emacs help commands described above display dynamic help based on
the current state within Emacs, or refer to manuals.  Other help
commands display pre-written, static help files.  These commands all
have the form `C-h C-CHAR'; that is, `C-h' followed by a control
character.

`C-h C-c'
     Display the Emacs copying conditions (`describe-copying').  These
     are the rules under which you can copy and redistribute Emacs.

`C-h C-d'
     Display how to download or order the latest version of Emacs and
     other GNU software (`describe-distribution').

`C-h C-e'
     Display the list of known Emacs problems, sometimes with suggested
     workarounds (`view-emacs-problems').

`C-h C-f'
     Display the Emacs frequently-answered-questions list
     (`view-emacs-FAQ').

`C-h C-n'
     Display the Emacs "news" file, which lists new features in the most
     recent version of Emacs (`view-emacs-news').

`C-h C-p'
     Display general information about the GNU Project
     (`describe-project').

`C-h C-t'
     Display the Emacs to-do list (`view-todo').

`C-h C-w'
     Display the full details on the complete absence of warranty for
     GNU Emacs (`describe-no-warranty').


File: emacs,  Node: Help Echo,  Prev: Help Files,  Up: Help

11.10 Help on Active Text and Tooltips
======================================

When a region of text is "active," so that you can select it with the
mouse or a key like `RET', it often has associated help text.  For
instance, most parts of the mode line have help text.  On graphical
displays, the help text is displayed as a "tooltip" (sometimes known as
"balloon help"), when you move the mouse over the active text.  *Note
Tooltips::.  On some systems, it is shown in the echo area.  On
text-only terminals, if Emacs cannot follow the mouse, it cannot show
the help text on mouse-over.

   You can also access text region help info using the keyboard.  The
command `C-h .' (`display-local-help') displays any help text
associated with the text at point, using the echo area.  If you want
help text to be displayed automatically whenever it is available at
point, set the variable `help-at-pt-display-when-idle' to `t'.


File: emacs,  Node: Mark,  Next: Killing,  Prev: Help,  Up: Top

12 The Mark and the Region
**************************

Many Emacs commands operate on an arbitrary contiguous part of the
current buffer.  To specify the text for such a command to operate on,
you set "the mark" at one end of it, and move point to the other end.
The text between point and the mark is called "the region".  Emacs
highlights the region whenever there is one, if you enable Transient
Mark mode (*note Transient Mark::).

   Certain Emacs commands set the mark; other editing commands do not
affect it, so the mark remains where you set it last.  Each Emacs
buffer has its own mark, and setting the mark in one buffer has no
effect on other buffers' marks.  When you return to a buffer that was
current earlier, its mark is at the same place as before.

   The ends of the region are always point and the mark.  It doesn't
matter which of them was put in its current place first, or which one
comes earlier in the text--the region starts from point or the mark
(whichever comes first), and ends at point or the mark (whichever comes
last).  Every time you move point, or set the mark in a new place, the
region changes.

   Many commands that insert text, such as `C-y' (`yank') and `M-x
insert-buffer', position point and the mark at opposite ends of the
inserted text, so that the region consists of the text just inserted.

   Aside from delimiting the region, the mark is also useful for
remembering a spot that you may want to go back to.  To make this
feature more useful, each buffer remembers 16 previous locations of the
mark in the "mark ring".

* Menu:

* Setting Mark::	Commands to set the mark.
* Transient Mark::	How to make Emacs highlight the region--
			  when there is one.
* Momentary Mark::      Enabling Transient Mark mode momentarily.
* Using Region::	Summary of ways to operate on contents of the region.
* Marking Objects::	Commands to put region around textual units.
* Mark Ring::   	Previous mark positions saved so you can go back there.
* Global Mark Ring::    Previous mark positions in various buffers.


File: emacs,  Node: Setting Mark,  Next: Transient Mark,  Up: Mark

12.1 Setting the Mark
=====================

Here are some commands for setting the mark:

`C-<SPC>'
     Set the mark where point is (`set-mark-command').

`C-@'
     The same.

`C-x C-x'
     Interchange mark and point (`exchange-point-and-mark').

`Drag-Mouse-1'
     Set point and the mark around the text you drag across.

`Mouse-3'
     Set the mark where point is, then move point to where you click
     (`mouse-save-then-kill').

   For example, suppose you wish to convert part of the buffer to upper
case, using the `C-x C-u' (`upcase-region') command, which operates on
the text in the region.  You can first go to the beginning of the text
to be capitalized, type `C-<SPC>' to put the mark there, move to the
end, and then type `C-x C-u'.  Or, you can set the mark at the end of
the text, move to the beginning, and then type `C-x C-u'.

   The most common way to set the mark is with the `C-<SPC>' command
(`set-mark-command').  This sets the mark where point is.  Then you can
move point away, leaving the mark behind.

   There are two ways to set the mark with the mouse.  You can drag
mouse button one across a range of text; that puts point where you
release the mouse button, and sets the mark at the other end of that
range.  Or you can click mouse button three, which sets the mark at
point (like `C-<SPC>') and then moves point where you clicked (like
`Mouse-1').

   Using the mouse to mark a region copies the region into the kill
ring in addition to setting the mark; that gives behavior consistent
with other window-driven applications.  If you don't want to modify the
kill ring, you must use keyboard commands to set the mark.  *Note Mouse
Commands::.

   When Emacs was developed, terminals had only one cursor, so Emacs
does not show where the mark is located-you have to remember.  If you
enable Transient Mark mode (see below), then the region is highlighted
when it is active; you can tell mark is at the other end of the
highlighted region.  But this only applies when the mark is active.

   The usual solution to this problem is to set the mark and then use
it soon, before you forget where it is.  Alternatively, you can see
where the mark is with the command `C-x C-x'
(`exchange-point-and-mark') which puts the mark where point was and
point where the mark was.  The extent of the region is unchanged, but
the cursor and point are now at the previous position of the mark.  In
Transient Mark mode, this command also reactivates the mark.

   `C-x C-x' is also useful when you are satisfied with the position of
point but want to move the other end of the region (where the mark is);
do `C-x C-x' to put point at that end of the region, and then move it.
Using `C-x C-x' a second time, if necessary, puts the mark at the new
position with point back at its original position.

   For more facilities that allow you to go to previously set marks, see
*Note Mark Ring::.

   There is no such character as `C-<SPC>' in ASCII; when you type
<SPC> while holding down <CTRL> on a text terminal, what you get is the
character `C-@'.  This key is also bound to `set-mark-command'-so
unless you are unlucky enough to have a text terminal where typing
`C-<SPC>' does not produce `C-@', you might as well think of this
character as `C-<SPC>'.


File: emacs,  Node: Transient Mark,  Next: Momentary Mark,  Prev: Setting Mark,  Up: Mark

12.2 Transient Mark Mode
========================

On a terminal that supports colors, Emacs has the ability to highlight
the current region.  But normally it does not.  Why not?

   In the normal mode of use, every command that sets the mark also
activates it, and nothing ever deactivates it.  Thus, once you have set
the mark in a buffer, there is _always_ a region in that buffer.
Highlighting the region all the time would be a nuisance.  So normally
Emacs highlights the region only immediately after you have selected
one with the mouse.

   If you want region highlighting, you can use Transient Mark mode.
This is a more rigid mode of operation in which the region "lasts" only
until you use it; operating on the region text deactivates the mark, so
there is no region any more.  Therefore, you must explicitly set up a
region for each command that uses one.

   When Transient Mark mode is enabled, Emacs highlights the region,
whenever there is a region.  In Transient Mark mode, most of the time
there is no region; therefore, highlighting the region when it exists
is useful and not annoying.

   To enable Transient Mark mode, type `M-x transient-mark-mode'.  This
command toggles the mode; you can use the same command to turn the mode
off again.

   Here are the details of Transient Mark mode:

   * To set the mark, type `C-<SPC>' (`set-mark-command').  This makes
     the mark active and thus begins highlighting of the region.  As
     you move point, you will see the highlighted region grow and
     shrink.

   * The mouse commands for specifying the mark also make it active.
     So do keyboard commands whose purpose is to specify a region,
     including `M-@', `C-M-@', `M-h', `C-M-h', `C-x C-p', and `C-x h'.

   * You can tell that the mark is active because the region is
     highlighted.

   * When the mark is active, you can execute commands that operate on
     the region, such as killing, indenting, or writing to a file.

   * Any change to the buffer, such as inserting or deleting a
     character, deactivates the mark.  This means any subsequent
     command that operates on a region will get an error and refuse to
     operate.  You can make the region active again by typing `C-x C-x'.

   * If Delete Selection mode is also enabled, some commands delete the
     region when used while the mark is active.  *Note Mouse Commands::.

   * Quitting with `C-g' deactivates the mark.

   * Commands like `M->' and `C-s', that "leave the mark behind" in
     addition to some other primary purpose, do not activate the new
     mark.  You can activate the new region by executing `C-x C-x'
     (`exchange-point-and-mark').

   * Commands that normally set the mark before moving long distances
     (like `M-<' and `C-s') do not alter the mark in Transient Mark mode
     when the mark is active.

   * Some commands operate on the region if a region is active.  For
     instance, `C-x u' in Transient Mark mode operates on the region,
     when there is a region.  (Outside Transient Mark mode, you must
     type `C-u C-x u' if you want it to operate on the region.)  *Note
     Undo::.  Other commands that act this way are identified in their
     own documentation.

   The highlighting of the region uses the `region' face; you can
customize the appearance of the highlighted region by changing this
face.  *Note Face Customization::.

   When multiple windows show the same buffer, they can have different
regions, because they can have different values of point (though they
all share one common mark position).  Ordinarily, only the selected
window highlights its region (*note Windows::).  However, if the
variable `highlight-nonselected-windows' is non-`nil', then each window
highlights its own region (provided that Transient Mark mode is enabled
and the mark in the window's buffer is active).

   If the variable `mark-even-if-inactive' is non-`nil' in Transient
Mark mode, then commands can use the mark and the region even when it
is inactive.  Region highlighting appears and disappears just as it
normally does in Transient Mark mode, but the mark doesn't really go
away when the highlighting disappears, so you can still use region
commands.

   Transient Mark mode is also sometimes known as "Zmacs mode" because
the Zmacs editor on the MIT Lisp Machine handled the mark in a similar
way.


File: emacs,  Node: Momentary Mark,  Next: Using Region,  Prev: Transient Mark,  Up: Mark

12.3 Using Transient Mark Mode Momentarily
==========================================

If you don't like Transient Mark mode in general, you might still want
to use it once in a while.  To do this, type `C-<SPC> C-<SPC>' or `C-u
C-x C-x'.  These commands set or activate the mark, and enable
Transient Mark mode only until the mark is deactivated.

`C-<SPC> C-<SPC>'
     Set the mark at point (like plain `C-<SPC>'), and enable Transient
     Mark mode just once until the mark is deactivated.  (This is not
     really a separate command; you are using the `C-<SPC>' command
     twice.)

`C-u C-x C-x'
     Activate the mark without changing it; enable Transient Mark mode
     just once, until the mark is deactivated.  (This is the `C-x C-x'
     command, `exchange-point-and-mark', with a prefix argument.)

   One of the secondary features of Transient Mark mode is that certain
commands operate only on the region, when there is an active region.
If you don't use Transient Mark mode, the region once set never becomes
inactive, so there is no way for these commands to make such a
distinction.  Enabling Transient Mark mode momentarily gives you a way
to use these commands on the region.

   Momentary use of Transient Mark mode is also a way to highlight the
region for the time being.


File: emacs,  Node: Using Region,  Next: Marking Objects,  Prev: Momentary Mark,  Up: Mark

12.4 Operating on the Region
============================

Once you have a region and the mark is active, here are some of the
ways you can operate on the region:

   * Kill it with `C-w' (*note Killing::).

   * Save it in a register with `C-x r s' (*note Registers::).

   * Save it in a buffer or a file (*note Accumulating Text::).

   * Convert case with `C-x C-l' or `C-x C-u' (*note Case::).

   * Indent it with `C-x <TAB>' or `C-M-\' (*note Indentation::).

   * Fill it as text with `M-x fill-region' (*note Filling::).

   * Print hardcopy with `M-x print-region' (*note Printing::).

   * Evaluate it as Lisp code with `M-x eval-region' (*note Lisp
     Eval::).

   * Undo changes within it using `C-u C-x u' (*note Undo::).

   Most commands that operate on the text in the region have the word
`region' in their names.


File: emacs,  Node: Marking Objects,  Next: Mark Ring,  Prev: Using Region,  Up: Mark

12.5 Commands to Mark Textual Objects
=====================================

Here are the commands for placing point and the mark around a textual
object such as a word, list, paragraph or page.

`M-@'
     Set mark after end of next word (`mark-word').  This command and
     the following one do not move point.

`C-M-@'
     Set mark after end of following balanced expression (`mark-sexp').

`M-h'
     Put region around current paragraph (`mark-paragraph').

`C-M-h'
     Put region around current defun (`mark-defun').

`C-x h'
     Put region around the entire buffer (`mark-whole-buffer').

`C-x C-p'
     Put region around current page (`mark-page').

   `M-@' (`mark-word') puts the mark at the end of the next word, while
`C-M-@' (`mark-sexp') puts it at the end of the next balanced
expression (*note Expressions::).  These commands handle arguments just
like `M-f' and `C-M-f'.  Repeating these commands extends the region.
For example, you can type either `C-u 2 M-@' or `M-@ M-@' to mark the
next two words.  These commands also extend the region in Transient
Mark mode, regardless of the last command.

   Other commands set both point and mark, to delimit an object in the
buffer.  For example, `M-h' (`mark-paragraph') moves point to the
beginning of the paragraph that surrounds or follows point, and puts
the mark at the end of that paragraph (*note Paragraphs::).  It
prepares the region so you can indent, case-convert, or kill a whole
paragraph.  With a prefix argument, if the argument's value is positive,
`M-h' marks that many paragraphs starting with the one surrounding
point.  If the prefix argument is -N, `M-h' also marks N paragraphs,
running back form the one surrounding point.  In that last case, point
moves forward to the end of that paragraph, and the mark goes at the
start of the region.  Repeating the `M-h' command extends the region to
subsequent paragraphs.

   `C-M-h' (`mark-defun') similarly puts point before, and the mark
after, the current (or following) major top-level definition, or defun
(*note Moving by Defuns::).  Repeating `C-M-h' extends the region to
subsequent defuns.

   `C-x C-p' (`mark-page') puts point before the current page, and mark
at the end (*note Pages::).  The mark goes after the terminating page
delimiter (to include it in the region), while point goes after the
preceding page delimiter (to exclude it).  A numeric argument specifies
a later page (if positive) or an earlier page (if negative) instead of
the current page.

   Finally, `C-x h' (`mark-whole-buffer') sets up the entire buffer as
the region, by putting point at the beginning and the mark at the end.
(In some programs this is called "select all.")

   In Transient Mark mode, all of these commands activate the mark.


File: emacs,  Node: Mark Ring,  Next: Global Mark Ring,  Prev: Marking Objects,  Up: Mark

12.6 The Mark Ring
==================

Aside from delimiting the region, the mark is also useful for
remembering a spot that you may want to go back to.  To make this
feature more useful, each buffer remembers 16 previous locations of the
mark, in the "mark ring".  Commands that set the mark also push the old
mark onto this ring.  To return to a marked location, use `C-u C-<SPC>'
(or `C-u C-@'); this is the command `set-mark-command' given a numeric
argument.  It moves point to where the mark was, and restores the mark
from the ring of former marks.

   If you set `set-mark-command-repeat-pop' to non-`nil', then when you
repeat the character `C-<SPC>' after typing `C-u C-<SPC>', each
repetition moves point to a previous mark position from the ring.  The
mark positions you move through in this way are not lost; they go to
the end of the ring.

   Each buffer has its own mark ring.  All editing commands use the
current buffer's mark ring.  In particular, `C-u C-<SPC>' always stays
in the same buffer.

   Many commands that can move long distances, such as `M-<'
(`beginning-of-buffer'), start by setting the mark and saving the old
mark on the mark ring.  This is to make it easier for you to move back
later.  Searches set the mark if they move point.  However, in
Transient Mark mode, these commands do not set the mark when the mark
is already active.  You can tell when a command sets the mark because
it displays `Mark set' in the echo area.

   If you want to move back to the same place over and over, the mark
ring may not be convenient enough.  If so, you can record the position
in a register for later retrieval (*note Saving Positions in Registers:
RegPos.).

   The variable `mark-ring-max' specifies the maximum number of entries
to keep in the mark ring.  If that many entries exist and another one
is pushed, the earliest one in the list is discarded.  Repeating `C-u
C-<SPC>' cycles through the positions currently in the ring.

   The variable `mark-ring' holds the mark ring itself, as a list of
marker objects, with the most recent first.  This variable is local in
every buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Global Mark Ring,  Prev: Mark Ring,  Up: Mark

12.7 The Global Mark Ring
=========================

In addition to the ordinary mark ring that belongs to each buffer,
Emacs has a single "global mark ring".  It records a sequence of
buffers in which you have recently set the mark, so you can go back to
those buffers.

   Setting the mark always makes an entry on the current buffer's mark
ring.  If you have switched buffers since the previous mark setting, the
new mark position makes an entry on the global mark ring also.  The
result is that the global mark ring records a sequence of buffers that
you have been in, and, for each buffer, a place where you set the mark.

   The command `C-x C-<SPC>' (`pop-global-mark') jumps to the buffer
and position of the latest entry in the global ring.  It also rotates
the ring, so that successive uses of `C-x C-<SPC>' take you to earlier
and earlier buffers.


File: emacs,  Node: Killing,  Next: Yanking,  Prev: Mark,  Up: Top

13 Killing and Moving Text
**************************

"Killing" means erasing text and copying it into the "kill ring", from
which you can bring it back into the buffer by "yanking" it.  (Some
systems use the terms "cutting" and "pasting" for these operations.)
This is the most common way of moving or copying text within Emacs.
Killing and yanking is very safe because Emacs remembers several recent
kills, not just the last one.  It is versatile, because the many
commands for killing syntactic units can also be used for moving those
units.  But there are other ways of copying text for special purposes.

   Most commands which erase text from the buffer save it in the kill
ring.  These commands are known as "kill" commands.  The commands that
erase text but do not save it in the kill ring are known as "delete"
commands.  The `C-x u' (`undo') command (*note Undo::) can undo both
kill and delete commands; the importance of the kill ring is that you
can also yank the text in a different place or places.  Emacs has only
one kill ring for all buffers, so you can kill text in one buffer and
yank it in another buffer.

   The delete commands include `C-d' (`delete-char') and <DEL>
(`delete-backward-char'), which delete only one character at a time,
and those commands that delete only spaces or newlines.  Commands that
can erase significant amounts of nontrivial data generally do a kill
operation instead.  The commands' names and individual descriptions use
the words `kill' and `delete' to say which kind of operation they
perform.

   You cannot kill read-only text, since such text does not allow any
kind of modification.  But some users like to use the kill commands to
copy read-only text into the kill ring, without actually changing it.
Therefore, the kill commands work specially in a read-only buffer: they
move over text, and copy it to the kill ring, without actually deleting
it from the buffer.  Normally, kill commands beep and display an error
message when this happens.  But if you set the variable
`kill-read-only-ok' to a non-`nil' value, they just print a message in
the echo area to explain why the text has not been erased.

   You can also use the mouse to kill and yank.  *Note Cut and Paste::.

* Menu:

* Deletion::            Commands for deleting small amounts of text and
                          blank areas.
* Killing by Lines::    How to kill entire lines of text at one time.
* Other Kill Commands:: Commands to kill large regions of text and
                          syntactic units such as words and sentences.


File: emacs,  Node: Deletion,  Next: Killing by Lines,  Up: Killing

13.1 Deletion
=============

Deletion means erasing text and not saving it in the kill ring.  For
the most part, the Emacs commands that delete text are those that erase
just one character or only whitespace.

`C-d'
`<DELETE>'
     Delete next character (`delete-char').  If your keyboard has a
     <DELETE> function key (usually located in the edit keypad), Emacs
     binds it to `delete-char' as well.

`<DEL>'
`<BS>'
     Delete previous character (`delete-backward-char').

`M-\'
     Delete spaces and tabs around point (`delete-horizontal-space').

`M-<SPC>'
     Delete spaces and tabs around point, leaving one space
     (`just-one-space').

`C-x C-o'
     Delete blank lines around the current line (`delete-blank-lines').

`M-^'
     Join two lines by deleting the intervening newline, along with any
     indentation following it (`delete-indentation').

   The most basic delete commands are `C-d' (`delete-char') and <DEL>
(`delete-backward-char').  `C-d' deletes the character after point, the
one the cursor is "on top of."  This doesn't move point.  <DEL> deletes
the character before the cursor, and moves point back.  You can delete
newlines like any other characters in the buffer; deleting a newline
joins two lines.  Actually, `C-d' and <DEL> aren't always delete
commands; when given arguments, they kill instead, since they can erase
more than one character this way.

   Every keyboard has a large key which is a short distance above the
<RET> or <ENTER> key and is normally used for erasing what you have
typed.  It may be labeled <DEL>, <BACKSPACE>, <BS>, <DELETE>, or even
with a left arrow.  Regardless of the label on the key, in Emacs it
called <DEL>, and it should delete one character backwards.

   Many keyboards (including standard PC keyboards) have a <BACKSPACE>
key a short ways above <RET> or <ENTER>, and a <DELETE> key elsewhere.
In that case, the <BACKSPACE> key is <DEL>, and the <DELETE> key is
equivalent to `C-d'--or it should be.

   Why do we say "or it should be"?  When Emacs starts up using a
graphical display, it determines automatically which key or keys should
be equivalent to <DEL>.  As a result, <BACKSPACE> and/or <DELETE> keys
normally do the right things.  But in some unusual cases Emacs gets the
wrong information from the system.  If these keys don't do what they
ought to do, you need to tell Emacs which key to use for <DEL>.  *Note
DEL Does Not Delete::, for how to do this.

   On most text-only terminals, Emacs cannot tell which keys the
keyboard really has, so it follows a uniform plan which may or may not
fit your keyboard.  The uniform plan is that the ASCII <DEL> character
deletes, and the ASCII <BS> (backspace) character asks for help (it is
the same as `C-h').  If this is not right for your keyboard, such as if
you find that the key which ought to delete backwards enters Help
instead, see *Note DEL Does Not Delete::.

   The other delete commands are those which delete only whitespace
characters: spaces, tabs and newlines.  `M-\'
(`delete-horizontal-space') deletes all the spaces and tab characters
before and after point.  With a prefix argument, this only deletes
spaces and tab characters before point.  `M-<SPC>' (`just-one-space')
does likewise but leaves a single space after point, regardless of the
number of spaces that existed previously (even if there were none
before).  With a numeric argument N, it leaves N spaces after point.

   `C-x C-o' (`delete-blank-lines') deletes all blank lines after the
current line.  If the current line is blank, it deletes all blank lines
preceding the current line as well (leaving one blank line, the current
line).  On a solitary blank line, it deletes that line.

   `M-^' (`delete-indentation') joins the current line and the previous
line, by deleting a newline and all surrounding spaces, usually leaving
a single space.  *Note M-^: Indentation.


File: emacs,  Node: Killing by Lines,  Next: Other Kill Commands,  Prev: Deletion,  Up: Killing

13.2 Killing by Lines
=====================

`C-k'
     Kill rest of line or one or more lines (`kill-line').

`C-S-backspace'
     Kill an entire line at once (`kill-whole-line')

   The simplest kill command is `C-k'.  If given at the beginning of a
line, it kills all the text on the line, leaving it blank.  When used
on a blank line, it kills the whole line including its newline.  To kill
an entire non-blank line, go to the beginning and type `C-k' twice.

   More generally, `C-k' kills from point up to the end of the line,
unless it is at the end of a line.  In that case it kills the newline
following point, thus merging the next line into the current one.
Spaces and tabs that you can't see at the end of the line are ignored
when deciding which case applies, so if point appears to be at the end
of the line, you can be sure `C-k' will kill the newline.

   When `C-k' is given a positive argument, it kills that many lines
and the newlines that follow them (however, text on the current line
before point is not killed).  With a negative argument -N, it kills N
lines preceding the current line (together with the text on the current
line before point).  Thus, `C-u - 2 C-k' at the front of a line kills
the two previous lines.

   `C-k' with an argument of zero kills the text before point on the
current line.

   If the variable `kill-whole-line' is non-`nil', `C-k' at the very
beginning of a line kills the entire line including the following
newline.  This variable is normally `nil'.

   `C-S-backspace' (`kill-whole-line') will kill a whole line including
its newline regardless of the position of point within the line.  Note
that many character terminals will prevent you from typing the key
sequence `C-S-backspace'.


File: emacs,  Node: Other Kill Commands,  Prev: Killing by Lines,  Up: Killing

13.3 Other Kill Commands
========================

`C-w'
     Kill region (from point to the mark) (`kill-region').

`M-d'
     Kill word (`kill-word').  *Note Words::.

`M-<DEL>'
     Kill word backwards (`backward-kill-word').

`C-x <DEL>'
     Kill back to beginning of sentence (`backward-kill-sentence').
     *Note Sentences::.

`M-k'
     Kill to end of sentence (`kill-sentence').

`C-M-k'
     Kill the following balanced expression (`kill-sexp').  *Note
     Expressions::.

`M-z CHAR'
     Kill through the next occurrence of CHAR (`zap-to-char').

   The most general kill command is `C-w' (`kill-region'), which kills
everything between point and the mark.  With this command, you can kill
any contiguous sequence of characters, if you first set the region
around them.

   A convenient way of killing is combined with searching: `M-z'
(`zap-to-char') reads a character and kills from point up to (and
including) the next occurrence of that character in the buffer.  A
numeric argument acts as a repeat count.  A negative argument means to
search backward and kill text before point.

   Other syntactic units can be killed: words, with `M-<DEL>' and `M-d'
(*note Words::); balanced expressions, with `C-M-k' (*note
Expressions::); and sentences, with `C-x <DEL>' and `M-k' (*note
Sentences::).


File: emacs,  Node: Yanking,  Next: Accumulating Text,  Prev: Killing,  Up: Top

14 Yanking
**********

"Yanking" means reinserting text previously killed.  This is what some
systems call "pasting."  The usual way to move or copy text is to kill
it and then yank it elsewhere one or more times.  This is very safe
because Emacs remembers many recent kills, not just the last one.

`C-y'
     Yank last killed text (`yank').

`M-y'
     Replace text just yanked with an earlier batch of killed text
     (`yank-pop').

`M-w'
     Save region as last killed text without actually killing it
     (`kill-ring-save').  Some systems call this "copying."

`C-M-w'
     Append next kill to last batch of killed text (`append-next-kill').

   On graphical displays with window systems, if there is a current
selection in some other application, and you selected it more recently
than you killed any text in Emacs, `C-y' copies the selection instead
of text killed within Emacs.

* Menu:

* Kill Ring::		Where killed text is stored.  Basic yanking.
* Appending Kills::	Several kills in a row all yank together.
* Earlier Kills::	Yanking something killed some time ago.


File: emacs,  Node: Kill Ring,  Next: Appending Kills,  Up: Yanking

14.1 The Kill Ring
==================

All killed text is recorded in the "kill ring", a list of blocks of
text that have been killed.  There is only one kill ring, shared by all
buffers, so you can kill text in one buffer and yank it in another
buffer.  This is the usual way to move text from one file to another.
(*Note Accumulating Text::, for some other ways.)

   The command `C-y' (`yank') reinserts the text of the most recent
kill.  It leaves the cursor at the end of the text.  It sets the mark at
the beginning of the text.  *Note Mark::.

   `C-u C-y' leaves the cursor in front of the text, and sets the mark
after it.  This happens only if the argument is specified with just a
`C-u', precisely.  Any other sort of argument, including `C-u' and
digits, specifies an earlier kill to yank (*note Earlier Kills::).

   The yank commands discard certain text properties from the text that
is yanked, those that might lead to annoying results.  For instance,
they discard text properties that respond to the mouse or specify key
bindings.  The variable `yank-excluded-properties' specifies the
properties to discard.  Yanking of register contents and rectangles
also discard these properties.

   To copy a block of text, you can use `M-w' (`kill-ring-save'), which
copies the region into the kill ring without removing it from the
buffer.  This is approximately equivalent to `C-w' followed by `C-x u',
except that `M-w' does not alter the undo history and does not
temporarily change the screen.


File: emacs,  Node: Appending Kills,  Next: Earlier Kills,  Prev: Kill Ring,  Up: Yanking

14.2 Appending Kills
====================

Normally, each kill command pushes a new entry onto the kill ring.
However, two or more kill commands in a row combine their text into a
single entry, so that a single `C-y' yanks all the text as a unit, just
as it was before it was killed.

   Thus, if you want to yank text as a unit, you need not kill all of it
with one command; you can keep killing line after line, or word after
word, until you have killed it all, and you can still get it all back at
once.

   Commands that kill forward from point add onto the end of the
previous killed text.  Commands that kill backward from point add text
onto the beginning.  This way, any sequence of mixed forward and
backward kill commands puts all the killed text into one entry without
rearrangement.  Numeric arguments do not break the sequence of
appending kills.  For example, suppose the buffer contains this text:

     This is a line -!-of sample text.

with point shown by -!-.  If you type `M-d M-<DEL> M-d M-<DEL>',
killing alternately forward and backward, you end up with `a line of
sample' as one entry in the kill ring, and `This is  text.' in the
buffer.  (Note the double space between `is' and `text', which you can
clean up with `M-<SPC>' or `M-q'.)

   Another way to kill the same text is to move back two words with
`M-b M-b', then kill all four words forward with `C-u M-d'.  This
produces exactly the same results in the buffer and in the kill ring.
`M-f M-f C-u M-<DEL>' kills the same text, all going backward; once
again, the result is the same.  The text in the kill ring entry always
has the same order that it had in the buffer before you killed it.

   If a kill command is separated from the last kill command by other
commands (not just numeric arguments), it starts a new entry on the kill
ring.  But you can force it to append by first typing the command
`C-M-w' (`append-next-kill') right before it.  The `C-M-w' tells the
following command, if it is a kill command, to append the text it kills
to the last killed text, instead of starting a new entry.  With
`C-M-w', you can kill several separated pieces of text and accumulate
them to be yanked back in one place.

   A kill command following `M-w' does not append to the text that
`M-w' copied into the kill ring.


File: emacs,  Node: Earlier Kills,  Prev: Appending Kills,  Up: Yanking

14.3 Yanking Earlier Kills
==========================

To recover killed text that is no longer the most recent kill, use the
`M-y' command (`yank-pop').  It takes the text previously yanked and
replaces it with the text from an earlier kill.  So, to recover the
text of the next-to-the-last kill, first use `C-y' to yank the last
kill, and then use `M-y' to replace it with the previous kill.  `M-y'
is allowed only after a `C-y' or another `M-y'.

   You can understand `M-y' in terms of a "last yank" pointer which
points at an entry in the kill ring.  Each time you kill, the "last
yank" pointer moves to the newly made entry at the front of the ring.
`C-y' yanks the entry which the "last yank" pointer points to.  `M-y'
moves the "last yank" pointer to a different entry, and the text in the
buffer changes to match.  Enough `M-y' commands can move the pointer to
any entry in the ring, so you can get any entry into the buffer.
Eventually the pointer reaches the end of the ring; the next `M-y'
loops back around to the first entry again.

   `M-y' moves the "last yank" pointer around the ring, but it does not
change the order of the entries in the ring, which always runs from the
most recent kill at the front to the oldest one still remembered.

   `M-y' can take a numeric argument, which tells it how many entries
to advance the "last yank" pointer by.  A negative argument moves the
pointer toward the front of the ring; from the front of the ring, it
moves "around" to the last entry and continues forward from there.

   Once the text you are looking for is brought into the buffer, you can
stop doing `M-y' commands and it will stay there.  It's just a copy of
the kill ring entry, so editing it in the buffer does not change what's
in the ring.  As long as no new killing is done, the "last yank"
pointer remains at the same place in the kill ring, so repeating `C-y'
will yank another copy of the same previous kill.

   If you know how many `M-y' commands it would take to find the text
you want, you can yank that text in one step using `C-y' with a numeric
argument.  `C-y' with an argument restores the text from the specified
kill ring entry, counting back from the most recent as 1.  Thus, `C-u 2
C-y' gets the next-to-the-last block of killed text--it is equivalent
to `C-y M-y'.  `C-y' with a numeric argument starts counting from the
"last yank" pointer, and sets the "last yank" pointer to the entry that
it yanks.

   The length of the kill ring is controlled by the variable
`kill-ring-max'; no more than that many blocks of killed text are saved.

   The actual contents of the kill ring are stored in a variable named
`kill-ring'; you can view the entire contents of the kill ring with the
command `C-h v kill-ring'.


File: emacs,  Node: Accumulating Text,  Next: Rectangles,  Prev: Yanking,  Up: Top

15 Accumulating Text
********************

Usually we copy or move text by killing it and yanking it, but there
are other convenient methods for copying one block of text in many
places, or for copying many scattered blocks of text into one place.  To
copy one block to many places, store it in a register (*note
Registers::).  Here we describe the commands to accumulate scattered
pieces of text into a buffer or into a file.

`M-x append-to-buffer'
     Append region to the contents of a specified buffer.

`M-x prepend-to-buffer'
     Prepend region to the contents of a specified buffer.

`M-x copy-to-buffer'
     Copy region into a specified buffer, deleting that buffer's old
     contents.

`M-x insert-buffer'
     Insert the contents of a specified buffer into current buffer at
     point.

`M-x append-to-file'
     Append region to the contents of a specified file, at the end.

   To accumulate text into a buffer, use `M-x append-to-buffer'.  This
reads a buffer name, then inserts a copy of the region into the buffer
specified.  If you specify a nonexistent buffer, `append-to-buffer'
creates the buffer.  The text is inserted wherever point is in that
buffer.  If you have been using the buffer for editing, the copied text
goes into the middle of the text of the buffer, starting from wherever
point happens to be at that moment.

   Point in that buffer is left at the end of the copied text, so
successive uses of `append-to-buffer' accumulate the text in the
specified buffer in the same order as they were copied.  Strictly
speaking, `append-to-buffer' does not always append to the text already
in the buffer--it appends only if point in that buffer is at the end.
However, if `append-to-buffer' is the only command you use to alter a
buffer, then point is always at the end.

   `M-x prepend-to-buffer' is just like `append-to-buffer' except that
point in the other buffer is left before the copied text, so successive
prependings add text in reverse order.  `M-x copy-to-buffer' is
similar, except that any existing text in the other buffer is deleted,
so the buffer is left containing just the text newly copied into it.

   To retrieve the accumulated text from another buffer, use the
command `M-x insert-buffer'; this too takes BUFFERNAME as an argument.
It inserts a copy of the whole text in buffer BUFFERNAME into the
current buffer at point, and sets the mark after the inserted text.
Alternatively, you can select the other buffer for editing, then copy
text from it by killing.  *Note Buffers::, for background information
on buffers.

   Instead of accumulating text within Emacs, in a buffer, you can
append text directly into a file with `M-x append-to-file', which takes
FILENAME as an argument.  It adds the text of the region to the end of
the specified file.  The file is changed immediately on disk.

   You should use `append-to-file' only with files that are _not_ being
visited in Emacs.  Using it on a file that you are editing in Emacs
would change the file behind Emacs's back, which can lead to losing
some of your editing.


File: emacs,  Node: Rectangles,  Next: CUA Bindings,  Prev: Accumulating Text,  Up: Top

16 Rectangles
*************

The rectangle commands operate on rectangular areas of the text: all
the characters between a certain pair of columns, in a certain range of
lines.  Commands are provided to kill rectangles, yank killed
rectangles, clear them out, fill them with blanks or text, or delete
them.  Rectangle commands are useful with text in multicolumn formats,
and for changing text into or out of such formats.

   When you must specify a rectangle for a command to work on, you do it
by putting the mark at one corner and point at the opposite corner.  The
rectangle thus specified is called the "region-rectangle" because you
control it in much the same way as the region is controlled.  But
remember that a given combination of point and mark values can be
interpreted either as a region or as a rectangle, depending on the
command that uses them.

   If point and the mark are in the same column, the rectangle they
delimit is empty.  If they are in the same line, the rectangle is one
line high.  This asymmetry between lines and columns comes about
because point (and likewise the mark) is between two columns, but within
a line.

`C-x r k'
     Kill the text of the region-rectangle, saving its contents as the
     "last killed rectangle" (`kill-rectangle').

`C-x r d'
     Delete the text of the region-rectangle (`delete-rectangle').

`C-x r y'
     Yank the last killed rectangle with its upper left corner at point
     (`yank-rectangle').

`C-x r o'
     Insert blank space to fill the space of the region-rectangle
     (`open-rectangle').  This pushes the previous contents of the
     region-rectangle rightward.

`C-x r c'
     Clear the region-rectangle by replacing all of its contents with
     spaces (`clear-rectangle').

`M-x delete-whitespace-rectangle'
     Delete whitespace in each of the lines on the specified rectangle,
     starting from the left edge column of the rectangle.

`C-x r t STRING <RET>'
     Replace rectangle contents with STRING on each line
     (`string-rectangle').

`M-x string-insert-rectangle <RET> STRING <RET>'
     Insert STRING on each line of the rectangle.

   The rectangle operations fall into two classes: commands for
deleting and inserting rectangles, and commands for blank rectangles.

   There are two ways to get rid of the text in a rectangle: you can
discard the text (delete it) or save it as the "last killed" rectangle.
The commands for these two ways are `C-x r d' (`delete-rectangle') and
`C-x r k' (`kill-rectangle').  In either case, the portion of each line
that falls inside the rectangle's boundaries is deleted, causing any
following text on the line to move left into the gap.

   Note that "killing" a rectangle is not killing in the usual sense;
the rectangle is not stored in the kill ring, but in a special place
that can only record the most recent rectangle killed.  This is because
yanking a rectangle is so different from yanking linear text that
different yank commands have to be used.  It is hard to define
yank-popping for rectangles, so we do not try.

   To yank the last killed rectangle, type `C-x r y'
(`yank-rectangle').  Yanking a rectangle is the opposite of killing
one.  Point specifies where to put the rectangle's upper left corner.
The rectangle's first line is inserted there, the rectangle's second
line is inserted at the same horizontal position, but one line
vertically down, and so on.  The number of lines affected is determined
by the height of the saved rectangle.

   You can convert single-column lists into double-column lists using
rectangle killing and yanking; kill the second half of the list as a
rectangle and then yank it beside the first line of the list.  *Note
Two-Column::, for another way to edit multi-column text.

   You can also copy rectangles into and out of registers with `C-x r r
R' and `C-x r i R'.  *Note Rectangle Registers: RegRect.

   There are two commands you can use for making blank rectangles: `C-x
r c' (`clear-rectangle') which blanks out existing text, and `C-x r o'
(`open-rectangle') which inserts a blank rectangle.  Clearing a
rectangle is equivalent to deleting it and then inserting a blank
rectangle of the same size.

   The command `M-x delete-whitespace-rectangle' deletes horizontal
whitespace starting from a particular column.  This applies to each of
the lines in the rectangle, and the column is specified by the left
edge of the rectangle.  The right edge of the rectangle does not make
any difference to this command.

   The command `C-x r t' (`string-rectangle') replaces the contents of
a region-rectangle with a string on each line.  The string's width need
not be the same as the width of the rectangle.  If the string's width
is less, the text after the rectangle shifts left; if the string is
wider than the rectangle, the text after the rectangle shifts right.

   The command `M-x string-insert-rectangle' is similar to
`string-rectangle', but inserts the string on each line, shifting the
original text to the right.


File: emacs,  Node: CUA Bindings,  Next: Registers,  Prev: Rectangles,  Up: Top

17 CUA Bindings
***************

The command `M-x cua-mode' sets up key bindings that are compatible
with the Common User Access (CUA) system used in many other
applications.  `C-x' means cut (kill), `C-c' copy, `C-v' paste (yank),
and `C-z' undo.  Standard Emacs commands like `C-x C-c' still work,
because `C-x' and `C-c' only take effect when the mark is active (and
the region is highlighted).  However, if you don't want to override
these bindings in Emacs at all, set `cua-enable-cua-keys' to `nil'.

   In CUA mode, using `Shift' together with the movement keys activates
and highlights the region over which they move.  The standard
(unshifted) movement keys deactivate the mark, and typed text replaces
the active region as in Delete-Selection mode (*note Mouse Commands::).

   To enter an Emacs command like `C-x C-f' while the mark is active,
use one of the following methods: either hold `Shift' together with the
prefix key, e.g. `S-C-x C-f', or quickly type the prefix key twice,
e.g. `C-x C-x C-f'.

   CUA mode provides enhanced rectangle support with visible rectangle
highlighting.  Use `C-RET' to start a rectangle, extend it using the
movement commands, and cut or copy it using `C-x' or `C-c'.  `RET'
moves the cursor to the next (clockwise) corner of the rectangle, so
you can easily expand it in any direction.  Normal text you type is
inserted to the left or right of each line in the rectangle (on the
same side as the cursor).

   With CUA you can easily copy text and rectangles into and out of
registers by providing a one-digit numeric prefix to the kill, copy,
and yank commands, e.g. `C-1 C-c' copies the region into register `1',
and `C-2 C-v' yanks the contents of register `2'.

   CUA mode also has a global mark feature which allows easy moving and
copying of text between buffers.  Use `C-S-SPC' to toggle the global
mark on and off.  When the global mark is on, all text that you kill or
copy is automatically inserted at the global mark, and text you type is
inserted at the global mark rather than at the current position.

   For example, to copy words from various buffers into a word list in
a given buffer, set the global mark in the target buffer, then navigate
to each of the words you want in the list, mark it (e.g. with `S-M-f'),
copy it to the list with `C-c' or `M-w', and insert a newline after the
word in the target list by pressing <RET>.


File: emacs,  Node: Registers,  Next: Display,  Prev: CUA Bindings,  Up: Top

18 Registers
************

Emacs "registers" are compartments where you can save text, rectangles,
positions, and other things for later use.  Once you save text or a
rectangle in a register, you can copy it into the buffer once, or many
times; you can move point to a position saved in a register once, or
many times.

   Each register has a name, which consists of a single character.  A
register can store a number, a piece of text, a rectangle, a position,
a window configuration, or a file name, but only one thing at any given
time.  Whatever you store in a register remains there until you store
something else in that register.  To see what a register R contains,
use `M-x view-register'.

`M-x view-register <RET> R'
     Display a description of what register R contains.

   "Bookmarks" record files and positions in them, so you can return to
those positions when you look at the file again.  Bookmarks are similar
enough in spirit to registers that they seem to belong in this chapter.

* Menu:

* Position: RegPos.           Saving positions in registers.
* Text: RegText.              Saving text in registers.
* Rectangle: RegRect.         Saving rectangles in registers.
* Configurations: RegConfig.  Saving window configurations in registers.
* Numbers: RegNumbers.        Numbers in registers.
* Files: RegFiles.            File names in registers.
* Bookmarks::                 Bookmarks are like registers, but persistent.


File: emacs,  Node: RegPos,  Next: RegText,  Up: Registers

18.1 Saving Positions in Registers
==================================

Saving a position records a place in a buffer so that you can move back
there later.  Moving to a saved position switches to that buffer and
moves point to that place in it.

`C-x r <SPC> R'
     Save position of point in register R (`point-to-register').

`C-x r j R'
     Jump to the position saved in register R (`jump-to-register').

   To save the current position of point in a register, choose a name R
and type `C-x r <SPC> R'.  The register R retains the position thus
saved until you store something else in that register.

   The command `C-x r j R' moves point to the position recorded in
register R.  The register is not affected; it continues to hold the
same position.  You can jump to the saved position any number of times.

   If you use `C-x r j' to go to a saved position, but the buffer it
was saved from has been killed, `C-x r j' tries to create the buffer
again by visiting the same file.  Of course, this works only for buffers
that were visiting files.


File: emacs,  Node: RegText,  Next: RegRect,  Prev: RegPos,  Up: Registers

18.2 Saving Text in Registers
=============================

When you want to insert a copy of the same piece of text several times,
it may be inconvenient to yank it from the kill ring, since each
subsequent kill moves that entry further down the ring.  An alternative
is to store the text in a register and later retrieve it.

`C-x r s R'
     Copy region into register R (`copy-to-register').

`C-x r i R'
     Insert text from register R (`insert-register').

`M-x append-to-register <RET> R'
     Append region to text in register R.

`M-x prepend-to-register <RET> R'
     Prepend region to text in register R.

   `C-x r s R' stores a copy of the text of the region into the
register named R.  `C-u C-x r s R', the same command with a numeric
argument, deletes the text from the buffer as well; you can think of
this as "moving" the region text into the register.

   `M-x append-to-register <RET> R' appends the copy of the text in the
region to the text already stored in the register named R.  If invoked
with a numeric argument, it deletes the region after appending it to
the register.  The command `prepend-to-register' is similar, except
that it _prepends_ the region text to the text in the register, rather
than _appending_ it.

   `C-x r i R' inserts in the buffer the text from register R.
Normally it leaves point before the text and places the mark after, but
with a numeric argument (`C-u') it puts point after the text and the
mark before.


File: emacs,  Node: RegRect,  Next: RegConfig,  Prev: RegText,  Up: Registers

18.3 Saving Rectangles in Registers
===================================

A register can contain a rectangle instead of linear text.  The
rectangle is represented as a list of strings.  *Note Rectangles::, for
basic information on how to specify a rectangle in the buffer.

`C-x r r R'
     Copy the region-rectangle into register R
     (`copy-rectangle-to-register').  With numeric argument, delete it
     as well.

`C-x r i R'
     Insert the rectangle stored in register R (if it contains a
     rectangle) (`insert-register').

   The `C-x r i R' command inserts a text string if the register
contains one, and inserts a rectangle if the register contains one.

   See also the command `sort-columns', which you can think of as
sorting a rectangle.  *Note Sorting::.


File: emacs,  Node: RegConfig,  Next: RegNumbers,  Prev: RegRect,  Up: Registers

18.4 Saving Window Configurations in Registers
==============================================

You can save the window configuration of the selected frame in a
register, or even the configuration of all windows in all frames, and
restore the configuration later.

`C-x r w R'
     Save the state of the selected frame's windows in register R
     (`window-configuration-to-register').

`C-x r f R'
     Save the state of all frames, including all their windows, in
     register R (`frame-configuration-to-register').

   Use `C-x r j R' to restore a window or frame configuration.  This is
the same command used to restore a cursor position.  When you restore a
frame configuration, any existing frames not included in the
configuration become invisible.  If you wish to delete these frames
instead, use `C-u C-x r j R'.


File: emacs,  Node: RegNumbers,  Next: RegFiles,  Prev: RegConfig,  Up: Registers

18.5 Keeping Numbers in Registers
=================================

There are commands to store a number in a register, to insert the
number in the buffer in decimal, and to increment it.  These commands
can be useful in keyboard macros (*note Keyboard Macros::).

`C-u NUMBER C-x r n R'
     Store NUMBER into register R (`number-to-register').

`C-u NUMBER C-x r + R'
     Increment the number in register R by NUMBER
     (`increment-register').

`C-x r i R'
     Insert the number from register R into the buffer.

   `C-x r i' is the same command used to insert any other sort of
register contents into the buffer.  `C-x r +' with no numeric argument
increments the register value by 1; `C-x r n' with no numeric argument
stores zero in the register.


File: emacs,  Node: RegFiles,  Next: Bookmarks,  Prev: RegNumbers,  Up: Registers

18.6 Keeping File Names in Registers
====================================

If you visit certain file names frequently, you can visit them more
conveniently if you put their names in registers.  Here's the Lisp code
used to put a file name in a register:

     (set-register ?R '(file . NAME))

For example,

     (set-register ?z '(file . "/gd/gnu/emacs/19.0/src/ChangeLog"))

puts the file name shown in register `z'.

   To visit the file whose name is in register R, type `C-x r j R'.
(This is the same command used to jump to a position or restore a frame
configuration.)


File: emacs,  Node: Bookmarks,  Prev: RegFiles,  Up: Registers

18.7 Bookmarks
==============

"Bookmarks" are somewhat like registers in that they record positions
you can jump to.  Unlike registers, they have long names, and they
persist automatically from one Emacs session to the next.  The
prototypical use of bookmarks is to record "where you were reading" in
various files.

`C-x r m <RET>'
     Set the bookmark for the visited file, at point.

`C-x r m BOOKMARK <RET>'
     Set the bookmark named BOOKMARK at point (`bookmark-set').

`C-x r b BOOKMARK <RET>'
     Jump to the bookmark named BOOKMARK (`bookmark-jump').

`C-x r l'
     List all bookmarks (`list-bookmarks').

`M-x bookmark-save'
     Save all the current bookmark values in the default bookmark file.

   The prototypical use for bookmarks is to record one current position
in each of several files.  So the command `C-x r m', which sets a
bookmark, uses the visited file name as the default for the bookmark
name.  If you name each bookmark after the file it points to, then you
can conveniently revisit any of those files with `C-x r b', and move to
the position of the bookmark at the same time.

   To display a list of all your bookmarks in a separate buffer, type
`C-x r l' (`list-bookmarks').  If you switch to that buffer, you can
use it to edit your bookmark definitions or annotate the bookmarks.
Type `C-h m' in the bookmark buffer for more information about its
special editing commands.

   When you kill Emacs, Emacs offers to save your bookmark values in
your default bookmark file, `~/.emacs.bmk', if you have changed any
bookmark values.  You can also save the bookmarks at any time with the
`M-x bookmark-save' command.  The bookmark commands load your default
bookmark file automatically.  This saving and loading is how bookmarks
persist from one Emacs session to the next.

   If you set the variable `bookmark-save-flag' to 1, then each command
that sets a bookmark will also save your bookmarks; this way, you don't
lose any bookmark values even if Emacs crashes.  (The value, if a
number, says how many bookmark modifications should go by between
saving.)

   Bookmark position values are saved with surrounding context, so that
`bookmark-jump' can find the proper position even if the file is
modified slightly.  The variable `bookmark-search-size' says how many
characters of context to record on each side of the bookmark's position.

   Here are some additional commands for working with bookmarks:

`M-x bookmark-load <RET> FILENAME <RET>'
     Load a file named FILENAME that contains a list of bookmark
     values.  You can use this command, as well as `bookmark-write', to
     work with other files of bookmark values in addition to your
     default bookmark file.

`M-x bookmark-write <RET> FILENAME <RET>'
     Save all the current bookmark values in the file FILENAME.

`M-x bookmark-delete <RET> BOOKMARK <RET>'
     Delete the bookmark named BOOKMARK.

`M-x bookmark-insert-location <RET> BOOKMARK <RET>'
     Insert in the buffer the name of the file that bookmark BOOKMARK
     points to.

`M-x bookmark-insert <RET> BOOKMARK <RET>'
     Insert in the buffer the _contents_ of the file that bookmark
     BOOKMARK points to.


File: emacs,  Node: Display,  Next: Search,  Prev: Registers,  Up: Top

19 Controlling the Display
**************************

Since only part of a large buffer fits in the window, Emacs tries to
show a part that is likely to be interesting.  Display-control commands
allow you to specify which part of the text you want to see, and how to
display it.  Many variables also affect the details of redisplay.
Unless otherwise stated, the variables described in this chapter have
their effect by customizing redisplay itself; therefore, their values
only make a difference at the time of redisplay.

* Menu:

* Scrolling::	           Commands to move text up and down in a window.
* Auto Scrolling::         Redisplay scrolls text automatically when needed.
* Horizontal Scrolling::   Moving text left and right in a window.
* Follow Mode::            Follow mode lets two windows scroll as one.
* Faces::	           How to change the display style using faces.
* Standard Faces::         Emacs' predefined faces.
* Font Lock::              Minor mode for syntactic highlighting using faces.
* Highlight Interactively:: Tell Emacs what text to highlight.
* Fringes::                Enabling or disabling window fringes.
* Displaying Boundaries::  Displaying top and bottom of the buffer.
* Useless Whitespace::     Showing possibly-spurious trailing whitespace.
* Selective Display::      Hiding lines with lots of indentation.
* Optional Mode Line::     Optional mode line display features.
* Text Display::           How text characters are normally displayed.
* Cursor Display::         Features for displaying the cursor.
* Line Truncation::        Truncating lines to fit the screen width instead
                             of continuing them to multiple screen lines.
* Display Custom::         Information on variables for customizing display.


File: emacs,  Node: Scrolling,  Next: Auto Scrolling,  Up: Display

19.1 Scrolling
==============

If a buffer contains text that is too large to fit entirely within a
window that is displaying the buffer, Emacs shows a contiguous portion
of the text.  The portion shown always contains point.

   "Scrolling" means moving text up or down in the window so that
different parts of the text are visible.  Scrolling "forward" or "up"
means that text moves up, and new text appears at the bottom.
Scrolling "backward" or "down" moves text down, and new text appears at
the top.

   Scrolling happens automatically if you move point past the bottom or
top of the window.  You can also scroll explicitly with the commands in
this section.

`C-l'
     Clear screen and redisplay, scrolling the selected window to center
     point vertically within it (`recenter').

`C-v'
     Scroll forward (a windowful or a specified number of lines)
     (`scroll-up').

`<NEXT>'
`<PAGEDOWN>'
     Likewise, scroll forward.

`M-v'
     Scroll backward (`scroll-down').

`<PRIOR>'
`<PAGEUP>'
     Likewise, scroll backward.

`ARG C-l'
     Scroll so point is on line ARG (`recenter').

`C-M-l'
     Scroll heuristically to bring useful information onto the screen
     (`reposition-window').

   The most basic scrolling command is `C-l' (`recenter') with no
argument.  It scrolls the selected window so that point is halfway down
from the top of the window.  On a text terminal, it also clears the
screen and redisplays all windows.  That is useful in case the screen
is garbled (*note Screen Garbled::).

   To read the buffer a windowful at a time, use `C-v' (`scroll-up')
with no argument.  This scrolls forward by nearly the whole window
height.  The effect is to take the two lines at the bottom of the
window and put them at the top, followed by nearly a whole windowful of
lines that were not previously visible.  If point was in the text that
scrolled off the top, it ends up at the new top of the window.

   `M-v' (`scroll-down') with no argument scrolls backward in a similar
way, also with overlap.  The number of lines of overlap that the `C-v'
or `M-v' commands leave is controlled by the variable
`next-screen-context-lines'; by default, it is 2.  The function keys
<NEXT> and <PRIOR>, or <PAGEDOWN> and <PAGEUP>, are equivalent to `C-v'
and `M-v'.

   The commands `C-v' and `M-v' with a numeric argument scroll the text
in the selected window up or down a few lines.  `C-v' with an argument
moves the text and point up, together, that many lines; it brings the
same number of new lines into view at the bottom of the window.  `M-v'
with numeric argument scrolls the text downward, bringing that many new
lines into view at the top of the window.  `C-v' with a negative
argument is like `M-v' and vice versa.

   The names of scroll commands are based on the direction that the
text moves in the window.  Thus, the command to scroll forward is
called `scroll-up' because it moves the text upward on the screen.  The
keys <PAGEDOWN> and <PAGEUP> derive their names and customary meanings
from a different convention that developed elsewhere; hence the strange
result that <PAGEDOWN> runs `scroll-up'.

   Some users like the full-screen scroll commands to keep point at the
same screen line.  To enable this behavior, set the variable
`scroll-preserve-screen-position' to a non-`nil' value.  In this mode,
when these commands would scroll the text around point off the screen,
or within `scroll-margin' lines of the edge, they move point to keep
the same vertical position within the window.  This mode is convenient
for browsing through a file by scrolling by screenfuls; if you come
back to the screen where you started, point goes back to the line where
it started.  However, this mode is inconvenient when you move to the
next screen in order to move point to the text there.

   Another way to do scrolling is with `C-l' with a numeric argument.
`C-l' does not clear the screen when given an argument; it only scrolls
the selected window.  With a positive argument N, it repositions text
to put point N lines down from the top.  An argument of zero puts point
on the very top line.  Point does not move with respect to the text;
rather, the text and point move rigidly on the screen.  `C-l' with a
negative argument puts point that many lines from the bottom of the
window.  For example, `C-u - 1 C-l' puts point on the bottom line, and
`C-u - 5 C-l' puts it five lines from the bottom.  `C-u C-l' scrolls to
put point at the center (vertically) of the selected window.

   The `C-M-l' command (`reposition-window') scrolls the current window
heuristically in a way designed to get useful information onto the
screen.  For example, in a Lisp file, this command tries to get the
entire current defun onto the screen if possible.


File: emacs,  Node: Auto Scrolling,  Next: Horizontal Scrolling,  Prev: Scrolling,  Up: Display

19.2 Automatic Scrolling
========================

Redisplay scrolls the buffer automatically when point moves out of the
visible portion of the text.  The purpose of automatic scrolling is to
make point visible, but you can customize many aspects of how this is
done.

   Normally, automatic scrolling centers point vertically within the
window.  However, if you set `scroll-conservatively' to a small number
N, then if you move point just a little off the screen--less than N
lines--then Emacs scrolls the text just far enough to bring point back
on screen.  By default, `scroll-conservatively' is 0.

   When the window does scroll by a longer distance, you can control
how aggressively it scrolls, by setting the variables
`scroll-up-aggressively' and `scroll-down-aggressively'.  The value of
`scroll-up-aggressively' should be either `nil', or a fraction F
between 0 and 1.  A fraction specifies where on the screen to put point
when scrolling upward.  More precisely, when a window scrolls up
because point is above the window start, the new start position is
chosen to put point F part of the window height from the top.  The
larger F, the more aggressive the scrolling.

   `nil', which is the default, scrolls to put point at the center.  So
it is equivalent to .5.

   Likewise, `scroll-down-aggressively' is used for scrolling down.
The value, F, specifies how far point should be placed from the bottom
of the window; thus, as with `scroll-up-aggressively', a larger value
is more aggressive.

   The variable `scroll-margin' restricts how close point can come to
the top or bottom of a window.  Its value is a number of screen lines;
if point comes within that many lines of the top or bottom of the
window, Emacs recenters the window.  By default, `scroll-margin' is 0.


File: emacs,  Node: Horizontal Scrolling,  Next: Follow Mode,  Prev: Auto Scrolling,  Up: Display

19.3 Horizontal Scrolling
=========================

"Horizontal scrolling" means shifting all the lines sideways within a
window--so that some of the text near the left margin is not displayed
at all.  When the text in a window is scrolled horizontally, text lines
are truncated rather than continued (*note Line Truncation::).
Whenever a window shows truncated lines, Emacs automatically updates
its horizontal scrolling whenever point moves off the left or right
edge of the screen.  You can also use these commands to do explicit
horizontal scrolling.

`C-x <'
     Scroll text in current window to the left (`scroll-left').

`C-x >'
     Scroll to the right (`scroll-right').

   The command `C-x <' (`scroll-left') scrolls the selected window to
the left by N columns with argument N.  This moves part of the
beginning of each line off the left edge of the window.  With no
argument, it scrolls by almost the full width of the window (two
columns less, to be precise).

   `C-x >' (`scroll-right') scrolls similarly to the right.  The window
cannot be scrolled any farther to the right once it is displayed
normally (with each line starting at the window's left margin);
attempting to do so has no effect.  This means that you don't have to
calculate the argument precisely for `C-x >'; any sufficiently large
argument will restore the normal display.

   If you use those commands to scroll a window horizontally, that sets
a lower bound for automatic horizontal scrolling.  Automatic scrolling
will continue to scroll the window, but never farther to the right than
the amount you previously set by `scroll-left'.

   The value of the variable `hscroll-margin' controls how close to the
window's edges point is allowed to get before the window will be
automatically scrolled.  It is measured in columns.  If the value is 5,
then moving point within 5 columns of the edge causes horizontal
scrolling away from that edge.

   The variable `hscroll-step' determines how many columns to scroll
the window when point gets too close to the edge.  If it's zero,
horizontal scrolling centers point horizontally within the window.  If
it's a positive integer, it specifies the number of columns to scroll
by.  If it's a floating-point number, it specifies the fraction of the
window's width to scroll by.  The default is zero.

   To disable automatic horizontal scrolling, set the variable
`auto-hscroll-mode' to `nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: Follow Mode,  Next: Faces,  Prev: Horizontal Scrolling,  Up: Display

19.4 Follow Mode
================

"Follow mode" is a minor mode that makes two windows, both showing the
same buffer, scroll as a single tall "virtual window."  To use Follow
mode, go to a frame with just one window, split it into two
side-by-side windows using `C-x 3', and then type `M-x follow-mode'.
From then on, you can edit the buffer in either of the two windows, or
scroll either one; the other window follows it.

   In Follow mode, if you move point outside the portion visible in one
window and into the portion visible in the other window, that selects
the other window--again, treating the two as if they were parts of one
large window.

   To turn off Follow mode, type `M-x follow-mode' a second time.


File: emacs,  Node: Faces,  Next: Standard Faces,  Prev: Follow Mode,  Up: Display

19.5 Using Multiple Typefaces
=============================

You can specify various styles for displaying text using "faces".  Each
face can specify various "face attributes", such as the font family,
the height, weight and slant of the characters, the foreground and
background color, and underlining or overlining.  A face does not have
to specify all of these attributes; often it inherits most of them from
another face.

   On graphical display, all the Emacs face attributes are meaningful.
On a text-only terminal, only some of them work.  Some text-only
terminals support inverse video, bold, and underline attributes; some
support colors.  Text-only terminals generally do not support changing
the height and width or the font family.

   Emacs uses faces automatically for highlighting, through the work of
Font Lock mode.  *Note Font Lock::, for more information about Font
Lock mode and syntactic highlighting.  You can print out the buffer
with the highlighting that appears on your screen using the command
`ps-print-buffer-with-faces'.  *Note PostScript::.

   You control the appearance of a part of the text in the buffer by
specifying the face or faces to use for it.  The style of display used
for any given character is determined by combining the attributes of
all the applicable faces specified for that character.  Any attribute
that isn't specified by these faces is taken from the `default' face,
whose attributes reflect the default settings of the frame itself.

   Enriched mode, the mode for editing formatted text, includes several
commands and menus for specifying faces for text in the buffer.  *Note
Format Faces::, for how to specify the font for text in the buffer.
*Note Format Colors::, for how to specify the foreground and background
color.

   To alter the appearance of a face, use the customization buffer.
*Note Face Customization::.  You can also use X resources to specify
attributes of particular faces (*note Resources::).  Alternatively, you
can change the foreground and background colors of a specific face with
`M-x set-face-foreground' and `M-x set-face-background'.  These
commands prompt in the minibuffer for a face name and a color name,
with completion, and then set that face to use the specified color.
Changing the colors of the `default' face also changes the foreground
and background colors on all frames, both existing and those to be
created in the future.  (You can also set foreground and background
colors for the current frame only; see *Note Frame Parameters::.)

   If you want to alter the appearance of all Emacs frames, you need to
customize the frame parameters in the variable `default-frame-alist';
see *Note default-frame-alist: Creating Frames.

   Emacs can correctly display variable-width fonts, but Emacs commands
that calculate width and indentation do not know how to calculate
variable widths.  This can sometimes lead to incorrect results when you
use variable-width fonts.  In particular, indentation commands can give
inconsistent results, so we recommend you avoid variable-width fonts
for editing program source code.  Filling will sometimes make lines too
long or too short.  We plan to address these issues in future Emacs
versions.


File: emacs,  Node: Standard Faces,  Next: Font Lock,  Prev: Faces,  Up: Display

19.6 Standard Faces
===================

To see what faces are currently defined, and what they look like, type
`M-x list-faces-display'.  It's possible for a given face to look
different in different frames; this command shows the appearance in the
frame in which you type it.  With a prefix argument, this prompts for a
regular expression, and displays only faces with names matching that
regular expression.

   Here are the standard faces for specifying text appearance.  You can
apply them to specific text when you want the effects they produce.

`default'
     This face is used for ordinary text that doesn't specify any face.

`bold'
     This face uses a bold variant of the default font, if it has one.
     It's up to you to choose a default font that has a bold variant,
     if you want to use one.

`italic'
     This face uses an italic variant of the default font, if it has
     one.

`bold-italic'
     This face uses a bold italic variant of the default font, if it
     has one.

`underline'
     This face underlines text.

`fixed-pitch'
     This face forces use of a particular fixed-width font.

`variable-pitch'
     This face forces use of a particular variable-width font.  It's
     reasonable to customize this face to use a different
     variable-width font, if you like, but you should not make it a
     fixed-width font.

`shadow'
     This face is used for making the text less noticeable than the
     surrounding ordinary text.  Usually this can be achieved by using
     shades of gray in contrast with either black or white default
     foreground color.

   Here's an incomplete list of faces used to highlight parts of the
text temporarily for specific purposes.  (Many other modes define their
own faces for this purpose.)

`highlight'
     This face is used for highlighting portions of text, in various
     modes.  For example, mouse-sensitive text is highlighted using
     this face.

`isearch'
     This face is used for highlighting the current Isearch match.

`query-replace'
     This face is used for highlighting the current Query Replace match.

`lazy-highlight'
     This face is used for lazy highlighting of Isearch and Query
     Replace matches other than the current one.

`region'
     This face is used for displaying a selected region (when Transient
     Mark mode is enabled--see below).

`secondary-selection'
     This face is used for displaying a secondary X selection (*note
     Secondary Selection::).

`trailing-whitespace'
     The face for highlighting excess spaces and tabs at the end of a
     line when `show-trailing-whitespace' is non-`nil'; see *Note
     Useless Whitespace::.

`nobreak-space'
     The face for displaying the character "nobreak space."

`escape-glyph'
     The face for highlighting the `\' or `^' that indicates a control
     character.  It's also used when `\' indicates a nobreak space or
     nobreak (soft) hyphen.

   When Transient Mark mode is enabled, the text of the region is
highlighted when the mark is active.  This uses the face named
`region'; you can control the style of highlighting by changing the
style of this face (*note Face Customization::).  *Note Transient
Mark::, for more information about Transient Mark mode and activation
and deactivation of the mark.

   These faces control the appearance of parts of the Emacs frame.
They exist as faces to provide a consistent way to customize the
appearance of these parts of the frame.

`mode-line'
`modeline'
     This face is used for the mode line of the currently selected
     window, and for menu bars when toolkit menus are not used.  By
     default, it's drawn with shadows for a "raised" effect on
     graphical displays, and drawn as the inverse of the default face
     on non-windowed terminals.  `modeline' is an alias for the
     `mode-line' face, for compatibility with old Emacs versions.

`mode-line-inactive'
     Like `mode-line', but used for mode lines of the windows other
     than the selected one (if `mode-line-in-non-selected-windows' is
     non-`nil').  This face inherits from `mode-line', so changes in
     that face affect mode lines in all windows.

`mode-line-highlight'
     Like `highlight', but used for portions of text on mode lines.

`mode-line-buffer-id'
     This face is used for buffer identification parts in the mode line.

`header-line'
     Similar to `mode-line' for a window's header line, which appears
     at the top of a window just as the mode line appears at the bottom.
     Most windows do not have a header line--only some special modes,
     such Info mode, create one.

`vertical-border'
     This face is used for the vertical divider between windows.  By
     default this face inherits from the `mode-line-inactive' face on
     character terminals.  On graphical displays the foreground color of
     this face is used for the vertical line between windows without
     scrollbars.

`minibuffer-prompt'
     This face is used for the prompt strings displayed in the
     minibuffer.  By default, Emacs automatically adds this face to the
     value of `minibuffer-prompt-properties', which is a list of text
     properties used to display the prompt text.  (This variable takes
     effect when you enter the minibuffer.)

`fringe'
     The face for the fringes to the left and right of windows on
     graphic displays.  (The fringes are the narrow portions of the
     Emacs frame between the text area and the window's right and left
     borders.)  *Note Fringes::.

`scroll-bar'
     This face determines the visual appearance of the scroll bar.
     *Note Scroll Bars::.

`border'
     This face determines the color of the frame border.

`cursor'
     This face determines the color of the cursor.

`mouse'
     This face determines the color of the mouse pointer.

`tool-bar'
     This face determines the color of tool bar icons.  *Note Tool
     Bars::.

`tooltip'
     This face is used for tooltips.  *Note Tooltips::.

`menu'
     This face determines the colors and font of Emacs's menus.  *Note
     Menu Bars::.  Setting the font of LessTif/Motif menus is currently
     not supported; attempts to set the font are ignored in this case.
     Likewise, attempts to customize this face in Emacs built with GTK
     and in the MS-Windows/Mac ports are ignored by the respective GUI
     toolkits; you need to use system-wide styles and options to change
     the appearance of the menus.


File: emacs,  Node: Font Lock,  Next: Highlight Interactively,  Prev: Standard Faces,  Up: Display

19.7 Font Lock mode
===================

Font Lock mode is a minor mode, always local to a particular buffer,
which highlights (or "fontifies") the buffer contents according to the
syntax of the text you are editing.  It can recognize comments and
strings in most languages; in several languages, it can also recognize
and properly highlight various other important constructs--for example,
names of functions being defined or reserved keywords.  Some special
modes, such as Occur mode and Info mode, have completely specialized
ways of assigning fonts for Font Lock mode.

   Font Lock mode is turned on by default in all modes which support it.
You can toggle font-lock for each buffer with the command `M-x
font-lock-mode'.  Using a positive argument unconditionally turns Font
Lock mode on, and a negative or zero argument turns it off.

   If you do not wish Font Lock mode to be turned on by default,
customize the variable `global-font-lock-mode' using the Customize
interface (*note Easy Customization::), or use the function
`global-font-lock-mode' in your `.emacs' file, like this:

     (global-font-lock-mode 0)

This variable, like all the variables that control Font Lock mode, take
effect whenever fontification is done; that is, potentially at any time.

   If you have disabled Global Font Lock mode, you can still enable Font
Lock for specific major modes by adding the function
`turn-on-font-lock' to the mode hooks (*note Hooks::).  For example, to
enable Font Lock mode for editing C files, you can do this:

     (add-hook 'c-mode-hook 'turn-on-font-lock)

   Font Lock mode uses several specifically named faces to do its job,
including `font-lock-string-face', `font-lock-comment-face', and
others.  The easiest way to find them all is to use `M-x
customize-group <RET> font-lock-faces <RET>'.  You can then use that
customization buffer to customize the appearance of these faces.  *Note
Face Customization::.

   You can also customize these faces using `M-x set-face-foreground'
or `M-x set-face-background'.  *Note Faces::.

   The variable `font-lock-maximum-decoration' specifies the preferred
level of fontification, for modes that provide multiple levels.  Level
1 is the least amount of fontification; some modes support levels as
high as 3.  The normal default is "as high as possible."  You can
specify an integer, which applies to all modes, or you can specify
different numbers for particular major modes; for example, to use level
1 for C/C++ modes, and the default level otherwise, use this:

     (setq font-lock-maximum-decoration
           '((c-mode . 1) (c++-mode . 1)))

   Fontification can be too slow for large buffers, so you can suppress
it for buffers above a certain size.  The variable
`font-lock-maximum-size' specifies a buffer size, beyond which buffer
fontification is suppressed.

   Comment and string fontification (or "syntactic" fontification)
relies on analysis of the syntactic structure of the buffer text.  For
the sake of speed, some modes, including Lisp mode, rely on a special
convention: an open-parenthesis or open-brace in the leftmost column
always defines the beginning of a defun, and is thus always outside any
string or comment.  (*Note Left Margin Paren::.)  If you don't follow
this convention, Font Lock mode can misfontify the text that follows an
open-parenthesis or open-brace in the leftmost column that is inside a
string or comment.

   The variable `font-lock-beginning-of-syntax-function' (always
buffer-local) specifies how Font Lock mode can find a position
guaranteed to be outside any comment or string.  In modes which use the
leftmost column parenthesis convention, the default value of the
variable is `beginning-of-defun'--that tells Font Lock mode to use the
convention.  If you set this variable to `nil', Font Lock no longer
relies on the convention.  This avoids incorrect results, but the price
is that, in some cases, fontification for a changed text must rescan
buffer text from the beginning of the buffer.  This can considerably
slow down redisplay while scrolling, particularly if you are close to
the end of a large buffer.

   Font Lock highlighting patterns already exist for many modes, but you
may want to fontify additional patterns.  You can use the function
`font-lock-add-keywords', to add your own highlighting patterns for a
particular mode.  For example, to highlight `FIXME:' words in C
comments, use this:

     (font-lock-add-keywords
      'c-mode
      '(("\\<\\(FIXME\\):" 1 font-lock-warning-face t)))

   To remove keywords from the font-lock highlighting patterns, use the
function `font-lock-remove-keywords'.  *Note Search-based
Fontification: (elisp)Search-based Fontification, for documentation of
the format of this list.

   Fontifying large buffers can take a long time.  To avoid large
delays when a file is visited, Emacs fontifies only the visible portion
of a buffer.  As you scroll through the buffer, each portion that
becomes visible is fontified as soon as it is displayed.  The parts of
the buffer that are not displayed are fontified "stealthily," in the
background, i.e. when Emacs is idle.  You can control this background
fontification, also called "Just-In-Time" (or "JIT") Lock, by
customizing variables in the customization group `jit-lock'.  *Note
Specific Customization::.


File: emacs,  Node: Highlight Interactively,  Next: Fringes,  Prev: Font Lock,  Up: Display

19.8 Interactive Highlighting
=============================

Use `M-x highlight-changes-mode' to enable (or disable) Highlight
Changes mode, a minor mode that uses faces (colors, typically) to
indicate which parts of the buffer were changed most recently.

   Hi Lock mode highlights text that matches regular expressions you
specify.  For example, you might wish to see all the references to a
certain variable in a program source file, highlight certain parts in a
voluminous output of some program, or make certain names stand out in
an article.  Use the `M-x hi-lock-mode' command to enable (or disable)
Hi Lock mode.  To enable Hi Lock mode for all buffers, use `M-x
global-hi-lock-mode' or place `(global-hi-lock-mode 1)' in your
`.emacs' file.

   Hi Lock mode works like Font Lock mode (*note Font Lock::), except
that you specify explicitly the regular expressions to highlight.  You
control them with these commands:

`C-x w h REGEXP <RET> FACE <RET>'
     Highlight text that matches REGEXP using face FACE
     (`highlight-regexp').  The highlighting will remain as long as the
     buffer is loaded.  For example, to highlight all occurrences of
     the word "whim" using the default face (a yellow background) `C-x
     w h whim <RET> <RET>'.  Any face can be used for highlighting, Hi
     Lock provides several of its own and these are pre-loaded into a
     history list.  While being prompted for a face use `M-p' and `M-n'
     to cycle through them.

     You can use this command multiple times, specifying various regular
     expressions to highlight in different ways.

`C-x w r REGEXP <RET>'
     Unhighlight REGEXP (`unhighlight-regexp').

     If you invoke this from the menu, you select the expression to
     unhighlight from a list.  If you invoke this from the keyboard, you
     use the minibuffer.  It will show the most recently added regular
     expression; use `M-p' to show the next older expression and `M-n'
     to select the next newer expression.  (You can also type the
     expression by hand, with completion.)  When the expression you
     want to unhighlight appears in the minibuffer, press `<RET>' to
     exit the minibuffer and unhighlight it.

`C-x w l REGEXP <RET> FACE <RET>'
     Highlight entire lines containing a match for REGEXP, using face
     FACE (`highlight-lines-matching-regexp').

`C-x w b'
     Insert all the current highlighting regexp/face pairs into the
     buffer at point, with comment delimiters to prevent them from
     changing your program.  (This key binding runs the
     `hi-lock-write-interactive-patterns' command.)

     These patterns are extracted from the comments, if appropriate, if
     you invoke `M-x hi-lock-find-patterns', or if you visit the file
     while Hi Lock mode is enabled (since that runs
     `hi-lock-find-patterns').

`C-x w i'
     Extract regexp/face pairs from comments in the current buffer
     (`hi-lock-find-patterns').  Thus, you can enter patterns
     interactively with `highlight-regexp', store them into the file
     with `hi-lock-write-interactive-patterns', edit them (perhaps
     including different faces for different parenthesized parts of the
     match), and finally use this command (`hi-lock-find-patterns') to
     have Hi Lock highlight the edited patterns.

     The variable `hi-lock-file-patterns-policy' controls whether Hi
     Lock mode should automatically extract and highlight patterns
     found in a file when it is visited.  Its value can be `nil' (never
     highlight), `t' (highlight the patterns), `ask' (query the user),
     or a function.  If it is a function, `hi-lock-find-patterns' calls
     it with the patterns as argument; if the function returns
     non-`nil', the patterns are used.  The default is `nil'.  Note
     that patterns are always highlighted if you call
     `hi-lock-find-patterns' directly, regardless of the value of this
     variable.

     Also, `hi-lock-find-patterns' does nothing if the current major
     mode's symbol is a member of the list `hi-lock-exclude-modes'.


File: emacs,  Node: Fringes,  Next: Displaying Boundaries,  Prev: Highlight Interactively,  Up: Display

19.9 Window Fringes
===================

On a graphical display, each Emacs window normally has narrow "fringes"
on the left and right edges.  The fringes display indications about the
text in the window.

   The most common use of the fringes is to indicate a continuation
line, when one line of text is split into multiple lines on the screen.
The left fringe shows a curving arrow for each screen line except the
first, indicating that "this is not the real beginning."  The right
fringe shows a curving arrow for each screen line except the last,
indicating that "this is not the real end."

   The fringes indicate line truncation with short horizontal arrows
meaning "there's more text on this line which is scrolled horizontally
out of view;" clicking the mouse on one of the arrows scrolls the
display horizontally in the direction of the arrow.   The fringes can
also indicate other things, such as empty lines, or where a program you
are debugging is executing (*note Debuggers::).

   You can enable and disable the fringes for all frames using `M-x
fringe-mode'.  To enable and disable the fringes for the selected
frame, use `M-x set-fringe-style'.


File: emacs,  Node: Displaying Boundaries,  Next: Useless Whitespace,  Prev: Fringes,  Up: Display

19.10 Displaying Boundaries
===========================

On a graphical display, Emacs can indicate the buffer boundaries in the
fringes.  It indicates the first line and the last line with angle
images in the fringes.  This can be combined with up and down arrow
images which say whether it is possible to scroll the window up and
down.

   The buffer-local variable `indicate-buffer-boundaries' controls how
the buffer boundaries and window scrolling is indicated in the fringes.
If the value is `left' or `right', both angle and arrow bitmaps are
displayed in the left or right fringe, respectively.

   If value is an alist, each element `(INDICATOR .  POSITION)'
specifies the position of one of the indicators.  The INDICATOR must be
one of `top', `bottom', `up', `down', or `t' which specifies the default
position for the indicators not present in the alist.  The POSITION is
one of `left', `right', or `nil' which specifies not to show this
indicator.

   For example, `((top . left) (t . right))' places the top angle
bitmap in left fringe, the bottom angle bitmap in right fringe, and
both arrow bitmaps in right fringe.  To show just the angle bitmaps in
the left fringe, but no arrow bitmaps, use `((top .  left) (bottom .
left))'.

   The value of the variable `default-indicate-buffer-boundaries' is
the default value for `indicate-buffer-boundaries' in buffers that do
not override it.


File: emacs,  Node: Useless Whitespace,  Next: Selective Display,  Prev: Displaying Boundaries,  Up: Display

19.11 Useless Whitespace
========================

It is easy to leave unnecessary spaces at the end of a line, or empty
lines at the end of a file, without realizing it.  In most cases, this
"trailing whitespace" has no effect, but there are special
circumstances where it matters.  It can also be a nuisance that the
line has "changed," when the change is just spaces added or removed at
the end.

   You can make trailing whitespace at the end of a line visible on the
screen by setting the buffer-local variable `show-trailing-whitespace'
to `t'.  Then Emacs displays trailing whitespace in the face
`trailing-whitespace'.

   This feature does not apply when point is at the end of the line
containing the whitespace.  Strictly speaking, that is "trailing
whitespace" nonetheless, but displaying it specially in that case looks
ugly while you are typing in new text.  In this special case, the
location of point is enough to show you that the spaces are present.

   To delete all trailing whitespace within the current buffer's
accessible portion (*note Narrowing::), type `M-x
delete-trailing-whitespace <RET>'.  (This command does not remove the
form-feed characters.)

   Emacs can indicate unused lines at the end of the window with a
small image in the left fringe (*note Fringes::).  The image appears
for window lines that do not correspond to any buffer text.  Blank
lines at the end of the buffer then stand out because they do not have
this image in the fringe.

   To enable this feature, set the buffer-local variable
`indicate-empty-lines' to a non-`nil' value.  The default value of this
variable is controlled by the variable `default-indicate-empty-lines';
by setting that variable, you can enable or disable this feature for
all new buffers.  (This feature currently doesn't work on text-only
terminals.)


File: emacs,  Node: Selective Display,  Next: Optional Mode Line,  Prev: Useless Whitespace,  Up: Display

19.12 Selective Display
=======================

Emacs has the ability to hide lines indented more than a certain number
of columns (you specify how many columns).  You can use this to get an
overview of a part of a program.

   To hide lines in the current buffer, type `C-x $'
(`set-selective-display') with a numeric argument N.  Then lines with
at least N columns of indentation disappear from the screen.  The only
indication of their presence is that three dots (`...') appear at the
end of each visible line that is followed by one or more hidden ones.

   The commands `C-n' and `C-p' move across the hidden lines as if they
were not there.

   The hidden lines are still present in the buffer, and most editing
commands see them as usual, so you may find point in the middle of the
hidden text.  When this happens, the cursor appears at the end of the
previous line, after the three dots.  If point is at the end of the
visible line, before the newline that ends it, the cursor appears before
the three dots.

   To make all lines visible again, type `C-x $' with no argument.

   If you set the variable `selective-display-ellipses' to `nil', the
three dots do not appear at the end of a line that precedes hidden
lines.  Then there is no visible indication of the hidden lines.  This
variable becomes local automatically when set.

   See also *Note Outline Mode:: for another way to hide part of the
text in a buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Optional Mode Line,  Next: Text Display,  Prev: Selective Display,  Up: Display

19.13 Optional Mode Line Features
=================================

The buffer percentage POS indicates the percentage of the buffer above
the top of the window.  You can additionally display the size of the
buffer by typing `M-x size-indication-mode' to turn on Size Indication
mode.  The size will be displayed immediately following the buffer
percentage like this:

     POS of SIZE

Here SIZE is the human readable representation of the number of
characters in the buffer, which means that `k' for 10^3, `M' for 10^6,
`G' for 10^9, etc., are used to abbreviate.

   If you have narrowed the buffer (*note Narrowing::), the size of the
accessible part of the buffer is shown.

   The current line number of point appears in the mode line when Line
Number mode is enabled.  Use the command `M-x line-number-mode' to turn
this mode on and off; normally it is on.  The line number appears after
the buffer percentage POS, with the letter `L' to indicate what it is.
*Note Minor Modes::, for more information about minor modes and about
how to use this command.

   If you have narrowed the buffer (*note Narrowing::), the displayed
line number is relative to the accessible portion of the buffer.  Thus,
it isn't suitable as an argument to `goto-line'.  (Use `what-line'
command to see the line number relative to the whole file.)

   If the buffer is very large (larger than the value of
`line-number-display-limit'), then the line number doesn't appear.
Emacs doesn't compute the line number when the buffer is large, because
that would be too slow.  Set it to `nil' to remove the limit.

   Line-number computation can also be slow if the lines in the buffer
are too long.  For this reason, Emacs normally doesn't display line
numbers if the average width, in characters, of lines near point is
larger than the value of the variable
`line-number-display-limit-width'.  The default value is 200 characters.

   You can also display the current column number by turning on Column
Number mode.  It displays the current column number preceded by the
letter `C'.  Type `M-x column-number-mode' to toggle this mode.

   Emacs can optionally display the time and system load in all mode
lines.  To enable this feature, type `M-x display-time' or customize
the option `display-time-mode'.  The information added to the mode line
usually appears after the buffer name, before the mode names and their
parentheses.  It looks like this:

     HH:MMpm L.LL

Here HH and MM are the hour and minute, followed always by `am' or
`pm'.  L.LL is the average number of running processes in the whole
system recently.  (Some fields may be missing if your operating system
cannot support them.)  If you prefer time display in 24-hour format,
set the variable `display-time-24hr-format' to `t'.

   The word `Mail' appears after the load level if there is mail for
you that you have not read yet.  On a graphical display you can use an
icon instead of `Mail' by customizing `display-time-use-mail-icon';
this may save some space on the mode line.  You can customize
`display-time-mail-face' to make the mail indicator prominent.  Use
`display-time-mail-file' to specify the mail file to check, or set
`display-time-mail-directory' to specify the directory to check for
incoming mail (any nonempty regular file in the directory is considered
as "newly arrived mail").

   By default, the mode line is drawn on graphics displays with
3D-style highlighting, like that of a button when it is not being
pressed.  If you don't like this effect, you can disable the 3D
highlighting of the mode line, by customizing the attributes of the
`mode-line' face.  *Note Face Customization::.

   By default, the mode line of nonselected windows is displayed in a
different face, called `mode-line-inactive'.  Only the selected window
is displayed in the `mode-line' face.  This helps show which window is
selected.  When the minibuffer is selected, since it has no mode line,
the window from which you activated the minibuffer has its mode line
displayed using `mode-line'; as a result, ordinary entry to the
minibuffer does not change any mode lines.

   You can disable use of `mode-line-inactive' by setting variable
`mode-line-in-non-selected-windows' to `nil'; then all mode lines are
displayed in the `mode-line' face.

   You can customize the mode line display for each of the end-of-line
formats by setting each of the variables `eol-mnemonic-unix',
`eol-mnemonic-dos', `eol-mnemonic-mac', and `eol-mnemonic-undecided' to
the strings you prefer.


File: emacs,  Node: Text Display,  Next: Cursor Display,  Prev: Optional Mode Line,  Up: Display

19.14 How Text Is Displayed
===========================

ASCII printing characters (octal codes 040 through 0176) in Emacs
buffers are displayed with their graphics, as are non-ASCII multibyte
printing characters (octal codes above 0400).

   Some ASCII control characters are displayed in special ways.  The
newline character (octal code 012) is displayed by starting a new line.
The tab character (octal code 011) is displayed by moving to the next
tab stop column (normally every 8 columns).

   Other ASCII control characters are normally displayed as a caret
(`^') followed by the non-control version of the character; thus,
control-A is displayed as `^A'.  The caret appears in face
`escape-glyph'.

   Non-ASCII characters 0200 through 0237 (octal) are displayed with
octal escape sequences; thus, character code 0230 (octal) is displayed
as `\230'.  The backslash appears in face `escape-glyph'.

   If the variable `ctl-arrow' is `nil', control characters in the
buffer are displayed with octal escape sequences, except for newline
and tab.  Altering the value of `ctl-arrow' makes it local to the
current buffer; until that time, the default value is in effect.  The
default is initially `t'.

   The display of character codes 0240 through 0377 (octal) may be
either as escape sequences or as graphics.  They do not normally occur
in multibyte buffers, but if they do, they are displayed as Latin-1
graphics.  In unibyte mode, if you enable European display they are
displayed using their graphics (assuming your terminal supports them),
otherwise as escape sequences.  *Note Unibyte Mode::.

   Some character sets define "no-break" versions of the space and
hyphen characters, which are used where a line should not be broken.
Emacs normally displays these characters with special faces
(respectively, `nobreak-space' and `escape-glyph') to distinguish them
from ordinary spaces and hyphens.  You can turn off this feature by
setting the variable `nobreak-char-display' to `nil'.  If you set the
variable to any other value, that means to prefix these characters with
an escape character.

   Normally, a tab character in the buffer is displayed as whitespace
which extends to the next display tab stop position, and display tab
stops come at intervals equal to eight spaces.  The number of spaces
per tab is controlled by the variable `tab-width', which is made local
by changing it.  Note that how the tab character in the buffer is
displayed has nothing to do with the definition of <TAB> as a command.
The variable `tab-width' must have an integer value between 1 and 1000,
inclusive.  The variable `default-tab-width' controls the default value
of this variable for buffers where you have not set it locally.

   You can customize the way any particular character code is displayed
by means of a display table.  *Note Display Tables: (elisp)Display
Tables.


File: emacs,  Node: Cursor Display,  Next: Line Truncation,  Prev: Text Display,  Up: Display

19.15 Displaying the Cursor
===========================

You can customize the cursor's color, and whether it blinks, using the
`cursor' Custom group (*note Easy Customization::).  On a graphical
display, the command `M-x blink-cursor-mode' enables or disables the
blinking of the cursor.  (On text terminals, the terminal itself blinks
the cursor, and Emacs has no control over it.)  You can control how the
cursor appears when it blinks off by setting the variable
`blink-cursor-alist'.

   Some text terminals offer two different cursors: the normal cursor
and the very visible cursor, where the latter may be e.g. bigger or
blinking.  By default Emacs uses the very visible cursor, and switches
to it when you start or resume Emacs.  If the variable `visible-cursor'
is `nil' when Emacs starts or resumes, it doesn't switch, so it uses
the normal cursor.

   Normally, the cursor appears in non-selected windows in the "off"
state, with the same appearance as when the blinking cursor blinks
"off."  For a box cursor, this is a hollow box; for a bar cursor, this
is a thinner bar.  To turn off cursors in non-selected windows,
customize the variable `cursor-in-non-selected-windows' and assign it a
`nil' value.

   On graphical displays, Emacs can optionally draw the block cursor as
wide as the character under the cursor--for example, if the cursor is
on a tab character, it would cover the full width occupied by that tab
character.  To enable this feature, set the variable `x-stretch-cursor'
to a non-`nil' value.

   To make the cursor even more visible, you can use HL Line mode, a
minor mode that highlights the line containing point.  Use `M-x
hl-line-mode' to enable or disable it in the current buffer.  `M-x
global-hl-line-mode' enables or disables the same mode globally.


File: emacs,  Node: Line Truncation,  Next: Display Custom,  Prev: Cursor Display,  Up: Display

19.16 Truncation of Lines
=========================

As an alternative to continuation, Emacs can display long lines by
"truncation".  This means that all the characters that do not fit in
the width of the screen or window do not appear at all.  On graphical
displays, a small straight arrow in the fringe indicates truncation at
either end of the line.  On text-only terminals, `$' appears in the
first column when there is text truncated to the left, and in the last
column when there is text truncated to the right.

   Horizontal scrolling automatically causes line truncation (*note
Horizontal Scrolling::).  You can explicitly enable line truncation for
a particular buffer with the command `M-x toggle-truncate-lines'.  This
works by locally changing the variable `truncate-lines'.  If that
variable is non-`nil', long lines are truncated; if it is `nil', they
are continued onto multiple screen lines.  Setting the variable
`truncate-lines' in any way makes it local to the current buffer; until
that time, the default value is in effect.  The default value is
normally `nil'.

   If the variable `truncate-partial-width-windows' is non-`nil', it
forces truncation rather than continuation in any window less than the
full width of the screen or frame, regardless of the value of
`truncate-lines'.  For information about side-by-side windows, see
*Note Split Window::.  See also *Note Display: (elisp)Display.

   If the variable `overflow-newline-into-fringe' is non-`nil' on a
graphical display, then Emacs does not continue or truncate a line
which is exactly as wide as the window.  Instead, the newline overflows
into the right fringe, and the cursor appears in the fringe when
positioned on that newline.


File: emacs,  Node: Display Custom,  Prev: Line Truncation,  Up: Display

19.17 Customization of Display
==============================

This section describes variables (*note Variables::) that you can
change to customize how Emacs displays.  Beginning users can skip it.

   If the variable `inverse-video' is non-`nil', Emacs attempts to
invert all the lines of the display from what they normally are.

   If the variable `visible-bell' is non-`nil', Emacs attempts to make
the whole screen blink when it would normally make an audible bell
sound.  This variable has no effect if your terminal does not have a way
to make the screen blink.

   The variable `echo-keystrokes' controls the echoing of
multi-character keys; its value is the number of seconds of pause
required to cause echoing to start, or zero, meaning don't echo at all.
The value takes effect when there is someting to echo.  *Note Echo
Area::.

   The variable `baud-rate' holds the output speed of the terminal, as
far as Emacs knows.  Setting this variable does not change the speed of
actual data transmission, but the value is used for calculations.  On
text-only terminals, it affects padding, and decisions about whether to
scroll part of the screen or redraw it instead.  It also affects the
behavior of incremental search.

   On graphical displays, `baud-rate' is only used to determine how
frequently to look for pending input during display updating.  A higher
value of `baud-rate' means that check for pending input will be done
less frequently.

   On graphical display, Emacs can optionally display the mouse pointer
in a special shape to say that Emacs is busy.  To turn this feature on
or off, customize the group `cursor'.  You can also control the amount
of time Emacs must remain busy before the busy indicator is displayed,
by setting the variable `hourglass-delay'.

   On graphical display, this variables specifies the vertical position
of an overline above the text, including the height of the overline
itself (1 pixel).  The default value is 2 pixels.

   On graphical display, Emacs normally draws an underline at the
baseline level of the font.  If `x-underline-at-descent-line' is
non-`nil', Emacs draws the underline at the same height as the font's
descent line.

   On some text-only terminals, bold face and inverse video together
result in text that is hard to read.  Call the function
`tty-suppress-bold-inverse-default-colors' with a non-`nil' argument to
suppress the effect of bold-face in this case.

   On a text-only terminal, when you reenter Emacs after suspending,
Emacs normally clears the screen and redraws the entire display.  On
some terminals with more than one page of memory, it is possible to
arrange the termcap entry so that the `ti' and `te' strings (output to
the terminal when Emacs is entered and exited, respectively) switch
between pages of memory so as to use one page for Emacs and another
page for other output.  On such terminals, you might want to set the
variable `no-redraw-on-reenter' non-`nil'; this tells Emacs to assume,
when resumed, that the screen page it is using still contains what
Emacs last wrote there.


File: emacs,  Node: Search,  Next: Fixit,  Prev: Display,  Up: Top

20 Searching and Replacement
****************************

Like other editors, Emacs has commands for searching for occurrences of
a string.  The principal search command is unusual in that it is
"incremental"; it begins to search before you have finished typing the
search string.  There are also nonincremental search commands more like
those of other editors.

   Besides the usual `replace-string' command that finds all
occurrences of one string and replaces them with another, Emacs has a
more flexible replacement command called `query-replace', which asks
interactively which occurrences to replace.  There are also commands to
find and operate on all matches for a pattern.

   You can also search multiple files under control of a tags table
(*note Tags Search::) or through the Dired `A' command (*note Operating
on Files::), or ask the `grep' program to do it (*note Grep
Searching::).

* Menu:

* Incremental Search::		Search happens as you type the string.
* Nonincremental Search::	Specify entire string and then search.
* Word Search::			Search for sequence of words.
* Regexp Search::		Search for match for a regexp.
* Regexps::			Syntax of regular expressions.
* Regexp Backslash::            Regular expression constructs starting with `\'.
* Regexp Example::              A complex regular expression explained.
* Search Case::			To ignore case while searching, or not.
* Replace::			Search, and replace some or all matches.
* Other Repeating Search::	Operating on all matches for some regexp.


File: emacs,  Node: Incremental Search,  Next: Nonincremental Search,  Up: Search

20.1 Incremental Search
=======================

An incremental search begins searching as soon as you type the first
character of the search string.  As you type in the search string, Emacs
shows you where the string (as you have typed it so far) would be
found.  When you have typed enough characters to identify the place you
want, you can stop.  Depending on what you plan to do next, you may or
may not need to terminate the search explicitly with <RET>.

`C-s'
     Incremental search forward (`isearch-forward').

`C-r'
     Incremental search backward (`isearch-backward').

* Menu:

* Basic Isearch::       Basic incremental search commands.
* Repeat Isearch::      Searching for the same string again.
* Error in Isearch::    When your string is not found.
* Special Isearch::     Special input in incremental search.
* Non-ASCII Isearch::   How to search for non-ASCII characters.
* Isearch Yank::        Commands that grab text into the search string
                          or else edit the search string.
* Highlight Isearch::   Isearch highlights the other possible matches.
* Isearch Scroll::      Scrolling during an incremental search.
* Slow Isearch::        Incremental search features for slow terminals.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Isearch,  Next: Repeat Isearch,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.1 Basics of Incremental Search
-----------------------------------

`C-s' starts a forward incremental search.  It reads characters from
the keyboard, and moves point past the next occurrence of those
characters.  If you type `C-s' and then `F', that puts the cursor after
the first `F' (the first following the starting point, since this is a
forward search).  Then if you type an `O', you will see the cursor move
to just after the first `FO' (the `F' in that `FO' may or may not be
the first `F').  After another `O', the cursor moves to just after the
first `FOO' after the place where you started the search.  At each
step, the buffer text that matches the search string is highlighted, if
the terminal can do that; the current search string is always displayed
in the echo area.

   If you make a mistake in typing the search string, you can cancel
characters with <DEL>.  Each <DEL> cancels the last character of search
string.  This does not happen until Emacs is ready to read another
input character; first it must either find, or fail to find, the
character you want to erase.  If you do not want to wait for this to
happen, use `C-g' as described below.

   When you are satisfied with the place you have reached, you can type
<RET>, which stops searching, leaving the cursor where the search
brought it.  Also, any command not specially meaningful in searches
stops the searching and is then executed.  Thus, typing `C-a' would
exit the search and then move to the beginning of the line.  <RET> is
necessary only if the next command you want to type is a printing
character, <DEL>, <RET>, or another character that is special within
searches (`C-q', `C-w', `C-r', `C-s', `C-y', `M-y', `M-r', `M-c',
`M-e', and some other meta-characters).

   When you exit the incremental search, it sets the mark where point
_was_ before the search.  That is convenient for moving back there.  In
Transient Mark mode, incremental search sets the mark without
activating it, and does so only if the mark is not already active.


File: emacs,  Node: Repeat Isearch,  Next: Error in Isearch,  Prev: Basic Isearch,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.2 Repeating Incremental Search
-----------------------------------

Sometimes you search for `FOO' and find one, but not the one you
expected to find.  There was a second `FOO' that you forgot about,
before the one you were aiming for.  In this event, type another `C-s'
to move to the next occurrence of the search string.  You can repeat
this any number of times.  If you overshoot, you can cancel some `C-s'
characters with <DEL>.

   After you exit a search, you can search for the same string again by
typing just `C-s C-s': the first `C-s' is the key that invokes
incremental search, and the second `C-s' means "search again."

   If a search is failing and you ask to repeat it by typing another
`C-s', it starts again from the beginning of the buffer.  Repeating a
failing reverse search with `C-r' starts again from the end.  This is
called "wrapping around", and `Wrapped' appears in the search prompt
once this has happened.  If you keep on going past the original
starting point of the search, it changes to `Overwrapped', which means
that you are revisiting matches that you have already seen.

   To reuse earlier search strings, use the "search ring".  The
commands `M-p' and `M-n' move through the ring to pick a search string
to reuse.  These commands leave the selected search ring element in the
minibuffer, where you can edit it.  To edit the current search string
in the minibuffer without replacing it with items from the search ring,
type `M-e'.  Type `C-s' or `C-r' to terminate editing the string and
search for it.

   You can change to searching backwards with `C-r'.  For instance, if
you are searching forward but you realize you were looking for
something above the starting point, you can do this.  Repeated `C-r'
keeps looking for more occurrences backwards.  A `C-s' starts going
forwards again.  `C-r' in a search can be canceled with <DEL>.

   If you know initially that you want to search backwards, you can use
`C-r' instead of `C-s' to start the search, because `C-r' as a key runs
a command (`isearch-backward') to search backward.  A backward search
finds matches that end before the starting point, just as a forward
search finds matches that begin after it.


File: emacs,  Node: Error in Isearch,  Next: Special Isearch,  Prev: Repeat Isearch,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.3 Errors in Incremental Search
-----------------------------------

If your string is not found at all, the echo area says `Failing
I-Search'.  The cursor is after the place where Emacs found as much of
your string as it could.  Thus, if you search for `FOOT', and there is
no `FOOT', you might see the cursor after the `FOO' in `FOOL'.  At this
point there are several things you can do.  If your string was
mistyped, you can rub some of it out and correct it.  If you like the
place you have found, you can type <RET> or some other Emacs command to
remain there.  Or you can type `C-g', which removes from the search
string the characters that could not be found (the `T' in `FOOT'),
leaving those that were found (the `FOO' in `FOOT').  A second `C-g' at
that point cancels the search entirely, returning point to where it was
when the search started.

   The `C-g' "quit" character does special things during searches; just
what it does depends on the status of the search.  If the search has
found what you specified and is waiting for input, `C-g' cancels the
entire search.  The cursor moves back to where you started the search.
If `C-g' is typed when there are characters in the search string that
have not been found--because Emacs is still searching for them, or
because it has failed to find them--then the search string characters
which have not been found are discarded from the search string.  With
them gone, the search is now successful and waiting for more input, so
a second `C-g' will cancel the entire search.


File: emacs,  Node: Special Isearch,  Next: Non-ASCII Isearch,  Prev: Error in Isearch,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.4 Special Input for Incremental Search
-------------------------------------------

An upper-case letter in the search string makes the search
case-sensitive.  If you delete the upper-case character from the search
string, it ceases to have this effect.  *Note Search Case::.

   To search for a newline, type `C-j'.  To search for another control
character, such as control-S or carriage return, you must quote it by
typing `C-q' first.  This function of `C-q' is analogous to its use for
insertion (*note Inserting Text::): it causes the following character
to be treated the way any "ordinary" character is treated in the same
context.  You can also specify a character by its octal code: enter
`C-q' followed by a sequence of octal digits.

   `M-%' typed in incremental search invokes `query-replace' or
`query-replace-regexp' (depending on search mode) with the current
search string used as the string to replace.  *Note Query Replace::.

   Entering <RET> when the search string is empty launches
nonincremental search (*note Nonincremental Search::).

   To customize the special characters that incremental search
understands, alter their bindings in the keymap `isearch-mode-map'.
For a list of bindings, look at the documentation of `isearch-mode' with
`C-h f isearch-mode <RET>'.


File: emacs,  Node: Non-ASCII Isearch,  Next: Isearch Yank,  Prev: Special Isearch,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.5 Isearch for Non-ASCII Characters
---------------------------------------

To enter non-ASCII characters in an incremental search, you can use
`C-q' (see the previous section), but it is easier to use an input
method (*note Input Methods::).  If an input method is enabled in the
current buffer when you start the search, you can use it in the search
string also.  Emacs indicates that by including the input method
mnemonic in its prompt, like this:

     I-search [IM]:

where IM is the mnemonic of the active input method.

   You can toggle (enable or disable) the input method while you type
the search string with `C-\' (`isearch-toggle-input-method').  You can
turn on a certain (non-default) input method with `C-^'
(`isearch-toggle-specified-input-method'), which prompts for the name
of the input method.  The input method you enable during incremental
search remains enabled in the current buffer afterwards.


File: emacs,  Node: Isearch Yank,  Next: Highlight Isearch,  Prev: Non-ASCII Isearch,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.6 Isearch Yanking
----------------------

The characters `C-w' and `C-y' can be used in incremental search to
grab text from the buffer into the search string.  This makes it
convenient to search for another occurrence of text at point.  `C-w'
copies the character or word after point as part of the search string,
advancing point over it.  (The decision, whether to copy a character or
a word, is heuristic.)  Another `C-s' to repeat the search will then
search for a string including that character or word.

   `C-y' is similar to `C-w' but copies all the rest of the current
line into the search string.  If point is already at the end of a line,
it grabs the entire next line.  Both `C-y' and `C-w' convert the text
they copy to lower case if the search is currently not case-sensitive;
this is so the search remains case-insensitive.

   `C-M-w' and `C-M-y' modify the search string by only one character
at a time: `C-M-w' deletes the last character from the search string
and `C-M-y' copies the character after point to the end of the search
string.  An alternative method to add the character after point into
the search string is to enter the minibuffer by `M-e' and to type `C-f'
at the end of the search string in the minibuffer.

   The character `M-y' copies text from the kill ring into the search
string.  It uses the same text that `C-y' as a command would yank.
`Mouse-2' in the echo area does the same.  *Note Yanking::.


File: emacs,  Node: Highlight Isearch,  Next: Isearch Scroll,  Prev: Isearch Yank,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.7 Lazy Search Highlighting
-------------------------------

When you pause for a little while during incremental search, it
highlights all other possible matches for the search string.  This
makes it easier to anticipate where you can get to by typing `C-s' or
`C-r' to repeat the search.  The short delay before highlighting other
matches helps indicate which match is the current one.  If you don't
like this feature, you can turn it off by setting
`isearch-lazy-highlight' to `nil'.

   You can control how this highlighting looks by customizing the faces
`isearch' (used for the current match) and `lazy-highlight' (for all
the other matches).


File: emacs,  Node: Isearch Scroll,  Next: Slow Isearch,  Prev: Highlight Isearch,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.8 Scrolling During Incremental Search
------------------------------------------

You can enable the use of vertical scrolling during incremental search
(without exiting the search) by setting the customizable variable
`isearch-allow-scroll' to a non-`nil' value.  This applies to using the
vertical scroll-bar and to certain keyboard commands such as `<PRIOR>'
(`scroll-down'), `<NEXT>' (`scroll-up') and `C-l' (`recenter').  You
must run these commands via their key sequences to stay in the
search--typing `M-x' will terminate the search.  You can give prefix
arguments to these commands in the usual way.

   This feature won't let you scroll the current match out of
visibility, however.

   The feature also affects some other commands, such as `C-x 2'
(`split-window-vertically') and `C-x ^' (`enlarge-window') which don't
exactly scroll but do affect where the text appears on the screen.  In
general, it applies to any command whose name has a non-`nil'
`isearch-scroll' property.  So you can control which commands are
affected by changing these properties.

   For example, to make `C-h l' usable within an incremental search in
all future Emacs sessions, use `C-h c' to find what command it runs.
(You type `C-h c C-h l'; it says `view-lossage'.)  Then you can put the
following line in your `.emacs' file (*note Init File::):

     (put 'view-lossage 'isearch-scroll t)

This feature can be applied to any command that doesn't permanently
change point, the buffer contents, the match data, the current buffer,
or the selected window and frame.  The command must not itself attempt
an incremental search.


File: emacs,  Node: Slow Isearch,  Prev: Isearch Scroll,  Up: Incremental Search

20.1.9 Slow Terminal Incremental Search
---------------------------------------

Incremental search on a slow terminal uses a modified style of display
that is designed to take less time.  Instead of redisplaying the buffer
at each place the search gets to, it creates a new single-line window
and uses that to display the line that the search has found.  The
single-line window comes into play as soon as point moves outside of
the text that is already on the screen.

   When you terminate the search, the single-line window is removed.
Emacs then redisplays the window in which the search was done, to show
its new position of point.

   The slow terminal style of display is used when the terminal baud
rate is less than or equal to the value of the variable
`search-slow-speed', initially 1200.  See also the discussion of the
variable `baud-rate' (*note Customization of Display: baud-rate.).

   The number of lines to use in slow terminal search display is
controlled by the variable `search-slow-window-lines'.  Its normal
value is 1.


File: emacs,  Node: Nonincremental Search,  Next: Word Search,  Prev: Incremental Search,  Up: Search

20.2 Nonincremental Search
==========================

Emacs also has conventional nonincremental search commands, which
require you to type the entire search string before searching begins.

`C-s <RET> STRING <RET>'
     Search for STRING.

`C-r <RET> STRING <RET>'
     Search backward for STRING.

   To do a nonincremental search, first type `C-s <RET>'.  This enters
the minibuffer to read the search string; terminate the string with
<RET>, and then the search takes place.  If the string is not found,
the search command signals an error.

   When you type `C-s <RET>', the `C-s' invokes incremental search as
usual.  That command is specially programmed to invoke nonincremental
search, `search-forward', if the string you specify is empty.  (Such an
empty argument would otherwise be useless.)  But it does not call
`search-forward' right away.  First it checks the next input character
to see if is `C-w', which specifies a word search.  *Note Word Search::.
`C-r <RET>' does likewise, for a reverse incremental search.

   Forward and backward nonincremental searches are implemented by the
commands `search-forward' and `search-backward'.  These commands may be
bound to keys in the usual manner.  The feature that you can get to
them via the incremental search commands exists for historical reasons,
and to avoid the need to find separate key sequences for them.


File: emacs,  Node: Word Search,  Next: Regexp Search,  Prev: Nonincremental Search,  Up: Search

20.3 Word Search
================

Word search searches for a sequence of words without regard to how the
words are separated.  More precisely, you type a string of many words,
using single spaces to separate them, and the string can be found even
if there are multiple spaces, newlines, or other punctuation characters
between these words.

   Word search is useful for editing a printed document made with a text
formatter.  If you edit while looking at the printed, formatted version,
you can't tell where the line breaks are in the source file.  With word
search, you can search without having to know them.

`C-s <RET> C-w WORDS <RET>'
     Search for WORDS, ignoring details of punctuation.

`C-r <RET> C-w WORDS <RET>'
     Search backward for WORDS, ignoring details of punctuation.

   Word search as a special case of nonincremental search is invoked
with `C-s <RET> C-w'.  This is followed by the search string, which
must always be terminated with <RET>.  Being nonincremental, this
search does not start until the argument is terminated.  It works by
constructing a regular expression and searching for that; see *Note
Regexp Search::.

   Use `C-r <RET> C-w' to do backward word search.

   You can also invoke word search with `C-s M-e C-w' or `C-r M-e C-w'
followed by the search string and terminated with <RET>, `C-s' or
`C-r'.  This puts word search into incremental mode where you can use
all keys available for incremental search.  However, when you type more
words in incremental word search, it will fail until you type complete
words.

   Forward and backward word searches are implemented by the commands
`word-search-forward' and `word-search-backward'.  These commands may
be bound to keys in the usual manner.  They are available via the
incremental search commands both for historical reasons and to avoid
the need to find separate key sequences for them.


File: emacs,  Node: Regexp Search,  Next: Regexps,  Prev: Word Search,  Up: Search

20.4 Regular Expression Search
==============================

A "regular expression" ("regexp", for short) is a pattern that denotes
a class of alternative strings to match, possibly infinitely many.  GNU
Emacs provides both incremental and nonincremental ways to search for a
match for a regexp.  The syntax of regular expressions is explained in
the following section.

   Incremental search for a regexp is done by typing `C-M-s'
(`isearch-forward-regexp'), by invoking `C-s' with a prefix argument
(whose value does not matter), or by typing `M-r' within a forward
incremental search.  This command reads a search string incrementally
just like `C-s', but it treats the search string as a regexp rather
than looking for an exact match against the text in the buffer.  Each
time you add text to the search string, you make the regexp longer, and
the new regexp is searched for.  To search backward for a regexp, use
`C-M-r' (`isearch-backward-regexp'), `C-r' with a prefix argument, or
`M-r' within a backward incremental search.

   All of the control characters that do special things within an
ordinary incremental search have the same function in incremental regexp
search.  Typing `C-s' or `C-r' immediately after starting the search
retrieves the last incremental search regexp used; that is to say,
incremental regexp and non-regexp searches have independent defaults.
They also have separate search rings that you can access with `M-p' and
`M-n'.

   If you type <SPC> in incremental regexp search, it matches any
sequence of whitespace characters, including newlines.  If you want to
match just a space, type `C-q <SPC>'.  You can control what a bare
space matches by setting the variable `search-whitespace-regexp' to the
desired regexp.

   In some cases, adding characters to the regexp in an incremental
regexp search can make the cursor move back and start again.  For
example, if you have searched for `foo' and you add `\|bar', the cursor
backs up in case the first `bar' precedes the first `foo'.

   Forward and backward regexp search are not symmetrical, because
regexp matching in Emacs always operates forward, starting with the
beginning of the regexp.  Thus, forward regexp search scans forward,
trying a forward match at each possible starting position.  Backward
regexp search scans backward, trying a forward match at each possible
starting position.  These search methods are not mirror images.

   Nonincremental search for a regexp is done by the functions
`re-search-forward' and `re-search-backward'.  You can invoke these
with `M-x', or bind them to keys, or invoke them by way of incremental
regexp search with `C-M-s <RET>' and `C-M-r <RET>'.

   If you use the incremental regexp search commands with a prefix
argument, they perform ordinary string search, like `isearch-forward'
and `isearch-backward'.  *Note Incremental Search::.


File: emacs,  Node: Regexps,  Next: Regexp Backslash,  Prev: Regexp Search,  Up: Search

20.5 Syntax of Regular Expressions
==================================

This manual describes regular expression features that users typically
want to use.  There are additional features that are mainly used in
Lisp programs; see *Note Regular Expressions: (elisp)Regular
Expressions.

   Regular expressions have a syntax in which a few characters are
special constructs and the rest are "ordinary".  An ordinary character
is a simple regular expression which matches that same character and
nothing else.  The special characters are `$', `^', `.', `*', `+', `?',
`[', and `\'.  The character `]' is special if it ends a character
alternative (see later).  The character `-' is special inside a
character alternative.  Any other character appearing in a regular
expression is ordinary, unless a `\' precedes it.  (When you use
regular expressions in a Lisp program, each `\' must be doubled, see
the example near the end of this section.)

   For example, `f' is not a special character, so it is ordinary, and
therefore `f' is a regular expression that matches the string `f' and
no other string.  (It does _not_ match the string `ff'.)  Likewise, `o'
is a regular expression that matches only `o'.  (When case distinctions
are being ignored, these regexps also match `F' and `O', but we
consider this a generalization of "the same string," rather than an
exception.)

   Any two regular expressions A and B can be concatenated.  The result
is a regular expression which matches a string if A matches some amount
of the beginning of that string and B matches the rest of the string.

   As a simple example, we can concatenate the regular expressions `f'
and `o' to get the regular expression `fo', which matches only the
string `fo'.  Still trivial.  To do something nontrivial, you need to
use one of the special characters.  Here is a list of them.

`.' (Period)
     is a special character that matches any single character except a
     newline.  Using concatenation, we can make regular expressions
     like `a.b', which matches any three-character string that begins
     with `a' and ends with `b'.

`*'
     is not a construct by itself; it is a postfix operator that means
     to match the preceding regular expression repetitively as many
     times as possible.  Thus, `o*' matches any number of `o's
     (including no `o's).

     `*' always applies to the _smallest_ possible preceding
     expression.  Thus, `fo*' has a repeating `o', not a repeating
     `fo'.  It matches `f', `fo', `foo', and so on.

     The matcher processes a `*' construct by matching, immediately, as
     many repetitions as can be found.  Then it continues with the rest
     of the pattern.  If that fails, backtracking occurs, discarding
     some of the matches of the `*'-modified construct in case that
     makes it possible to match the rest of the pattern.  For example,
     in matching `ca*ar' against the string `caaar', the `a*' first
     tries to match all three `a's; but the rest of the pattern is `ar'
     and there is only `r' left to match, so this try fails.  The next
     alternative is for `a*' to match only two `a's.  With this choice,
     the rest of the regexp matches successfully.

`+'
     is a postfix operator, similar to `*' except that it must match
     the preceding expression at least once.  So, for example, `ca+r'
     matches the strings `car' and `caaaar' but not the string `cr',
     whereas `ca*r' matches all three strings.

`?'
     is a postfix operator, similar to `*' except that it can match the
     preceding expression either once or not at all.  For example,
     `ca?r' matches `car' or `cr'; nothing else.

`*?', `+?', `??'
     are non-greedy variants of the operators above.  The normal
     operators `*', `+', `?' are "greedy" in that they match as much as
     they can, as long as the overall regexp can still match.  With a
     following `?', they are non-greedy: they will match as little as
     possible.

     Thus, both `ab*' and `ab*?' can match the string `a' and the
     string `abbbb'; but if you try to match them both against the text
     `abbb', `ab*' will match it all (the longest valid match), while
     `ab*?'  will match just `a' (the shortest valid match).

     Non-greedy operators match the shortest possible string starting
     at a given starting point; in a forward search, though, the
     earliest possible starting point for match is always the one
     chosen.  Thus, if you search for `a.*?$' against the text `abbab'
     followed by a newline, it matches the whole string.  Since it
     _can_ match starting at the first `a', it does.

`\{N\}'
     is a postfix operator that specifies repetition N times--that is,
     the preceding regular expression must match exactly N times in a
     row.  For example, `x\{4\}' matches the string `xxxx' and nothing
     else.

`\{N,M\}'
     is a postfix operator that specifies repetition between N and M
     times--that is, the preceding regular expression must match at
     least N times, but no more than M times.  If M is omitted, then
     there is no upper limit, but the preceding regular expression must
     match at least N times.
     `\{0,1\}' is equivalent to `?'.
     `\{0,\}' is equivalent to `*'.
     `\{1,\}' is equivalent to `+'.

`[ ... ]'
     is a "character set", which begins with `[' and is terminated by
     `]'.  In the simplest case, the characters between the two
     brackets are what this set can match.

     Thus, `[ad]' matches either one `a' or one `d', and `[ad]*'
     matches any string composed of just `a's and `d's (including the
     empty string), from which it follows that `c[ad]*r' matches `cr',
     `car', `cdr', `caddaar', etc.

     You can also include character ranges in a character set, by
     writing the starting and ending characters with a `-' between
     them.  Thus, `[a-z]' matches any lower-case ASCII letter.  Ranges
     may be intermixed freely with individual characters, as in
     `[a-z$%.]', which matches any lower-case ASCII letter or `$', `%'
     or period.

     Note that the usual regexp special characters are not special
     inside a character set.  A completely different set of special
     characters exists inside character sets: `]', `-' and `^'.

     To include a `]' in a character set, you must make it the first
     character.  For example, `[]a]' matches `]' or `a'.  To include a
     `-', write `-' as the first or last character of the set, or put
     it after a range.  Thus, `[]-]' matches both `]' and `-'.

     To include `^' in a set, put it anywhere but at the beginning of
     the set.  (At the beginning, it complements the set--see below.)

     When you use a range in case-insensitive search, you should write
     both ends of the range in upper case, or both in lower case, or
     both should be non-letters.  The behavior of a mixed-case range
     such as `A-z' is somewhat ill-defined, and it may change in future
     Emacs versions.

`[^ ... ]'
     `[^' begins a "complemented character set", which matches any
     character except the ones specified.  Thus, `[^a-z0-9A-Z]' matches
     all characters _except_ ASCII letters and digits.

     `^' is not special in a character set unless it is the first
     character.  The character following the `^' is treated as if it
     were first (in other words, `-' and `]' are not special there).

     A complemented character set can match a newline, unless newline is
     mentioned as one of the characters not to match.  This is in
     contrast to the handling of regexps in programs such as `grep'.

`^'
     is a special character that matches the empty string, but only at
     the beginning of a line in the text being matched.  Otherwise it
     fails to match anything.  Thus, `^foo' matches a `foo' that occurs
     at the beginning of a line.

     For historical compatibility reasons, `^' can be used with this
     meaning only at the beginning of the regular expression, or after
     `\(' or `\|'.

`$'
     is similar to `^' but matches only at the end of a line.  Thus,
     `x+$' matches a string of one `x' or more at the end of a line.

     For historical compatibility reasons, `$' can be used with this
     meaning only at the end of the regular expression, or before `\)'
     or `\|'.

`\'
     has two functions: it quotes the special characters (including
     `\'), and it introduces additional special constructs.

     Because `\' quotes special characters, `\$' is a regular
     expression that matches only `$', and `\[' is a regular expression
     that matches only `[', and so on.

     See the following section for the special constructs that begin
     with `\'.

   Note: for historical compatibility, special characters are treated as
ordinary ones if they are in contexts where their special meanings make
no sense.  For example, `*foo' treats `*' as ordinary since there is no
preceding expression on which the `*' can act.  It is poor practice to
depend on this behavior; it is better to quote the special character
anyway, regardless of where it appears.

   As a `\' is not special inside a character alternative, it can never
remove the special meaning of `-' or `]'.  So you should not quote
these characters when they have no special meaning either.  This would
not clarify anything, since backslashes can legitimately precede these
characters where they _have_ special meaning, as in `[^\]' (`"[^\\]"'
for Lisp string syntax), which matches any single character except a
backslash.


File: emacs,  Node: Regexp Backslash,  Next: Regexp Example,  Prev: Regexps,  Up: Search

20.6 Backslash in Regular Expressions
=====================================

For the most part, `\' followed by any character matches only that
character.  However, there are several exceptions: two-character
sequences starting with `\' that have special meanings.  The second
character in the sequence is always an ordinary character when used on
its own.  Here is a table of `\' constructs.

`\|'
     specifies an alternative.  Two regular expressions A and B with
     `\|' in between form an expression that matches some text if
     either A matches it or B matches it.  It works by trying to match
     A, and if that fails, by trying to match B.

     Thus, `foo\|bar' matches either `foo' or `bar' but no other string.

     `\|' applies to the largest possible surrounding expressions.
     Only a surrounding `\( ... \)' grouping can limit the grouping
     power of `\|'.

     Full backtracking capability exists to handle multiple uses of
     `\|'.

`\( ... \)'
     is a grouping construct that serves three purposes:

       1. To enclose a set of `\|' alternatives for other operations.
          Thus, `\(foo\|bar\)x' matches either `foox' or `barx'.

       2. To enclose a complicated expression for the postfix operators
          `*', `+' and `?' to operate on.  Thus, `ba\(na\)*' matches
          `bananana', etc., with any (zero or more) number of `na'
          strings.

       3. To record a matched substring for future reference.

     This last application is not a consequence of the idea of a
     parenthetical grouping; it is a separate feature that is assigned
     as a second meaning to the same `\( ... \)' construct.  In practice
     there is usually no conflict between the two meanings; when there
     is a conflict, you can use a "shy" group.

`\(?: ... \)'
     specifies a "shy" group that does not record the matched substring;
     you can't refer back to it with `\D'.  This is useful in
     mechanically combining regular expressions, so that you can add
     groups for syntactic purposes without interfering with the
     numbering of the groups that are meant to be referred to.

`\D'
     matches the same text that matched the Dth occurrence of a `\( ...
     \)' construct.  This is called a "back reference".

     After the end of a `\( ... \)' construct, the matcher remembers
     the beginning and end of the text matched by that construct.  Then,
     later on in the regular expression, you can use `\' followed by the
     digit D to mean "match the same text matched the Dth time by the
     `\( ... \)' construct."

     The strings matching the first nine `\( ... \)' constructs
     appearing in a regular expression are assigned numbers 1 through 9
     in the order that the open-parentheses appear in the regular
     expression.  So you can use `\1' through `\9' to refer to the text
     matched by the corresponding `\( ... \)' constructs.

     For example, `\(.*\)\1' matches any newline-free string that is
     composed of two identical halves.  The `\(.*\)' matches the first
     half, which may be anything, but the `\1' that follows must match
     the same exact text.

     If a particular `\( ... \)' construct matches more than once
     (which can easily happen if it is followed by `*'), only the last
     match is recorded.

`\`'
     matches the empty string, but only at the beginning of the string
     or buffer (or its accessible portion) being matched against.

`\''
     matches the empty string, but only at the end of the string or
     buffer (or its accessible portion) being matched against.

`\='
     matches the empty string, but only at point.

`\b'
     matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a
     word.  Thus, `\bfoo\b' matches any occurrence of `foo' as a
     separate word.  `\bballs?\b' matches `ball' or `balls' as a
     separate word.

     `\b' matches at the beginning or end of the buffer regardless of
     what text appears next to it.

`\B'
     matches the empty string, but _not_ at the beginning or end of a
     word.

`\<'
     matches the empty string, but only at the beginning of a word.
     `\<' matches at the beginning of the buffer only if a
     word-constituent character follows.

`\>'
     matches the empty string, but only at the end of a word.  `\>'
     matches at the end of the buffer only if the contents end with a
     word-constituent character.

`\w'
     matches any word-constituent character.  The syntax table
     determines which characters these are.  *Note Syntax::.

`\W'
     matches any character that is not a word-constituent.

`\_<'
     matches the empty string, but only at the beginning of a symbol.
     A symbol is a sequence of one or more symbol-constituent
     characters.  A symbol-constituent character is a character whose
     syntax is either `w' or `_'.  `\_<' matches at the beginning of the
     buffer only if a symbol-constituent character follows.

`\_>'
     matches the empty string, but only at the end of a symbol.  `\_>'
     matches at the end of the buffer only if the contents end with a
     symbol-constituent character.

`\sC'
     matches any character whose syntax is C.  Here C is a character
     that designates a particular syntax class: thus, `w' for word
     constituent, `-' or ` ' for whitespace, `.' for ordinary
     punctuation, etc.  *Note Syntax::.

`\SC'
     matches any character whose syntax is not C.

`\cC'
     matches any character that belongs to the category C.  For
     example, `\cc' matches Chinese characters, `\cg' matches Greek
     characters, etc.  For the description of the known categories,
     type `M-x describe-categories <RET>'.

`\CC'
     matches any character that does _not_ belong to category C.

   The constructs that pertain to words and syntax are controlled by the
setting of the syntax table (*note Syntax::).


File: emacs,  Node: Regexp Example,  Next: Search Case,  Prev: Regexp Backslash,  Up: Search

20.7 Regular Expression Example
===============================

Here is a complicated regexp--a simplified version of the regexp that
Emacs uses, by default, to recognize the end of a sentence together
with any whitespace that follows.  We show its Lisp syntax to
distinguish the spaces from the tab characters.  In Lisp syntax, the
string constant begins and ends with a double-quote.  `\"' stands for a
double-quote as part of the regexp, `\\' for a backslash as part of the
regexp, `\t' for a tab, and `\n' for a newline.

     "[.?!][]\"')]*\\($\\| $\\|\t\\|  \\)[ \t\n]*"

This contains four parts in succession: a character set matching
period, `?', or `!'; a character set matching close-brackets, quotes,
or parentheses, repeated zero or more times; a set of alternatives
within backslash-parentheses that matches either end-of-line, a space
at the end of a line, a tab, or two spaces; and a character set
matching whitespace characters, repeated any number of times.

   To enter the same regexp in incremental search, you would type <TAB>
to enter a tab, and `C-j' to enter a newline.  You would also type
single backslashes as themselves, instead of doubling them for Lisp
syntax.  In commands that use ordinary minibuffer input to read a
regexp, you would quote the `C-j' by preceding it with a `C-q' to
prevent `C-j' from exiting the minibuffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Search Case,  Next: Replace,  Prev: Regexp Example,  Up: Search

20.8 Searching and Case
=======================

Incremental searches in Emacs normally ignore the case of the text they
are searching through, if you specify the text in lower case.  Thus, if
you specify searching for `foo', then `Foo' and `foo' are also
considered a match.  Regexps, and in particular character sets, are
included: `[ab]' would match `a' or `A' or `b' or `B'.

   An upper-case letter anywhere in the incremental search string makes
the search case-sensitive.  Thus, searching for `Foo' does not find
`foo' or `FOO'.  This applies to regular expression search as well as
to string search.  The effect ceases if you delete the upper-case
letter from the search string.

   Typing `M-c' within an incremental search toggles the case
sensitivity of that search.  The effect does not extend beyond the
current incremental search to the next one, but it does override the
effect of including an upper-case letter in the current search.

   If you set the variable `case-fold-search' to `nil', then all
letters must match exactly, including case.  This is a per-buffer
variable; altering the variable affects only the current buffer, but
there is a default value in `default-case-fold-search' that you can
also set.  *Note Locals::.  This variable applies to nonincremental
searches also, including those performed by the replace commands (*note
Replace::) and the minibuffer history matching commands (*note
Minibuffer History::).

   Several related variables control case-sensitivity of searching and
matching for specific commands or activities.  For instance,
`tags-case-fold-search' controls case sensitivity for `find-tag'.  To
find these variables, do `M-x apropos-variable <RET> case-fold-search
<RET>'.


File: emacs,  Node: Replace,  Next: Other Repeating Search,  Prev: Search Case,  Up: Search

20.9 Replacement Commands
=========================

Global search-and-replace operations are not needed often in Emacs, but
they are available.  In addition to the simple `M-x replace-string'
command which replaces all occurrences, there is `M-%'
(`query-replace'), which presents each occurrence of the pattern and
asks you whether to replace it.

   The replace commands normally operate on the text from point to the
end of the buffer; however, in Transient Mark mode (*note Transient
Mark::), when the mark is active, they operate on the region.  The
basic replace commands replace one string (or regexp) with one
replacement string.  It is possible to perform several replacements in
parallel using the command `expand-region-abbrevs' (*note Expanding
Abbrevs::).

* Menu:

* Unconditional Replace::	Replacing all matches for a string.
* Regexp Replace::		Replacing all matches for a regexp.
* Replacement and Case::	How replacements preserve case of letters.
* Query Replace::		How to use querying.


File: emacs,  Node: Unconditional Replace,  Next: Regexp Replace,  Prev: Replace,  Up: Replace

20.9.1 Unconditional Replacement
--------------------------------

`M-x replace-string <RET> STRING <RET> NEWSTRING <RET>'
     Replace every occurrence of STRING with NEWSTRING.

   To replace every instance of `foo' after point with `bar', use the
command `M-x replace-string' with the two arguments `foo' and `bar'.
Replacement happens only in the text after point, so if you want to
cover the whole buffer you must go to the beginning first.  All
occurrences up to the end of the buffer are replaced; to limit
replacement to part of the buffer, narrow to that part of the buffer
before doing the replacement (*note Narrowing::).  In Transient Mark
mode, when the region is active, replacement is limited to the region
(*note Transient Mark::).

   When `replace-string' exits, it leaves point at the last occurrence
replaced.  It sets the mark to the prior position of point (where the
`replace-string' command was issued); use `C-u C-<SPC>' to move back
there.

   A numeric argument restricts replacement to matches that are
surrounded by word boundaries.  The argument's value doesn't matter.

   *Note Replacement and Case::, for details about case-sensitivity in
replace commands.

   What if you want to exchange `x' and `y': replace every `x' with a
`y' and vice versa?  You can do it this way:

     M-x replace-string <RET> x <RET> @TEMP@ <RET>
     M-< M-x replace-string <RET> y <RET> x <RET>
     M-< M-x replace-string <RET> @TEMP@ <RET> y <RET>

This works provided the string `@TEMP@' does not appear in your text.


File: emacs,  Node: Regexp Replace,  Next: Replacement and Case,  Prev: Unconditional Replace,  Up: Replace

20.9.2 Regexp Replacement
-------------------------

The `M-x replace-string' command replaces exact matches for a single
string.  The similar command `M-x replace-regexp' replaces any match
for a specified pattern.

`M-x replace-regexp <RET> REGEXP <RET> NEWSTRING <RET>'
     Replace every match for REGEXP with NEWSTRING.

   In `replace-regexp', the NEWSTRING need not be constant: it can
refer to all or part of what is matched by the REGEXP.  `\&' in
NEWSTRING stands for the entire match being replaced.  `\D' in
NEWSTRING, where D is a digit, stands for whatever matched the Dth
parenthesized grouping in REGEXP.  (This is called a "back reference.")
`\#' refers to the count of replacements already made in this command,
as a decimal number.  In the first replacement, `\#' stands for `0'; in
the second, for `1'; and so on.  For example,

     M-x replace-regexp <RET> c[ad]+r <RET> \&-safe <RET>

replaces (for example) `cadr' with `cadr-safe' and `cddr' with
`cddr-safe'.

     M-x replace-regexp <RET> \(c[ad]+r\)-safe <RET> \1 <RET>

performs the inverse transformation.  To include a `\' in the text to
replace with, you must enter `\\'.

   If you want to enter part of the replacement string by hand each
time, use `\?' in the replacement string.  Each replacement will ask
you to edit the replacement string in the minibuffer, putting point
where the `\?' was.

   The remainder of this subsection is intended for specialized tasks
and requires knowledge of Lisp.  Most readers can skip it.

   You can use Lisp expressions to calculate parts of the replacement
string.  To do this, write `\,' followed by the expression in the
replacement string.  Each replacement calculates the value of the
expression and converts it to text without quoting (if it's a string,
this means using the string's contents), and uses it in the replacement
string in place of the expression itself.  If the expression is a
symbol, one space in the replacement string after the symbol name goes
with the symbol name, so the value replaces them both.

   Inside such an expression, you can use some special sequences.  `\&'
and `\N' refer here, as usual, to the entire match as a string, and to
a submatch as a string.  N may be multiple digits, and the value of
`\N' is `nil' if subexpression N did not match.  You can also use `\#&'
and `\#N' to refer to those matches as numbers (this is valid when the
match or submatch has the form of a numeral).  `\#' here too stands for
the number of already-completed replacements.

   Repeating our example to exchange `x' and `y', we can thus do it
also this way:

     M-x replace-regexp <RET> \(x\)\|y <RET>
     \,(if \1 "y" "x") <RET>

   For computing replacement strings for `\,', the `format' function is
often useful (*note Formatting Strings: (elisp)Formatting Strings.).
For example, to add consecutively numbered strings like `ABC00042' to
columns 73 to 80 (unless they are already occupied), you can use

     M-x replace-regexp <RET> ^.\{0,72\}$ <RET>
     \,(format "%-72sABC%05d" \& \#) <RET>


File: emacs,  Node: Replacement and Case,  Next: Query Replace,  Prev: Regexp Replace,  Up: Replace

20.9.3 Replace Commands and Case
--------------------------------

If the first argument of a replace command is all lower case, the
command ignores case while searching for occurrences to
replace--provided `case-fold-search' is non-`nil'.  If
`case-fold-search' is set to `nil', case is always significant in all
searches.

   In addition, when the NEWSTRING argument is all or partly lower
case, replacement commands try to preserve the case pattern of each
occurrence.  Thus, the command

     M-x replace-string <RET> foo <RET> bar <RET>

replaces a lower case `foo' with a lower case `bar', an all-caps `FOO'
with `BAR', and a capitalized `Foo' with `Bar'.  (These three
alternatives--lower case, all caps, and capitalized, are the only ones
that `replace-string' can distinguish.)

   If upper-case letters are used in the replacement string, they remain
upper case every time that text is inserted.  If upper-case letters are
used in the first argument, the second argument is always substituted
exactly as given, with no case conversion.  Likewise, if either
`case-replace' or `case-fold-search' is set to `nil', replacement is
done without case conversion.


File: emacs,  Node: Query Replace,  Prev: Replacement and Case,  Up: Replace

20.9.4 Query Replace
--------------------

`M-% STRING <RET> NEWSTRING <RET>'
`M-x query-replace <RET> STRING <RET> NEWSTRING <RET>'
     Replace some occurrences of STRING with NEWSTRING.

`C-M-% REGEXP <RET> NEWSTRING <RET>'
`M-x query-replace-regexp <RET> REGEXP <RET> NEWSTRING <RET>'
     Replace some matches for REGEXP with NEWSTRING.

   If you want to change only some of the occurrences of `foo' to
`bar', not all of them, then you cannot use an ordinary
`replace-string'.  Instead, use `M-%' (`query-replace').  This command
finds occurrences of `foo' one by one, displays each occurrence and
asks you whether to replace it.  Aside from querying, `query-replace'
works just like `replace-string'.  It preserves case, like
`replace-string', provided `case-replace' is non-`nil', as it normally
is (*note Replacement and Case::).  A numeric argument means consider
only occurrences that are bounded by word-delimiter characters.

   `C-M-%' performs regexp search and replace (`query-replace-regexp').
It works like `replace-regexp' except that it queries like
`query-replace'.

   These commands highlight the current match using the face
`query-replace'.  They highlight other matches using `lazy-highlight'
just like incremental search (*note Incremental Search::).

   The characters you can type when you are shown a match for the string
or regexp are:

`<SPC>'
     to replace the occurrence with NEWSTRING.

`<DEL>'
     to skip to the next occurrence without replacing this one.

`, (Comma)'
     to replace this occurrence and display the result.  You are then
     asked for another input character to say what to do next.  Since
     the replacement has already been made, <DEL> and <SPC> are
     equivalent in this situation; both move to the next occurrence.

     You can type `C-r' at this point (see below) to alter the replaced
     text.  You can also type `C-x u' to undo the replacement; this
     exits the `query-replace', so if you want to do further
     replacement you must use `C-x <ESC> <ESC> <RET>' to restart (*note
     Repetition::).

`<RET>'
     to exit without doing any more replacements.

`. (Period)'
     to replace this occurrence and then exit without searching for more
     occurrences.

`!'
     to replace all remaining occurrences without asking again.

`^'
     to go back to the position of the previous occurrence (or what
     used to be an occurrence), in case you changed it by mistake or
     want to reexamine it.

`C-r'
     to enter a recursive editing level, in case the occurrence needs
     to be edited rather than just replaced with NEWSTRING.  When you
     are done, exit the recursive editing level with `C-M-c' to proceed
     to the next occurrence.  *Note Recursive Edit::.

`C-w'
     to delete the occurrence, and then enter a recursive editing level
     as in `C-r'.  Use the recursive edit to insert text to replace the
     deleted occurrence of STRING.  When done, exit the recursive
     editing level with `C-M-c' to proceed to the next occurrence.

`e'
     to edit the replacement string in the minibuffer.  When you exit
     the minibuffer by typing <RET>, the minibuffer contents replace the
     current occurrence of the pattern.  They also become the new
     replacement string for any further occurrences.

`C-l'
     to redisplay the screen.  Then you must type another character to
     specify what to do with this occurrence.

`C-h'
     to display a message summarizing these options.  Then you must type
     another character to specify what to do with this occurrence.

   Some other characters are aliases for the ones listed above: `y',
`n' and `q' are equivalent to <SPC>, <DEL> and <RET>.

   Aside from this, any other character exits the `query-replace', and
is then reread as part of a key sequence.  Thus, if you type `C-k', it
exits the `query-replace' and then kills to end of line.

   To restart a `query-replace' once it is exited, use `C-x <ESC>
<ESC>', which repeats the `query-replace' because it used the
minibuffer to read its arguments.  *Note C-x ESC ESC: Repetition.

   *Note Operating on Files::, for the Dired `Q' command which performs
query replace on selected files.  See also *Note Transforming File
Names::, for Dired commands to rename, copy, or link files by replacing
regexp matches in file names.


File: emacs,  Node: Other Repeating Search,  Prev: Replace,  Up: Search

20.10 Other Search-and-Loop Commands
====================================

Here are some other commands that find matches for a regular
expression.  They all ignore case in matching, if the pattern contains
no upper-case letters and `case-fold-search' is non-`nil'.  Aside from
`occur' and its variants, all operate on the text from point to the end
of the buffer, or on the active region in Transient Mark mode.

`M-x occur <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     Display a list showing each line in the buffer that contains a
     match for REGEXP.  To limit the search to part of the buffer,
     narrow to that part (*note Narrowing::).  A numeric argument N
     specifies that N lines of context are to be displayed before and
     after each matching line.  Currently, `occur' can not correctly
     handle multiline matches.

     The buffer `*Occur*' containing the output serves as a menu for
     finding the occurrences in their original context.  Click
     `Mouse-2' on an occurrence listed in `*Occur*', or position point
     there and type <RET>; this switches to the buffer that was
     searched and moves point to the original of the chosen occurrence.
     `o' and `C-o' display the match in another window; `C-o' does not
     select it.

     After using `M-x occur', you can use `next-error' to visit the
     occurrences found, one by one.  *Note Compilation Mode::.

`M-x list-matching-lines'
     Synonym for `M-x occur'.

`M-x multi-occur <RET> BUFFERS <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     This function is just like `occur', except it is able to search
     through multiple buffers.  It asks you to specify the buffer names
     one by one.

`M-x multi-occur-in-matching-buffers <RET> BUFREGEXP <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     This function is similar to `multi-occur', except the buffers to
     search are specified by a regular expression that matches visited
     file names.  With a prefix argument, it uses the regular
     expression to match buffer names instead.

`M-x how-many <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     Print the number of matches for REGEXP that exist in the buffer
     after point.  In Transient Mark mode, if the region is active, the
     command operates on the region instead.

`M-x flush-lines <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     This command deletes each line that contains a match for REGEXP,
     operating on the text after point; it deletes the current line if
     it contains a match starting after point.  In Transient Mark mode,
     if the region is active, the command operates on the region
     instead; it deletes a line partially contained in the region if it
     contains a match entirely contained in the region.

     If a match is split across lines, `flush-lines' deletes all those
     lines.  It deletes the lines before starting to look for the next
     match; hence, it ignores a match starting on the same line at which
     another match ended.

`M-x keep-lines <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     This command deletes each line that _does not_ contain a match for
     REGEXP, operating on the text after point; if point is not at the
     beginning of a line, it always keeps the current line.  In
     Transient Mark mode, if the region is active, the command operates
     on the region instead; it never deletes lines that are only
     partially contained in the region (a newline that ends a line
     counts as part of that line).

     If a match is split across lines, this command keeps all those
     lines.


File: emacs,  Node: Fixit,  Next: Keyboard Macros,  Prev: Search,  Up: Top

21 Commands for Fixing Typos
****************************

In this chapter we describe the commands that are especially useful for
the times when you catch a mistake in your text just after you have made
it, or change your mind while composing text on the fly.

   The most fundamental command for correcting erroneous editing is the
undo command, `C-x u' or `C-_' or `C-/'.  This command undoes a single
command (usually), a part of a command (in the case of
`query-replace'), or several consecutive self-inserting characters.
Consecutive repetitions of the undo command undo earlier and earlier
changes, back to the limit of the undo information available.  *Note
Undo::, for more information.

* Menu:

* Undo::        The Undo commands.
* Kill Errors:: Commands to kill a batch of recently entered text.
* Transpose::   Exchanging two characters, words, lines, lists...
* Fixing Case:: Correcting case of last word entered.
* Spelling::    Apply spelling checker to a word, or a whole file.


File: emacs,  Node: Undo,  Next: Kill Errors,  Up: Fixit

21.1 Undo
=========

The "undo" commands undo recent changes in the buffer's text.  Each
buffer records changes individually, and the undo command always
applies to the current buffer.  You can undo all the changes in a
buffer for as far as back these records go.  Usually each editing
command makes a separate entry in the undo records, but some commands
such as `query-replace' divide their changes into multiple entries for
flexibility in undoing.  Meanwhile, self-inserting characters are
usually grouped to make undoing less tedious.

`C-x u'
`C-_'
`C-/'
     Undo one entry in the current buffer's undo records (`undo').

   To begin to undo, type the command `C-x u' (or its aliases, `C-_' or
`C-/').  This undoes the most recent change in the buffer, and moves
point back to where it was before that change.

   Consecutive repetitions of `C-x u' (or its aliases) undo earlier and
earlier changes in the current buffer, back to the limit of the current
buffer's undo records.  If all the recorded changes have already been
undone, the undo command just signals an error.

   If you notice that a buffer has been modified accidentally, the
easiest way to recover is to type `C-_' repeatedly until the stars
disappear from the front of the mode line.  At this time, all the
modifications you made have been canceled.  Whenever an undo command
makes the stars disappear from the mode line, it means that the buffer
contents are the same as they were when the file was last read in or
saved.

   If you do not remember whether you changed the buffer deliberately,
type `C-_' once.  When you see the last change you made undone, you
will see whether it was an intentional change.  If it was an accident,
leave it undone.  If it was deliberate, redo the change as described
below.

   Any command other than an undo command breaks the sequence of undo
commands.  Starting from that moment, the previous undo commands become
ordinary changes that you can undo.  Thus, to redo changes you have
undone, type `C-f' or any other command that will harmlessly break the
sequence of undoing, then type undo commands again.  On the other hand,
if you want to resume undoing, without redoing previous undo commands,
use `M-x undo-only'.  This is like `undo', but will not redo changes
you have just undone.

   Ordinary undo applies to all changes made in the current buffer.  You
can also perform "selective undo", limited to the region.

   To do this, specify the region you want, then run the `undo' command
with a prefix argument (the value does not matter): `C-u C-x u' or `C-u
C-_'.  This undoes the most recent change in the region.  To undo
further changes in the same region, repeat the `undo' command (no
prefix argument is needed).  In Transient Mark mode (*note Transient
Mark::), any use of `undo' when there is an active region performs
selective undo; you do not need a prefix argument.

   Some specialized buffers do not make undo records.  Buffers whose
names start with spaces never do; these buffers are used internally by
Emacs and its extensions to hold text that users don't normally look at
or edit.

   When the undo records for a buffer becomes too large, Emacs discards
the oldest undo records from time to time (during garbage collection).
You can specify how much undo records to keep by setting three
variables: `undo-limit', `undo-strong-limit', and `undo-outer-limit'.
Their values are expressed in units of bytes of space.

   The variable `undo-limit' sets a soft limit: Emacs keeps undo data
for enough commands to reach this size, and perhaps exceed it, but does
not keep data for any earlier commands beyond that.  Its default value
is 20000.  The variable `undo-strong-limit' sets a stricter limit: a
previous command (not the most recent one) which pushes the size past
this amount is itself forgotten.  The default value of
`undo-strong-limit' is 30000.

   Regardless of the values of those variables, the most recent change
is never discarded unless it gets bigger than `undo-outer-limit'
(normally 3,000,000).  At that point, Emacs discards the undo data and
warns you about it.  This is the only situation in which you cannot
undo the last command.  If this happens, you can increase the value of
`undo-outer-limit' to make it even less likely to happen in the future.
But if you didn't expect the command to create such large undo data,
then it is probably a bug and you should report it.  *Note Reporting
Bugs: Bugs.

   The reason the `undo' command has three key bindings, `C-x u', `C-_'
and `C-/', is that it is worthy of a single-character key, but `C-x u'
is more straightforward for beginners to remember and type.  Meanwhile,
`C--' on a text-only terminal is really `C-_', which makes it a natural
and easily typed binding for undoing.


File: emacs,  Node: Kill Errors,  Next: Transpose,  Prev: Undo,  Up: Fixit

21.2 Killing Your Mistakes
==========================

`<DEL>'
     Delete last character (`delete-backward-char').

`M-<DEL>'
     Kill last word (`backward-kill-word').

`C-x <DEL>'
     Kill to beginning of sentence (`backward-kill-sentence').

   The <DEL> character (`delete-backward-char') is the most important
correction command.  It deletes the character before point.  When <DEL>
follows a self-inserting character command, you can think of it as
canceling that command.  However, avoid the confusion of thinking of
<DEL> as a general way to cancel a command!

   When your mistake is longer than a couple of characters, it might be
more convenient to use `M-<DEL>' or `C-x <DEL>'.  `M-<DEL>' kills back
to the start of the last word, and `C-x <DEL>' kills back to the start
of the last sentence.  `C-x <DEL>' is particularly useful when you
change your mind about the phrasing of the text you are writing.
`M-<DEL>' and `C-x <DEL>' save the killed text for `C-y' and `M-y' to
retrieve.  *Note Yanking::.

   `M-<DEL>' is often useful even when you have typed only a few
characters wrong, if you know you are confused in your typing and aren't
sure exactly what you typed.  At such a time, you cannot correct with
<DEL> except by looking at the screen to see what you did.  Often it
requires less thought to kill the whole word and start again.


File: emacs,  Node: Transpose,  Next: Fixing Case,  Prev: Kill Errors,  Up: Fixit

21.3 Transposing Text
=====================

`C-t'
     Transpose two characters (`transpose-chars').

`M-t'
     Transpose two words (`transpose-words').

`C-M-t'
     Transpose two balanced expressions (`transpose-sexps').

`C-x C-t'
     Transpose two lines (`transpose-lines').

   The common error of transposing two characters can be fixed, when
they are adjacent, with the `C-t' command (`transpose-chars').
Normally, `C-t' transposes the two characters on either side of point.
When given at the end of a line, rather than transposing the last
character of the line with the newline, which would be useless, `C-t'
transposes the last two characters on the line.  So, if you catch your
transposition error right away, you can fix it with just a `C-t'.  If
you don't catch it so fast, you must move the cursor back between the
two transposed characters before you type `C-t'.  If you transposed a
space with the last character of the word before it, the word motion
commands are a good way of getting there.  Otherwise, a reverse search
(`C-r') is often the best way.  *Note Search::.

   `M-t' transposes the word before point with the word after point
(`transpose-words').  It moves point forward over a word, dragging the
word preceding or containing point forward as well.  The punctuation
characters between the words do not move.  For example, `FOO, BAR'
transposes into `BAR, FOO' rather than `BAR FOO,'.

   `C-M-t' (`transpose-sexps') is a similar command for transposing two
expressions (*note Expressions::), and `C-x C-t' (`transpose-lines')
exchanges lines.  They work like `M-t' except as regards what units of
text they transpose.

   A numeric argument to a transpose command serves as a repeat count:
it tells the transpose command to move the character (word, expression,
line) before or containing point across several other characters (words,
expressions, lines).  For example, `C-u 3 C-t' moves the character
before point forward across three other characters.  It would change
`f-!-oobar' into `oobf-!-ar'.  This is equivalent to repeating `C-t'
three times.  `C-u - 4 M-t' moves the word before point backward across
four words.  `C-u - C-M-t' would cancel the effect of plain `C-M-t'.

   A numeric argument of zero is assigned a special meaning (because
otherwise a command with a repeat count of zero would do nothing): to
transpose the character (word, expression, line) ending after point
with the one ending after the mark.


File: emacs,  Node: Fixing Case,  Next: Spelling,  Prev: Transpose,  Up: Fixit

21.4 Case Conversion
====================

`M-- M-l'
     Convert last word to lower case.  Note `Meta--' is Meta-minus.

`M-- M-u'
     Convert last word to all upper case.

`M-- M-c'
     Convert last word to lower case with capital initial.

   A very common error is to type words in the wrong case.  Because of
this, the word case-conversion commands `M-l', `M-u' and `M-c' have a
special feature when used with a negative argument: they do not move the
cursor.  As soon as you see you have mistyped the last word, you can
simply case-convert it and go on typing.  *Note Case::.


File: emacs,  Node: Spelling,  Prev: Fixing Case,  Up: Fixit

21.5 Checking and Correcting Spelling
=====================================

This section describes the commands to check the spelling of a single
word or of a portion of a buffer.  These commands work with the spelling
checker programs Aspell and Ispell, which are not part of Emacs.  *Note
Aspell: (aspell)Top.

`M-x flyspell-mode'
     Enable Flyspell mode, which highlights all misspelled words.

`M-x flyspell-prog-mode'
     Enable Flyspell mode for comments and strings only.

`M-$'
     Check and correct spelling of the word at point (`ispell-word').

`M-<TAB>'
`<ESC> <TAB>'
     Complete the word before point based on the spelling dictionary
     (`ispell-complete-word').

`M-x ispell'
     Spell-check the active region or the current buffer.

`M-x ispell-buffer'
     Check and correct spelling of each word in the buffer.

`M-x ispell-region'
     Check and correct spelling of each word in the region.

`M-x ispell-message'
     Check and correct spelling of each word in a draft mail message,
     excluding cited material.

`M-x ispell-change-dictionary <RET> DICT <RET>'
     Restart the Aspell or Ispell process, using DICT as the dictionary.

`M-x ispell-kill-ispell'
     Kill the Aspell or Ispell subprocess.

   Flyspell mode is a fully-automatic way to check spelling as you edit
in Emacs.  It operates by checking words as you change or insert them.
When it finds a word that it does not recognize, it highlights that
word.  This does not interfere with your editing, but when you see the
highlighted word, you can move to it and fix it.  Type `M-x
flyspell-mode' to enable or disable this mode in the current buffer.

   When Flyspell mode highlights a word as misspelled, you can click on
it with `Mouse-2' to display a menu of possible corrections and
actions.  You can also correct the word by editing it manually in any
way you like.

   Flyspell Prog mode works just like ordinary Flyspell mode, except
that it only checks words in comments and string constants.  This
feature is useful for editing programs.  Type `M-x flyspell-prog-mode'
to enable or disable this mode in the current buffer.

   The other Emacs spell-checking features check or look up words when
you give an explicit command to do so.

   To check the spelling of the word around or before point, and
optionally correct it as well, use the command `M-$' (`ispell-word').
If the word is not correct, the command offers you various alternatives
for what to do about it.

   To check the entire current buffer, use `M-x ispell-buffer'.  Use
`M-x ispell-region' to check just the current region.  To check
spelling in an email message you are writing, use `M-x ispell-message';
that command checks the whole buffer, except for material that is
indented or appears to be cited from other messages.

   The `M-x ispell' command spell-checks the active region if the
Transient Mark mode is on (*note Transient Mark::), otherwise it
spell-checks the current buffer.

   Each time these commands encounter an incorrect word, they ask you
what to do.  They display a list of alternatives, usually including
several "near-misses"--words that are close to the word being checked.
Then you must type a single-character response.  Here are the valid
responses:

`<SPC>'
     Skip this word--continue to consider it incorrect, but don't
     change it here.

`r NEW <RET>'
     Replace the word (just this time) with NEW.  (The replacement
     string will be rescanned for more spelling errors.)

`R NEW <RET>'
     Replace the word with NEW, and do a `query-replace' so you can
     replace it elsewhere in the buffer if you wish.  (The replacements
     will be rescanned for more spelling errors.)

`DIGIT'
     Replace the word (just this time) with one of the displayed
     near-misses.  Each near-miss is listed with a digit; type that
     digit to select it.

`a'
     Accept the incorrect word--treat it as correct, but only in this
     editing session.

`A'
     Accept the incorrect word--treat it as correct, but only in this
     editing session and for this buffer.

`i'
     Insert this word in your private dictionary file so that Aspell or
     Ispell will consider it correct from now on, even in future
     sessions.

`u'
     Insert the lower-case version of this word in your private
     dictionary file.

`m'
     Like `i', but you can also specify dictionary completion
     information.

`l WORD <RET>'
     Look in the dictionary for words that match WORD.  These words
     become the new list of "near-misses"; you can select one of them as
     the replacement by typing a digit.  You can use `*' in WORD as a
     wildcard.

`C-g'
     Quit interactive spell checking, leaving point at the word that was
     being checked.  You can restart checking again afterward with `C-u
     M-$'.

`X'
     Same as `C-g'.

`x'
     Quit interactive spell checking and move point back to where it was
     when you started spell checking.

`q'
     Quit interactive spell checking and kill the Ispell subprocess.

`C-l'
     Refresh the screen.

`C-z'
     This key has its normal command meaning (suspend Emacs or iconify
     this frame).

`?'
     Show the list of options.

   The command `ispell-complete-word', which is bound to the key
`M-<TAB>' in Text mode and related modes, shows a list of completions
based on spelling correction.  Insert the beginning of a word, and then
type `M-<TAB>'; the command displays a completion list window.  (If
your window manager intercepts `M-<TAB>', type `<ESC> <TAB>' or
`C-M-i'.)  To choose one of the completions listed, click `Mouse-2' or
`Mouse-1' fast on it, or move the cursor there in the completions
window and type <RET>.  *Note Text Mode::.

   Once started, the Aspell or Ispell subprocess continues to run
(waiting for something to do), so that subsequent spell checking
commands complete more quickly.  If you want to get rid of the process,
use `M-x ispell-kill-ispell'.  This is not usually necessary, since the
process uses no time except when you do spelling correction.

   Ispell and Aspell use two dictionaries together for spell checking:
the standard dictionary and your private dictionary.  The variable
`ispell-dictionary' specifies the file name to use for the standard
dictionary; a value of `nil' selects the default dictionary.  The
command `M-x ispell-change-dictionary' sets this variable and then
restarts the subprocess, so that it will use a different standard
dictionary.

   Aspell and Ispell use a separate dictionary for word completion.
The variable `ispell-complete-word-dict' specifies the file name of
this dictionary.  The completion dictionary must be different because
it cannot use root and affix information.  For some languages there is
a spell checking dictionary but no word completion dictionary.


File: emacs,  Node: Keyboard Macros,  Next: Files,  Prev: Fixit,  Up: Top

22 Keyboard Macros
******************

In this chapter we describe how to record a sequence of editing
commands so you can repeat it conveniently later.

   A "keyboard macro" is a command defined by an Emacs user to stand for
another sequence of keys.  For example, if you discover that you are
about to type `C-n M-d C-d' forty times, you can speed your work by
defining a keyboard macro to do `C-n M-d C-d', and then executing it 39
more times.

   You define a keyboard macro by executing and recording the commands
which are its definition.  Put differently, as you define a keyboard
macro, the definition is being executed for the first time.  This way,
you can see the effects of your commands, so that you don't have to
figure them out in your head.  When you close the definition, the
keyboard macro is defined and also has been, in effect, executed once.
You can then do the whole thing over again by invoking the macro.

   Keyboard macros differ from ordinary Emacs commands in that they are
written in the Emacs command language rather than in Lisp.  This makes
it easier for the novice to write them, and makes them more convenient
as temporary hacks.  However, the Emacs command language is not powerful
enough as a programming language to be useful for writing anything
intelligent or general.  For such things, Lisp must be used.

* Menu:

* Basic Keyboard Macro::     Defining and running keyboard macros.
* Keyboard Macro Ring::      Where previous keyboard macros are saved.
* Keyboard Macro Counter::   Inserting incrementing numbers in macros.
* Keyboard Macro Query::     Making keyboard macros do different things each time.
* Save Keyboard Macro::      Giving keyboard macros names; saving them in files.
* Edit Keyboard Macro::      Editing keyboard macros.
* Keyboard Macro Step-Edit:: Interactively executing and editing a keyboard
                               macro.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Keyboard Macro,  Next: Keyboard Macro Ring,  Up: Keyboard Macros

22.1 Basic Use
==============

`<F3>'
`C-x ('
     Start defining a keyboard macro (`kmacro-start-macro').

`<F4>'
     If a keyboard macro is being defined, end the definition;
     otherwise, execute the most recent keyboard macro
     (`kmacro-end-or-call-macro').

`C-x )'
     End the definition of a keyboard macro (`kmacro-end-macro').

`C-x e'
     Execute the most recent keyboard macro
     (`kmacro-end-and-call-macro').  First end the definition of the
     keyboard macro, if currently defining it.  To immediately execute
     the keyboard macro again, just repeat the `e'.

`C-u C-x ('
     Re-execute last keyboard macro, then add more keys to its
     definition.

`C-u C-u C-x ('
     Add more keys to the last keyboard macro without re-executing it.

`C-x C-k r'
     Run the last keyboard macro on each line that begins in the region
     (`apply-macro-to-region-lines').

   To start defining a keyboard macro, type the `F3' or `C-x (' command
(`kmacro-start-macro').  From then on, your keys continue to be
executed, but also become part of the definition of the macro.  `Def'
appears in the mode line to remind you of what is going on.  When you
are finished, the `F4' or `C-x )' command (`kmacro-end-macro')
terminates the definition (without becoming part of it!).  For example,

     C-x ( M-f foo C-x )

defines a macro to move forward a word and then insert `foo'.

   The macro thus defined can be invoked again with the `C-x e' command
(`kmacro-end-and-call-macro'), which may be given a repeat count as a
numeric argument to execute the macro many times.  If you enter `C-x e'
while defining a macro, the macro is terminated and executed
immediately.

   After executing the macro with `C-x e', you can use `e' repeatedly
to immediately repeat the macro one or more times.  For example,

     C-x ( xyz C-x e e e

inserts `xyzxyzxyzxyz' in the current buffer.

   `C-x )' can also be given a repeat count as an argument, in which
case it repeats the macro that many times right after defining it, but
defining the macro counts as the first repetition (since it is executed
as you define it).  Therefore, giving `C-x )' an argument of 4 executes
the macro immediately 3 additional times.  An argument of zero to `C-x
e' or `C-x )' means repeat the macro indefinitely (until it gets an
error or you type `C-g' or, on MS-DOS, `C-<BREAK>').

   The key <F4> is like a combination of `C-x )' and `C-x e'.  If
you're defining a macro, <F4> ends the definition.  Otherwise it
executes the last macro.  For example,

     F3 xyz F4 F4 F4

inserts `xyzxyzxyz' in the current buffer.

   If you wish to repeat an operation at regularly spaced places in the
text, define a macro and include as part of the macro the commands to
move to the next place you want to use it.  For example, if you want to
change each line, you should position point at the start of a line, and
define a macro to change that line and leave point at the start of the
next line.  Then repeating the macro will operate on successive lines.

   When a command reads an argument with the minibuffer, your
minibuffer input becomes part of the macro along with the command.  So
when you replay the macro, the command gets the same argument as when
you entered the macro.  For example,

     C-x ( C-a C-<SPC> C-n M-w C-x b f o o <RET> C-y C-x b <RET> C-x )

defines a macro that copies the current line into the buffer `foo',
then returns to the original buffer.

   You can use function keys in a keyboard macro, just like keyboard
keys.  You can even use mouse events, but be careful about that: when
the macro replays the mouse event, it uses the original mouse position
of that event, the position that the mouse had while you were defining
the macro.  The effect of this may be hard to predict.  (Using the
current mouse position would be even less predictable.)

   One thing that sometimes works badly in a keyboard macro is the
command `C-M-c' (`exit-recursive-edit').  When this command exits a
recursive edit that started within the macro, it works as you'd expect.
But if it exits a recursive edit that started before you invoked the
keyboard macro, it also necessarily exits the keyboard macro as part of
the process.

   After you have terminated the definition of a keyboard macro, you
can add to the end of its definition by typing `C-u F3' or `C-u C-x ('.
This is equivalent to plain `C-x (' followed by retyping the whole
definition so far.  As a consequence it re-executes the macro as
previously defined.

   You can also add to the end of the definition of the last keyboard
macro without re-executing it by typing `C-u C-u C-x ('.

   The variable `kmacro-execute-before-append' specifies whether a
single `C-u' prefix causes the existing macro to be re-executed before
appending to it.

   The command `C-x C-k r' (`apply-macro-to-region-lines') repeats the
last defined keyboard macro on each line that begins in the region.  It
does this line by line, by moving point to the beginning of the line
and then executing the macro.


File: emacs,  Node: Keyboard Macro Ring,  Next: Keyboard Macro Counter,  Prev: Basic Keyboard Macro,  Up: Keyboard Macros

22.2 The Keyboard Macro Ring
============================

All defined keyboard macros are recorded in the "keyboard macro ring,"
a list of sequences of keys.  There is only one keyboard macro ring,
shared by all buffers.

`C-x C-k C-k'
     Execute the keyboard macro at the head of the ring
     (`kmacro-end-or-call-macro-repeat').

`C-x C-k C-n'
     Rotate the keyboard macro ring to the next macro (defined earlier)
     (`kmacro-cycle-ring-next').

`C-x C-k C-p'
     Rotate the keyboard macro ring to the previous macro (defined
     later) (`kmacro-cycle-ring-previous').

   All commands which operate on the keyboard macro ring use the same
`C-x C-k' prefix.  Most of these commands can be executed and repeated
immediately after each other without repeating the `C-x C-k' prefix.
For example,

     C-x C-k C-p C-p C-k C-k C-k C-n C-n C-k C-p C-k C-d

will rotate the keyboard macro ring to the "second previous" macro,
execute the resulting head macro three times, rotate back to the
original head macro, execute that once, rotate to the "previous" macro,
execute that, and finally delete it from the macro ring.

   The command `C-x C-k C-k' (`kmacro-end-or-call-macro-repeat')
executes the keyboard macro at the head of the macro ring.  You can
repeat the macro immediately by typing another `C-k', or you can rotate
the macro ring immediately by typing `C-n' or `C-p'.

   When a keyboard macro is being defined, `C-x C-k C-k' behaves like
`C-x )' except that, immediately afterward, you can use most key
bindings of this section without the `C-x C-k' prefix.  For instance,
another `C-k' will re-execute the macro.

   The commands `C-x C-k C-n' (`kmacro-cycle-ring-next') and `C-x C-k
C-p' (`kmacro-cycle-ring-previous') rotate the macro ring, bringing the
next or previous keyboard macro to the head of the macro ring.  The
definition of the new head macro is displayed in the echo area.  You
can continue to rotate the macro ring immediately by repeating just
`C-n' and `C-p' until the desired macro is at the head of the ring.  To
execute the new macro ring head immediately, just type `C-k'.

   Note that Emacs treats the head of the macro ring as the "last
defined keyboard macro."  For instance, `C-x e' will execute that
macro, and `C-x C-k n' will give it a name.

   The maximum number of macros stored in the keyboard macro ring is
determined by the customizable variable `kmacro-ring-max'.


File: emacs,  Node: Keyboard Macro Counter,  Next: Keyboard Macro Query,  Prev: Keyboard Macro Ring,  Up: Keyboard Macros

22.3 The Keyboard Macro Counter
===============================

`C-x C-k C-i'
     Insert the keyboard macro counter value in the buffer
     (`kmacro-insert-counter').

`C-x C-k C-c'
     Set the keyboard macro counter (`kmacro-set-counter').

`C-x C-k C-a'
     Add the prefix arg to the keyboard macro counter
     (`kmacro-add-counter').

`C-x C-k C-f'
     Specify the format for inserting the keyboard macro counter
     (`kmacro-set-format').

   Each keyboard macro has an associated counter.  Normally, the macro
counter is initialized to 0 when you start defining the macro, and
incremented by 1 after each insertion of the counter value; that is, if
you insert the macro counter twice while defining the macro, the
counter will increase by 2 on each repetition of the macro.

   The command `C-x C-k C-i' (`kmacro-insert-counter') inserts the
current value of the current keyboard macro's counter, and increments
the counter by 1.  You can use a numeric prefix argument to specify a
different increment.  If you just specify a `C-u' prefix, then the
increment is zero, so it repeats the last inserted counter value.  For
example, if you enter the following sequence while defining a macro

     C-x C-k C-i C-x C-k C-i C-u C-x C-k C-i C-x C-k C-i

it inserts `0112' in the buffer.  The next two iterations of the macro
will insert `3445' and `6778'.

   This command usually only makes sense while defining a keyboard
macro.  But its behavior when no keyboard macro is being defined or
executed is predictable: it inserts and increments the counter of the
macro at the head of the keyboard macro ring.

   The command `C-x C-k C-c' (`kmacro-set-counter') sets the current
macro counter to the value of the numeric argument.  If you use it
inside the macro, it operates on each repetition of the macro.  If you
specify just `C-u' as the prefix, while executing the macro, that
resets the counter to the value it had at the beginning of the current
repetition of the macro (undoing any increments so far in this
repetition).

   The command `C-x C-k C-a' (`kmacro-add-counter') adds the prefix
argument to the current macro counter.  With just `C-u' as argument, it
resets the counter to the last value inserted by any keyboard macro.
(Normally, when you use this, the last insertion will be in the same
macro and it will be the same counter.)

   The command `C-x C-k C-f' (`kmacro-set-format') prompts for the
format to use when inserting the macro counter.  The default format is
`%d', which means to insert the number in decimal without any padding.
You can exit with empty minibuffer to reset the format to this default.
You can specify any format string that the `format' function accepts
and that makes sense with a single integer extra argument (*note
Formatting Strings: (elisp)Formatting Strings.).  Do not put the format
string inside double quotes when you insert it in the minibuffer.

   If you use this command while no keyboard macro is being defined or
executed, the new format affects all subsequent macro definitions.
Existing macros continue to use the format in effect when they were
defined.  If you set the format while defining a keyboard macro, this
affects the macro being defined from that point on, but it does not
affect subsequent macros.  Execution of the macro will, at each step,
use the format in effect at that step during its definition.  Changes
to the macro format during execution of a macro, like the corresponding
changes during its definition, have no effect on subsequent macros.

   The format set by `C-x C-k C-f' does not affect insertion of numbers
stored in registers.


File: emacs,  Node: Keyboard Macro Query,  Next: Save Keyboard Macro,  Prev: Keyboard Macro Counter,  Up: Keyboard Macros

22.4 Executing Macros with Variations
=====================================

`C-x q'
     When this point is reached during macro execution, ask for
     confirmation (`kbd-macro-query').

   Using `C-x q' (`kbd-macro-query'), you can get an effect similar to
that of `query-replace', where the macro asks you each time around
whether to make a change.  While defining the macro, type `C-x q' at
the point where you want the query to occur.  During macro definition,
the `C-x q' does nothing, but when you run the macro later, `C-x q'
asks you interactively whether to continue.

   The valid responses when `C-x q' asks are <SPC> (or `y'), <DEL> (or
`n'), <RET> (or `q'), `C-l' and `C-r'.  The answers are the same as in
`query-replace', though not all of the `query-replace' options are
meaningful.

   These responses include <SPC> to continue, and <DEL> to skip the
remainder of this repetition of the macro and start right away with the
next repetition.  <RET> means to skip the remainder of this repetition
and cancel further repetitions.  `C-l' redraws the screen and asks you
again for a character to say what to do.

   `C-r' enters a recursive editing level, in which you can perform
editing which is not part of the macro.  When you exit the recursive
edit using `C-M-c', you are asked again how to continue with the
keyboard macro.  If you type a <SPC> at this time, the rest of the
macro definition is executed.  It is up to you to leave point and the
text in a state such that the rest of the macro will do what you want.

   `C-u C-x q', which is `C-x q' with a numeric argument, performs a
completely different function.  It enters a recursive edit reading
input from the keyboard, both when you type it during the definition of
the macro, and when it is executed from the macro.  During definition,
the editing you do inside the recursive edit does not become part of
the macro.  During macro execution, the recursive edit gives you a
chance to do some particularized editing on each repetition.  *Note
Recursive Edit::.

   Another way to vary the behavior of a keyboard macro is to use a
register as a counter, incrementing it on each repetition of the macro.
*Note RegNumbers::.


File: emacs,  Node: Save Keyboard Macro,  Next: Edit Keyboard Macro,  Prev: Keyboard Macro Query,  Up: Keyboard Macros

22.5 Naming and Saving Keyboard Macros
======================================

`C-x C-k n'
     Give a command name (for the duration of the Emacs session) to the
     most recently defined keyboard macro (`kmacro-name-last-macro').

`C-x C-k b'
     Bind the most recently defined keyboard macro to a key sequence
     (for the duration of the session) (`kmacro-bind-to-key').

`M-x insert-kbd-macro'
     Insert in the buffer a keyboard macro's definition, as Lisp code.

   If you wish to save a keyboard macro for later use, you can give it
a name using `C-x C-k n' (`kmacro-name-last-macro').  This reads a name
as an argument using the minibuffer and defines that name to execute
the last keyboard macro, in its current form.  (If you later add to the
definition of this macro, that does not alter the name's definition as
a macro.)  The macro name is a Lisp symbol, and defining it in this way
makes it a valid command name for calling with `M-x' or for binding a
key to with `global-set-key' (*note Keymaps::).  If you specify a name
that has a prior definition other than a keyboard macro, an error
message is shown and nothing is changed.

   You can also bind the last keyboard macro (in its current form) to a
key, using `C-x C-k b' (`kmacro-bind-to-key') followed by the key
sequence you want to bind.  You can bind to any key sequence in the
global keymap, but since most key sequences already have other
bindings, you should select the key sequence carefully.  If you try to
bind to a key sequence with an existing binding (in any keymap), this
command asks you for confirmation before replacing the existing binding.

   To avoid problems caused by overriding existing bindings, the key
sequences `C-x C-k 0' through `C-x C-k 9' and `C-x C-k A' through `C-x
C-k Z' are reserved for your own keyboard macro bindings.  In fact, to
bind to one of these key sequences, you only need to type the digit or
letter rather than the whole key sequences.  For example,

     C-x C-k b 4

will bind the last keyboard macro to the key sequence `C-x C-k 4'.

   Once a macro has a command name, you can save its definition in a
file.  Then it can be used in another editing session.  First, visit
the file you want to save the definition in.  Then use this command:

     M-x insert-kbd-macro <RET> MACRONAME <RET>

This inserts some Lisp code that, when executed later, will define the
same macro with the same definition it has now.  (You need not
understand Lisp code to do this, because `insert-kbd-macro' writes the
Lisp code for you.)  Then save the file.  You can load the file later
with `load-file' (*note Lisp Libraries::).  If the file you save in is
your init file `~/.emacs' (*note Init File::) then the macro will be
defined each time you run Emacs.

   If you give `insert-kbd-macro' a numeric argument, it makes
additional Lisp code to record the keys (if any) that you have bound to
MACRONAME, so that the macro will be reassigned the same keys when you
load the file.


File: emacs,  Node: Edit Keyboard Macro,  Next: Keyboard Macro Step-Edit,  Prev: Save Keyboard Macro,  Up: Keyboard Macros

22.6 Editing a Keyboard Macro
=============================

`C-x C-k C-e'
     Edit the last defined keyboard macro (`kmacro-edit-macro').

`C-x C-k e NAME <RET>'
     Edit a previously defined keyboard macro NAME (`edit-kbd-macro').

`C-x C-k l'
     Edit the last 100 keystrokes as a keyboard macro
     (`kmacro-edit-lossage').

   You can edit the last keyboard macro by typing `C-x C-k C-e' or `C-x
C-k RET' (`kmacro-edit-macro').  This formats the macro definition in a
buffer and enters a specialized major mode for editing it.  Type `C-h
m' once in that buffer to display details of how to edit the macro.
When you are finished editing, type `C-c C-c'.

   You can edit a named keyboard macro or a macro bound to a key by
typing `C-x C-k e' (`edit-kbd-macro').  Follow that with the keyboard
input that you would use to invoke the macro--`C-x e' or `M-x NAME' or
some other key sequence.

   You can edit the last 100 keystrokes as a macro by typing `C-x C-k
l' (`kmacro-edit-lossage').


File: emacs,  Node: Keyboard Macro Step-Edit,  Prev: Edit Keyboard Macro,  Up: Keyboard Macros

22.7 Stepwise Editing a Keyboard Macro
======================================

You can interactively replay and edit the last keyboard macro, one
command at a time, by typing `C-x C-k SPC' (`kmacro-step-edit-macro').
Unless you quit the macro using `q' or `C-g', the edited macro replaces
the last macro on the macro ring.

   This macro editing feature shows the last macro in the minibuffer
together with the first (or next) command to be executed, and prompts
you for an action.  You can enter `?' to get a summary of your options.
These actions are available:

   * `SPC' and `y' execute the current command, and advance to the next
     command in the keyboard macro.

   * `n', `d', and `DEL' skip and delete the current command.

   * `f' skips the current command in this execution of the keyboard
     macro, but doesn't delete it from the macro.

   * `<TAB>' executes the current command, as well as all similar
     commands immediately following the current command; for example,
     <TAB> may be used to insert a sequence of characters
     (corresponding to a sequence of `self-insert-command' commands).

   * `c' continues execution (without further editing) until the end of
     the keyboard macro.  If execution terminates normally, the edited
     macro replaces the original keyboard macro.

   * `C-k' skips and deletes the rest of the keyboard macro, terminates
     step-editing, and replaces the original keyboard macro with the
     edited macro.

   * `q' and `C-g' cancels the step-editing of the keyboard macro;
     discarding any changes made to the keyboard macro.

   * `i KEY... C-j' reads and executes a series of key sequences (not
     including the final `C-j'), and inserts them before the current
     command in the keyboard macro, without advancing over the current
     command.

   * `I KEY...' reads one key sequence, executes it, and inserts it
     before the current command in the keyboard macro, without advancing
     over the current command.

   * `r KEY... C-j' reads and executes a series of key sequences (not
     including the final `C-j'), and replaces the current command in
     the keyboard macro with them, advancing over the inserted key
     sequences.

   * `R KEY...' reads one key sequence, executes it, and replaces the
     current command in the keyboard macro with that key sequence,
     advancing over the inserted key sequence.

   * `a KEY... C-j' executes the current command, then reads and
     executes a series of key sequences (not including the final
     `C-j'), and inserts them after the current command in the keyboard
     macro; it then advances over the current command and the inserted
     key sequences.

   * `A KEY... C-j' executes the rest of the commands in the keyboard
     macro, then reads and executes a series of key sequences (not
     including the final `C-j'), and appends them at the end of the
     keyboard macro; it then terminates the step-editing and replaces
     the original keyboard macro with the edited macro.


File: emacs,  Node: Files,  Next: Buffers,  Prev: Keyboard Macros,  Up: Top

23 File Handling
****************

The operating system stores data permanently in named "files", so most
of the text you edit with Emacs comes from a file and is ultimately
stored in a file.

   To edit a file, you must tell Emacs to read the file and prepare a
buffer containing a copy of the file's text.  This is called "visiting"
the file.  Editing commands apply directly to text in the buffer; that
is, to the copy inside Emacs.  Your changes appear in the file itself
only when you "save" the buffer back into the file.

   In addition to visiting and saving files, Emacs can delete, copy,
rename, and append to files, keep multiple versions of them, and operate
on file directories.

* Menu:

* File Names::          How to type and edit file-name arguments.
* Visiting::            Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file.
* Saving::              Saving makes your changes permanent.
* Reverting::           Reverting cancels all the changes not saved.

* Autorevert::          Auto Reverting non-file buffers.
* Auto Save::           Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data.
* File Aliases::        Handling multiple names for one file.
* Version Control::     Version control systems (RCS, CVS and SCCS).
* Directories::         Creating, deleting, and listing file directories.
* Comparing Files::     Finding where two files differ.
* Diff Mode::           Mode for editing file differences.
* Misc File Ops::       Other things you can do on files.
* Compressed Files::    Accessing compressed files.
* File Archives::       Operating on tar, zip, jar etc. archive files.
* Remote Files::        Accessing files on other sites.
* Quoted File Names::   Quoting special characters in file names.
* File Name Cache::     Completion against a list of files you often use.
* File Conveniences::   Convenience Features for Finding Files.
* Filesets::            Handling sets of files.


File: emacs,  Node: File Names,  Next: Visiting,  Up: Files

23.1 File Names
===============

Most Emacs commands that operate on a file require you to specify the
file name.  (Saving and reverting are exceptions; the buffer knows which
file name to use for them.)  You enter the file name using the
minibuffer (*note Minibuffer::).  "Completion" is available (*note
Completion::) to make it easier to specify long file names.  When
completing file names, Emacs ignores those whose file-name extensions
appear in the variable `completion-ignored-extensions'; see *Note
Completion Options::.

   For most operations, there is a "default file name" which is used if
you type just <RET> to enter an empty argument.  Normally the default
file name is the name of the file visited in the current buffer; this
makes it easy to operate on that file with any of the Emacs file
commands.

   Each buffer has a default directory which is normally the same as the
directory of the file visited in that buffer.  When you enter a file
name without a directory, the default directory is used.  If you specify
a directory in a relative fashion, with a name that does not start with
a slash, it is interpreted with respect to the default directory.  The
default directory is kept in the variable `default-directory', which
has a separate value in every buffer.

   The command `M-x pwd' displays the current buffer's default
directory, and the command `M-x cd' sets it (to a value read using the
minibuffer).  A buffer's default directory changes only when the `cd'
command is used.  A file-visiting buffer's default directory is
initialized to the directory of the file it visits.  If you create a
buffer with `C-x b', its default directory is copied from that of the
buffer that was current at the time.

   For example, if the default file name is `/u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks' then
the default directory is normally `/u/rms/gnu/'.  If you type just
`foo', which does not specify a directory, it is short for
`/u/rms/gnu/foo'.  `../.login' would stand for `/u/rms/.login'.
`new/foo' would stand for the file name `/u/rms/gnu/new/foo'.

   The default directory actually appears in the minibuffer when the
minibuffer becomes active to read a file name.  This serves two
purposes: it _shows_ you what the default is, so that you can type a
relative file name and know with certainty what it will mean, and it
allows you to _edit_ the default to specify a different directory.
This insertion of the default directory is inhibited if the variable
`insert-default-directory' is set to `nil'.

   Note that it is legitimate to type an absolute file name after you
enter the minibuffer, ignoring the presence of the default directory
name as part of the text.  The final minibuffer contents may look
invalid, but that is not so.  For example, if the minibuffer starts out
with `/usr/tmp/' and you add `/x1/rms/foo', you get
`/usr/tmp//x1/rms/foo'; but Emacs ignores everything through the first
slash in the double slash; the result is `/x1/rms/foo'.  *Note
Minibuffer File::.

   You can use `~/' in a file name to mean your home directory, or
`~USER-ID/' to mean the home directory of a user whose login name is
`user-id'(1).

   `$' in a file name is used to substitute an environment variable.
The environment variable name consists of all the alphanumeric
characters after the `$'; alternatively, it can be enclosed in braces
after the `$'.  For example, if you have used the shell command `export
FOO=rms/hacks' to set up an environment variable named `FOO', then you
can use `/u/$FOO/test.c' or `/u/${FOO}/test.c' as an abbreviation for
`/u/rms/hacks/test.c'.  If the environment variable is not defined, no
substitution occurs: `/u/$notdefined' stands for itself (assuming the
environment variable `notdefined' is not defined).

   Note that shell commands to set environment variables affect Emacs
only when done before Emacs is started.

   To access a file with `$' in its name, if the `$' causes expansion,
type `$$'.  This pair is converted to a single `$' at the same time as
variable substitution is performed for a single `$'.  Alternatively,
quote the whole file name with `/:' (*note Quoted File Names::).  File
names which begin with a literal `~' should also be quoted with `/:'.

   The Lisp function that performs the `$'-substitution is called
`substitute-in-file-name'.  The substitution is performed only on file
names read as such using the minibuffer.

   You can include non-ASCII characters in file names if you set the
variable `file-name-coding-system' to a non-`nil' value.  *Note File
Name Coding::.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) On MS-Windows and MS-DOS systems, where a user doesn't have a
home directory, Emacs substitutes `~/' with the value of the
environment variable `HOME'; see *Note General Variables::.  The
`~USER-ID/' construct is supported on those systems only for the
current user, i.e., only if USER-ID is the current user's login name.


File: emacs,  Node: Visiting,  Next: Saving,  Prev: File Names,  Up: Files

23.2 Visiting Files
===================

`C-x C-f'
     Visit a file (`find-file').

`C-x C-r'
     Visit a file for viewing, without allowing changes to it
     (`find-file-read-only').

`C-x C-v'
     Visit a different file instead of the one visited last
     (`find-alternate-file').

`C-x 4 f'
     Visit a file, in another window (`find-file-other-window').  Don't
     alter what is displayed in the selected window.

`C-x 5 f'
     Visit a file, in a new frame (`find-file-other-frame').  Don't
     alter what is displayed in the selected frame.

`M-x find-file-literally'
     Visit a file with no conversion of the contents.

   "Visiting" a file means reading its contents into an Emacs buffer so
you can edit them.  Emacs makes a new buffer for each file that you
visit.  We often say that this buffer "is visiting" that file, or that
the buffer's "visited file" is that file.  Emacs constructs the buffer
name from the file name by throwing away the directory, keeping just
the name proper.  For example, a file named `/usr/rms/emacs.tex' would
get a buffer named `emacs.tex'.  If there is already a buffer with that
name, Emacs constructs a unique name--the normal method is to append
`<2>', `<3>', and so on, but you can select other methods (*note
Uniquify::).

   Each window's mode line shows the name of the buffer that is being
displayed in that window, so you can always tell what buffer you are
editing.

   The changes you make with editing commands are made in the Emacs
buffer.  They do not take effect in the file that you visited, or any
permanent place, until you "save" the buffer.  Saving the buffer means
that Emacs writes the current contents of the buffer into its visited
file.  *Note Saving::.

   If a buffer contains changes that have not been saved, we say the
buffer is "modified".  This is important because it implies that some
changes will be lost if the buffer is not saved.  The mode line
displays two stars near the left margin to indicate that the buffer is
modified.

   To visit a file, use the command `C-x C-f' (`find-file').  Follow
the command with the name of the file you wish to visit, terminated by a
<RET>.

   The file name is read using the minibuffer (*note Minibuffer::), with
defaulting and completion in the standard manner (*note File Names::).
While in the minibuffer, you can abort `C-x C-f' by typing `C-g'.
File-name completion ignores certain file names; for more about this,
see *Note Completion Options::.

   Your confirmation that `C-x C-f' has completed successfully is the
appearance of new text on the screen and a new buffer name in the mode
line.  If the specified file does not exist and you could not create
it, or exists but you can't read it, then you get an error, with an
error message displayed in the echo area.

   If you visit a file that is already in Emacs, `C-x C-f' does not make
another copy.  It selects the existing buffer containing that file.
However, before doing so, it checks whether the file itself has changed
since you visited or saved it last.  If the file has changed, Emacs
offers to reread it.

   If you try to visit a file larger than
`large-file-warning-threshold' (the default is 10000000, which is about
10 megabytes), Emacs will ask you for confirmation first.  You can
answer `y' to proceed with visiting the file.  Note, however, that
Emacs cannot visit files that are larger than the maximum Emacs buffer
size, which is around 256 megabytes on 32-bit machines (*note
Buffers::).  If you try, Emacs will display an error message saying
that the maximum buffer size has been exceeded.

   On graphical displays there are two additional methods for visiting
files.  Firstly, when Emacs is built with a suitable GUI toolkit,
commands invoked with the mouse (by clicking on the menu bar or tool
bar) use the toolkit's standard File Selection dialog instead of
prompting for the file name in the minibuffer.  On Unix and GNU/Linux
platforms, Emacs does that when built with GTK, LessTif, and Motif
toolkits; on MS-Windows and Mac, the GUI version does that by default.
For information on how to customize this, see *Note Dialog Boxes::.

   Secondly, Emacs supports "drag and drop"; dropping a file into an
ordinary Emacs window visits the file using that window.  However,
dropping a file into a window displaying a Dired buffer moves or copies
the file into the displayed directory.  For details, see *Note Drag and
Drop::, and *Note Misc Dired Features::.

   What if you want to create a new file?  Just visit it.  Emacs
displays `(New file)' in the echo area, but in other respects behaves
as if you had visited an existing empty file.  If you make any changes
and save them, the file is created.

   Emacs recognizes from the contents of a file which end-of-line
convention it uses to separate lines--newline (used on GNU/Linux and on
Unix), carriage-return linefeed (used on Microsoft systems), or just
carriage-return (used on the Macintosh)--and automatically converts the
contents to the normal Emacs convention, which is that the newline
character separates lines.  This is a part of the general feature of
coding system conversion (*note Coding Systems::), and makes it
possible to edit files imported from different operating systems with
equal convenience.  If you change the text and save the file, Emacs
performs the inverse conversion, changing newlines back into
carriage-return linefeed or just carriage-return if appropriate.

   If the file you specify is actually a directory, `C-x C-f' invokes
Dired, the Emacs directory browser, so that you can "edit" the contents
of the directory (*note Dired::).  Dired is a convenient way to view,
delete, or operate on the files in the directory.  However, if the
variable `find-file-run-dired' is `nil', then it is an error to try to
visit a directory.

   Files which are actually collections of other files, or "file
archives", are visited in special modes which invoke a Dired-like
environment to allow operations on archive members.  *Note File
Archives::, for more about these features.

   If the file name you specify contains shell-style wildcard
characters, Emacs visits all the files that match it.  (On
case-insensitive filesystems, Emacs matches the wildcards disregarding
the letter case.)  Wildcards include `?', `*', and `[...]' sequences.
To enter the wild card `?' in a file name in the minibuffer, you need
to type `C-q ?'.  *Note Quoted File Names::, for information on how to
visit a file whose name actually contains wildcard characters.  You can
disable the wildcard feature by customizing `find-file-wildcards'.

   If you visit a file that the operating system won't let you modify,
or that is marked read-only, Emacs makes the buffer read-only too, so
that you won't go ahead and make changes that you'll have trouble
saving afterward.  You can make the buffer writable with `C-x C-q'
(`toggle-read-only').  *Note Misc Buffer::.

   If you want to visit a file as read-only in order to protect
yourself from entering changes accidentally, visit it with the command
`C-x C-r' (`find-file-read-only') instead of `C-x C-f'.

   If you visit a nonexistent file unintentionally (because you typed
the wrong file name), use the `C-x C-v' command (`find-alternate-file')
to visit the file you really wanted.  `C-x C-v' is similar to `C-x
C-f', but it kills the current buffer (after first offering to save it
if it is modified).  When `C-x C-v' reads the file name to visit, it
inserts the entire default file name in the buffer, with point just
after the directory part; this is convenient if you made a slight error
in typing the name.

   `C-x 4 f' (`find-file-other-window') is like `C-x C-f' except that
the buffer containing the specified file is selected in another window.
The window that was selected before `C-x 4 f' continues to show the
same buffer it was already showing.  If this command is used when only
one window is being displayed, that window is split in two, with one
window showing the same buffer as before, and the other one showing the
newly requested file.  *Note Windows::.

   `C-x 5 f' (`find-file-other-frame') is similar, but opens a new
frame, or makes visible any existing frame showing the file you seek.
This feature is available only when you are using a window system.
*Note Frames::.

   If you wish to edit a file as a sequence of ASCII characters with no
special encoding or conversion, use the `M-x find-file-literally'
command.  It visits a file, like `C-x C-f', but does not do format
conversion (*note Formatted Text::), character code conversion (*note
Coding Systems::), or automatic uncompression (*note Compressed
Files::), and does not add a final newline because of
`require-final-newline'.  If you already have visited the same file in
the usual (non-literal) manner, this command asks you whether to visit
it literally instead.

   Two special hook variables allow extensions to modify the operation
of visiting files.  Visiting a file that does not exist runs the
functions in the list `find-file-not-found-functions'; this variable
holds a list of functions, and the functions are called one by one
(with no arguments) until one of them returns non-`nil'.  This is not a
normal hook, and the name ends in `-functions' rather than `-hook' to
indicate that fact.

   Successful visiting of any file, whether existing or not, calls the
functions in the list `find-file-hook', with no arguments.  This
variable is a normal hook.  In the case of a nonexistent file, the
`find-file-not-found-functions' are run first.  *Note Hooks::.

   There are several ways to specify automatically the major mode for
editing the file (*note Choosing Modes::), and to specify local
variables defined for that file (*note File Variables::).


File: emacs,  Node: Saving,  Next: Reverting,  Prev: Visiting,  Up: Files

23.3 Saving Files
=================

"Saving" a buffer in Emacs means writing its contents back into the file
that was visited in the buffer.

* Menu:

* Save Commands::       Commands for saving files.
* Backup::              How Emacs saves the old version of your file.
* Customize Save::      Customizing the saving of files.
* Interlocking::        How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing
                          of one file by two users.
* Shadowing: File Shadowing.  Copying files to "shadows" automatically.
* Time Stamps::         Emacs can update time stamps on saved files.


File: emacs,  Node: Save Commands,  Next: Backup,  Up: Saving

23.3.1 Commands for Saving Files
--------------------------------

These are the commands that relate to saving and writing files.

`C-x C-s'
     Save the current buffer in its visited file on disk
     (`save-buffer').

`C-x s'
     Save any or all buffers in their visited files
     (`save-some-buffers').

`M-~'
     Forget that the current buffer has been changed (`not-modified').
     With prefix argument (`C-u'), mark the current buffer as changed.

`C-x C-w'
     Save the current buffer with a specified file name (`write-file').

`M-x set-visited-file-name'
     Change the file name under which the current buffer will be saved.

   When you wish to save the file and make your changes permanent, type
`C-x C-s' (`save-buffer').  After saving is finished, `C-x C-s'
displays a message like this:

     Wrote /u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks

If the selected buffer is not modified (no changes have been made in it
since the buffer was created or last saved), saving is not really done,
because it would have no effect.  Instead, `C-x C-s' displays a message
like this in the echo area:

     (No changes need to be saved)

   The command `C-x s' (`save-some-buffers') offers to save any or all
modified buffers.  It asks you what to do with each buffer.  The
possible responses are analogous to those of `query-replace':

`y'
     Save this buffer and ask about the rest of the buffers.

`n'
     Don't save this buffer, but ask about the rest of the buffers.

`!'
     Save this buffer and all the rest with no more questions.

`<RET>'
     Terminate `save-some-buffers' without any more saving.

`.'
     Save this buffer, then exit `save-some-buffers' without even asking
     about other buffers.

`C-r'
     View the buffer that you are currently being asked about.  When
     you exit View mode, you get back to `save-some-buffers', which
     asks the question again.

`d'
     Diff the buffer against its corresponding file, so you can see
     what changes you would be saving.

`C-h'
     Display a help message about these options.

   `C-x C-c', the key sequence to exit Emacs, invokes
`save-some-buffers' and therefore asks the same questions.

   If you have changed a buffer but you do not want to save the changes,
you should take some action to prevent it.  Otherwise, each time you use
`C-x s' or `C-x C-c', you are liable to save this buffer by mistake.
One thing you can do is type `M-~' (`not-modified'), which clears out
the indication that the buffer is modified.  If you do this, none of
the save commands will believe that the buffer needs to be saved.  (`~'
is often used as a mathematical symbol for `not'; thus `M-~' is `not',
metafied.)  You could also use `set-visited-file-name' (see below) to
mark the buffer as visiting a different file name, one which is not in
use for anything important.  Alternatively, you can cancel all the
changes made since the file was visited or saved, by reading the text
from the file again.  This is called "reverting".  *Note Reverting::.
(You could also undo all the changes by repeating the undo command `C-x
u' until you have undone all the changes; but reverting is easier.)
You can also kill the buffer.

   `M-x set-visited-file-name' alters the name of the file that the
current buffer is visiting.  It reads the new file name using the
minibuffer.  Then it marks the buffer as visiting that file name, and
changes the buffer name correspondingly.  `set-visited-file-name' does
not save the buffer in the newly visited file; it just alters the
records inside Emacs in case you do save later.  It also marks the
buffer as "modified" so that `C-x C-s' in that buffer _will_ save.

   If you wish to mark the buffer as visiting a different file and save
it right away, use `C-x C-w' (`write-file').  It is equivalent to
`set-visited-file-name' followed by `C-x C-s' (except that `C-x C-w'
asks for confirmation if the file exists).  `C-x C-s' used on a buffer
that is not visiting a file has the same effect as `C-x C-w'; that is,
it reads a file name, marks the buffer as visiting that file, and saves
it there.  The default file name in a buffer that is not visiting a
file is made by combining the buffer name with the buffer's default
directory (*note File Names::).

   If the new file name implies a major mode, then `C-x C-w' switches
to that major mode, in most cases.  The command `set-visited-file-name'
also does this.  *Note Choosing Modes::.

   If Emacs is about to save a file and sees that the date of the latest
version on disk does not match what Emacs last read or wrote, Emacs
notifies you of this fact, because it probably indicates a problem
caused by simultaneous editing and requires your immediate attention.
*Note Simultaneous Editing: Interlocking.


File: emacs,  Node: Backup,  Next: Customize Save,  Prev: Save Commands,  Up: Saving

23.3.2 Backup Files
-------------------

On most operating systems, rewriting a file automatically destroys all
record of what the file used to contain.  Thus, saving a file from Emacs
throws away the old contents of the file--or it would, except that
Emacs carefully copies the old contents to another file, called the
"backup" file, before actually saving.

   For most files, the variable `make-backup-files' determines whether
to make backup files.  On most operating systems, its default value is
`t', so that Emacs does write backup files.

   For files managed by a version control system (*note Version
Control::), the variable `vc-make-backup-files' determines whether to
make backup files.  By default it is `nil', since backup files are
redundant when you store all the previous versions in a version control
system.  *Note General VC Options::.

   At your option, Emacs can keep either a single backup for each file,
or make a series of numbered backup files for each file that you edit.

   The default value of the `backup-enable-predicate' variable prevents
backup files being written for files in the directories used for
temporary files, specified by `temporary-file-directory' or
`small-temporary-file-directory'.

   Emacs makes a backup for a file only the first time the file is saved
from one buffer.  No matter how many times you save a file, its backup
file continues to contain the contents from before the file was visited.
Normally this means that the backup file contains the contents from
before the current editing session; however, if you kill the buffer and
then visit the file again, a new backup file will be made by the next
save.

   You can also explicitly request making another backup file from a
buffer even though it has already been saved at least once.  If you save
the buffer with `C-u C-x C-s', the version thus saved will be made into
a backup file if you save the buffer again.  `C-u C-u C-x C-s' saves
the buffer, but first makes the previous file contents into a new
backup file.  `C-u C-u C-u C-x C-s' does both things: it makes a backup
from the previous contents, and arranges to make another from the newly
saved contents if you save again.

* Menu:

* One or Many: Numbered Backups. Whether to make one backup file or many.
* Names: Backup Names.		How backup files are named.
* Deletion: Backup Deletion.	Emacs deletes excess numbered backups.
* Copying: Backup Copying.	Backups can be made by copying or renaming.


File: emacs,  Node: Numbered Backups,  Next: Backup Names,  Up: Backup

23.3.2.1 Numbered Backups
.........................

The choice of single backup file or multiple numbered backup files is
controlled by the variable `version-control'.  Its possible values are:

`t'
     Make numbered backups.

`nil'
     Make numbered backups for files that have numbered backups already.
     Otherwise, make single backups.

`never'
     Never make numbered backups; always make single backups.

The usual way to set this variable is globally, through your `.emacs'
file or the customization buffer.  However, you can set
`version-control' locally in an individual buffer to control the making
of backups for that buffer's file.  For example, Rmail mode locally
sets `version-control' to `never' to make sure that there is only one
backup for an Rmail file.  *Note Locals::.

   If you set the environment variable `VERSION_CONTROL', to tell
various GNU utilities what to do with backup files, Emacs also obeys the
environment variable by setting the Lisp variable `version-control'
accordingly at startup.  If the environment variable's value is `t' or
`numbered', then `version-control' becomes `t'; if the value is `nil'
or `existing', then `version-control' becomes `nil'; if it is `never'
or `simple', then `version-control' becomes `never'.


File: emacs,  Node: Backup Names,  Next: Backup Deletion,  Prev: Numbered Backups,  Up: Backup

23.3.2.2 Single or Numbered Backups
...................................

When Emacs makes a single backup file, its name is normally constructed
by appending `~' to the file name being edited; thus, the backup file
for `eval.c' would be `eval.c~'.

   You can change this behavior by defining the variable
`make-backup-file-name-function' to a suitable function.  Alternatively
you can customize the variable `backup-directory-alist' to specify that
files matching certain patterns should be backed up in specific
directories.

   A typical use is to add an element `("." . DIR)' to make all backups
in the directory with absolute name DIR; Emacs modifies the backup file
names to avoid clashes between files with the same names originating in
different directories.  Alternatively, adding, say, `("." . ".~")'
would make backups in the invisible subdirectory `.~' of the original
file's directory.  Emacs creates the directory, if necessary, to make
the backup.

   If access control stops Emacs from writing backup files under the
usual names, it writes the backup file as `%backup%~' in your home
directory.  Only one such file can exist, so only the most recently
made such backup is available.

   If you choose to have a series of numbered backup files, backup file
names contain `.~', the number, and another `~' after the original file
name.  Thus, the backup files of `eval.c' would be called `eval.c.~1~',
`eval.c.~2~', and so on, all the way through names like `eval.c.~259~'
and beyond.  The variable `backup-directory-alist' applies to numbered
backups just as usual.


File: emacs,  Node: Backup Deletion,  Next: Backup Copying,  Prev: Backup Names,  Up: Backup

23.3.2.3 Automatic Deletion of Backups
......................................

To prevent excessive consumption of disk space, Emacs can delete
numbered backup versions automatically.  Generally Emacs keeps the
first few backups and the latest few backups, deleting any in between.
This happens every time a new backup is made.

   The two variables `kept-old-versions' and `kept-new-versions'
control this deletion.  Their values are, respectively, the number of
oldest (lowest-numbered) backups to keep and the number of newest
(highest-numbered) ones to keep, each time a new backup is made.  The
backups in the middle (excluding those oldest and newest) are the
excess middle versions--those backups are deleted.  These variables'
values are used when it is time to delete excess versions, just after a
new backup version is made; the newly made backup is included in the
count in `kept-new-versions'.  By default, both variables are 2.

   If `delete-old-versions' is `t', Emacs deletes the excess backup
files silently.  If it is `nil', the default, Emacs asks you whether it
should delete the excess backup versions.  If it has any other value,
then Emacs never automatically deletes backups.

   Dired's `.' (Period) command can also be used to delete old versions.
*Note Dired Deletion::.


File: emacs,  Node: Backup Copying,  Prev: Backup Deletion,  Up: Backup

23.3.2.4 Copying vs. Renaming
.............................

Backup files can be made by copying the old file or by renaming it.
This makes a difference when the old file has multiple names (hard
links).  If the old file is renamed into the backup file, then the
alternate names become names for the backup file.  If the old file is
copied instead, then the alternate names remain names for the file that
you are editing, and the contents accessed by those names will be the
new contents.

   The method of making a backup file may also affect the file's owner
and group.  If copying is used, these do not change.  If renaming is
used, you become the file's owner, and the file's group becomes the
default (different operating systems have different defaults for the
group).

   Having the owner change is usually a good idea, because then the
owner always shows who last edited the file.  Also, the owners of the
backups show who produced those versions.  Occasionally there is a file
whose owner should not change; it is a good idea for such files to
contain local variable lists to set `backup-by-copying-when-mismatch'
locally (*note File Variables::).

   The choice of renaming or copying is controlled by four variables.
Renaming is the default choice.  If the variable `backup-by-copying' is
non-`nil', copying is used.  Otherwise, if the variable
`backup-by-copying-when-linked' is non-`nil', then copying is used for
files that have multiple names, but renaming may still be used when the
file being edited has only one name.  If the variable
`backup-by-copying-when-mismatch' is non-`nil', then copying is used if
renaming would cause the file's owner or group to change.
`backup-by-copying-when-mismatch' is `t' by default if you start Emacs
as the superuser.  The fourth variable,
`backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch', gives the highest numeric
user-id for which `backup-by-copying-when-mismatch' will be forced on.
This is useful when low-numbered user-ids are assigned to special
system users, such as `root', `bin', `daemon', etc., which must
maintain ownership of files.

   When a file is managed with a version control system (*note Version
Control::), Emacs does not normally make backups in the usual way for
that file.  But check-in and check-out are similar in some ways to
making backups.  One unfortunate similarity is that these operations
typically break hard links, disconnecting the file name you visited from
any alternate names for the same file.  This has nothing to do with
Emacs--the version control system does it.


File: emacs,  Node: Customize Save,  Next: Interlocking,  Prev: Backup,  Up: Saving

23.3.3 Customizing Saving of Files
----------------------------------

If the value of the variable `require-final-newline' is `t', saving or
writing a file silently puts a newline at the end if there isn't
already one there.  If the value is `visit', Emacs adds a newline at
the end of any file that doesn't have one, just after it visits the
file.  (This marks the buffer as modified, and you can undo it.)  If
the value is `visit-save', that means to add newlines both on visiting
and on saving.  If the value is `nil', Emacs leaves the end of the file
unchanged; if it's neither `nil' nor `t', Emacs asks you whether to add
a newline.  The default is `nil'.

   Many major modes are designed for specific kinds of files that are
always supposed to end in newlines.  These major modes set the variable
`require-final-newline' according to `mode-require-final-newline'.  By
setting the latter variable, you can control how these modes handle
final newlines.

   When Emacs saves a file, it invokes the `fsync' system call to force
the data immediately out to disk.  This is important for safety if the
system crashes or in case of power outage.  However, it can be
disruptive on laptops using power saving, because it requires the disk
to spin up each time you save a file.  Setting
`write-region-inhibit-fsync' to a non-`nil' value disables this
synchronization.  Be careful--this means increased risk of data loss.


File: emacs,  Node: Interlocking,  Next: File Shadowing,  Prev: Customize Save,  Up: Saving

23.3.4 Protection against Simultaneous Editing
----------------------------------------------

Simultaneous editing occurs when two users visit the same file, both
make changes, and then both save them.  If nobody were informed that
this was happening, whichever user saved first would later find that his
changes were lost.

   On some systems, Emacs notices immediately when the second user
starts to change the file, and issues an immediate warning.  On all
systems, Emacs checks when you save the file, and warns if you are
about to overwrite another user's changes.  You can prevent loss of the
other user's work by taking the proper corrective action instead of
saving the file.

   When you make the first modification in an Emacs buffer that is
visiting a file, Emacs records that the file is "locked" by you.  (It
does this by creating a symbolic link in the same directory with a
different name.)  Emacs removes the lock when you save the changes.  The
idea is that the file is locked whenever an Emacs buffer visiting it has
unsaved changes.

   If you begin to modify the buffer while the visited file is locked by
someone else, this constitutes a "collision".  When Emacs detects a
collision, it asks you what to do, by calling the Lisp function
`ask-user-about-lock'.  You can redefine this function for the sake of
customization.  The standard definition of this function asks you a
question and accepts three possible answers:

`s'
     Steal the lock.  Whoever was already changing the file loses the
     lock, and you gain the lock.

`p'
     Proceed.  Go ahead and edit the file despite its being locked by
     someone else.

`q'
     Quit.  This causes an error (`file-locked'), and the buffer
     contents remain unchanged--the modification you were trying to make
     does not actually take place.

   Note that locking works on the basis of a file name; if a file has
multiple names, Emacs does not realize that the two names are the same
file and cannot prevent two users from editing it simultaneously under
different names.  However, basing locking on names means that Emacs can
interlock the editing of new files that will not really exist until
they are saved.

   Some systems are not configured to allow Emacs to make locks, and
there are cases where lock files cannot be written.  In these cases,
Emacs cannot detect trouble in advance, but it still can detect the
collision when you try to save a file and overwrite someone else's
changes.

   If Emacs or the operating system crashes, this may leave behind lock
files which are stale, so you may occasionally get warnings about
spurious collisions.  When you determine that the collision is spurious,
just use `p' to tell Emacs to go ahead anyway.

   Every time Emacs saves a buffer, it first checks the
last-modification date of the existing file on disk to verify that it
has not changed since the file was last visited or saved.  If the date
does not match, it implies that changes were made in the file in some
other way, and these changes are about to be lost if Emacs actually
does save.  To prevent this, Emacs displays a warning message and asks
for confirmation before saving.  Occasionally you will know why the
file was changed and know that it does not matter; then you can answer
`yes' and proceed.  Otherwise, you should cancel the save with `C-g'
and investigate the situation.

   The first thing you should do when notified that simultaneous editing
has already taken place is to list the directory with `C-u C-x C-d'
(*note Directories::).  This shows the file's current author.  You
should attempt to contact him to warn him not to continue editing.
Often the next step is to save the contents of your Emacs buffer under a
different name, and use `diff' to compare the two files.


File: emacs,  Node: File Shadowing,  Next: Time Stamps,  Prev: Interlocking,  Up: Saving

23.3.5 Shadowing Files
----------------------

`M-x shadow-initialize'
     Set up file shadowing.

`M-x shadow-define-literal-group'
     Declare a single file to be shared between sites.

`M-x shadow-define-regexp-group'
     Make all files that match each of a group of files be shared
     between hosts.

`M-x shadow-define-cluster <RET> NAME <RET>'
     Define a shadow file cluster NAME.

`M-x shadow-copy-files'
     Copy all pending shadow files.

`M-x shadow-cancel'
     Cancel the instruction to shadow some files.

   You can arrange to keep identical "shadow" copies of certain files
in more than one place--possibly on different machines.  To do this,
first you must set up a "shadow file group", which is a set of
identically-named files shared between a list of sites.  The file group
is permanent and applies to further Emacs sessions as well as the
current one.  Once the group is set up, every time you exit Emacs, it
will copy the file you edited to the other files in its group.  You can
also do the copying without exiting Emacs, by typing `M-x
shadow-copy-files'.

   To set up a shadow file group, use `M-x shadow-define-literal-group'
or `M-x shadow-define-regexp-group'.  See their documentation strings
for further information.

   Before copying a file to its shadows, Emacs asks for confirmation.
You can answer "no" to bypass copying of this file, this time.  If you
want to cancel the shadowing permanently for a certain file, use `M-x
shadow-cancel' to eliminate or change the shadow file group.

   A "shadow cluster" is a group of hosts that share directories, so
that copying to or from one of them is sufficient to update the file on
all of them.  Each shadow cluster has a name, and specifies the network
address of a primary host (the one we copy files to), and a regular
expression that matches the host names of all the other hosts in the
cluster.  You can define a shadow cluster with `M-x
shadow-define-cluster'.


File: emacs,  Node: Time Stamps,  Prev: File Shadowing,  Up: Saving

23.3.6 Updating Time Stamps Automatically
-----------------------------------------

You can arrange to put a time stamp in a file, so that it will be
updated automatically each time you edit and save the file.  The time
stamp has to be in the first eight lines of the file, and you should
insert it like this:

     Time-stamp: <>

or like this:

     Time-stamp: " "

   Then add the hook function `time-stamp' to the hook
`before-save-hook'; that hook function will automatically update the
time stamp, inserting the current date and time when you save the file.
You can also use the command `M-x time-stamp' to update the time stamp
manually.  For other customizations, see the Custom group `time-stamp'.
Note that non-numeric fields in the time stamp are formatted according
to your locale setting (*note Environment::).


File: emacs,  Node: Reverting,  Next: Autorevert,  Prev: Saving,  Up: Files

23.4 Reverting a Buffer
=======================

If you have made extensive changes to a file and then change your mind
about them, you can get rid of them by reading in the previous version
of the file.  To do this, use `M-x revert-buffer', which operates on
the current buffer.  Since reverting a buffer unintentionally could lose
a lot of work, you must confirm this command with `yes'.

   `revert-buffer' tries to position point in such a way that, if the
file was edited only slightly, you will be at approximately the same
piece of text after reverting as before.  However, if you have made
drastic changes, point may wind up in a totally different piece of text.

   Reverting marks the buffer as "not modified" until another change is
made.

   Some kinds of buffers whose contents reflect data bases other than
files, such as Dired buffers, can also be reverted.  For them,
reverting means recalculating their contents from the appropriate data
base.  Buffers created explicitly with `C-x b' cannot be reverted;
`revert-buffer' reports an error when asked to do so.

   When you edit a file that changes automatically and frequently--for
example, a log of output from a process that continues to run--it may be
useful for Emacs to revert the file without querying you, whenever you
visit the file again with `C-x C-f'.

   To request this behavior, set the variable `revert-without-query' to
a list of regular expressions.  When a file name matches one of these
regular expressions, `find-file' and `revert-buffer' will revert it
automatically if it has changed--provided the buffer itself is not
modified.  (If you have edited the text, it would be wrong to discard
your changes.)

   You may find it useful to have Emacs revert files automatically when
they change.  Three minor modes are available to do this.

   `M-x global-auto-revert-mode' enables Global Auto-Revert mode, which
periodically checks all file buffers and reverts when the corresponding
file has changed.  `M-x auto-revert-mode' enables a local version,
Auto-Revert mode, which applies only to the current buffer.

   You can use Auto-Revert mode to "tail" a file such as a system log,
so that changes made to that file by other programs are continuously
displayed.  To do this, just move the point to the end of the buffer,
and it will stay there as the file contents change.  However, if you
are sure that the file will only change by growing at the end, use
Auto-Revert Tail mode instead (`auto-revert-tail-mode').  It is more
efficient for this.

   The variable `auto-revert-interval' controls how often to check for
a changed file.  Since checking a remote file is too slow, these modes
do not check or revert remote files.

   *Note VC Mode Line::, for Auto Revert peculiarities in buffers that
visit files under version control.


File: emacs,  Node: Autorevert,  Next: Auto Save,  Prev: Reverting,  Up: Files

23.5 Auto Reverting non-file Buffers
====================================

Normally Global Auto Revert Mode only reverts file buffers.  There are
two ways to auto-revert certain non-file buffers: enabling Auto Revert
Mode in those buffers (using `M-x auto-revert-mode') and setting
`global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers' to `t'.  The latter enables Auto
Reverting for all types of buffers for which it is implemented, that
is, for the types of buffers listed in the menu below.

   Like file buffers, non-file buffers should normally not revert while
you are working on them, or while they contain information that might
get lost after reverting.  Therefore, they do not revert if they are
"modified".  This can get tricky, because deciding when a non-file
buffer should be marked modified is usually more difficult than for
file buffers.

   Another tricky detail is that, for efficiency reasons, Auto Revert
often does not try to detect all possible changes in the buffer, only
changes that are "major" or easy to detect.  Hence, enabling
auto-reverting for a non-file buffer does not always guarantee that all
information in the buffer is up to date and does not necessarily make
manual reverts useless.

   At the other extreme, certain buffers automatically auto-revert every
`auto-revert-interval' seconds.  (This currently only applies to the
Buffer Menu.)  In this case, Auto Revert does not print any messages
while reverting, even when `auto-revert-verbose' is non-`nil'.

   The details depend on the particular types of buffers and are
explained in the corresponding sections.

* Menu:

* Auto Reverting the Buffer Menu::
* Auto Reverting Dired::
* Supporting additional buffers::


File: emacs,  Node: Auto Reverting the Buffer Menu,  Next: Auto Reverting Dired,  Up: Autorevert

23.5.1 Auto Reverting the Buffer Menu
-------------------------------------

If auto-reverting of non-file buffers is enabled, the Buffer Menu
automatically reverts every `auto-revert-interval' seconds, whether
there is a need for it or not.  (It would probably take longer to check
whether there is a need than to actually revert.)

   If the Buffer Menu inappropriately gets marked modified, just revert
it manually using `g' and auto-reverting will resume.  However, if you
marked certain buffers to get deleted or to be displayed, you have to
be careful, because reverting erases all marks.  The fact that adding
marks sets the buffer's modified flag prevents Auto Revert from
automatically erasing the marks.


File: emacs,  Node: Auto Reverting Dired,  Next: Supporting additional buffers,  Prev: Auto Reverting the Buffer Menu,  Up: Autorevert

23.5.2 Auto Reverting Dired buffers
-----------------------------------

Auto-reverting Dired buffers currently works on GNU or Unix style
operating systems.  It may not work satisfactorily on some other
systems.

   Dired buffers only auto-revert when the file list of the buffer's
main directory changes.  They do not auto-revert when information about
a particular file changes or when inserted subdirectories change.  To be
sure that _all_ listed information is up to date, you have to manually
revert using `g', _even_ if auto-reverting is enabled in the Dired
buffer.  Sometimes, you might get the impression that modifying or
saving files listed in the main directory actually does cause
auto-reverting.  This is because making changes to a file, or saving
it, very often causes changes in the directory itself, for instance,
through backup files or auto-save files.  However, this is not
guaranteed.

   If the Dired buffer is marked modified and there are no changes you
want to protect, then most of the time you can make auto-reverting
resume by manually reverting the buffer using `g'.  There is one
exception.  If you flag or mark files, you can safely revert the
buffer.  This will not erase the flags or marks (unless the marked file
has been deleted, of course).  However, the buffer will stay modified,
even after reverting, and auto-reverting will not resume.  This is
because, if you flag or mark files, you may be working on the buffer
and you might not want the buffer to change without warning.  If you
want auto-reverting to resume in the presence of marks and flags, mark
the buffer non-modified using `M-~'.  However, adding, deleting or
changing marks or flags will mark it modified again.

   Remote Dired buffers are not auto-reverted.  Neither are Dired
buffers for which you used shell wildcards or file arguments to list
only some of the files.  `*Find*' and `*Locate*' buffers do not
auto-revert either.


File: emacs,  Node: Supporting additional buffers,  Prev: Auto Reverting Dired,  Up: Autorevert

23.5.3 Adding Support for Auto-Reverting additional Buffers.
------------------------------------------------------------

This section is intended for Elisp programmers who would like to add
support for auto-reverting new types of buffers.

   To support auto-reverting the buffer must first of all have a
`revert-buffer-function'.  *Note Reverting: (elisp)Definition of
revert-buffer-function.

   In addition, it _must_ have a `buffer-stale-function'.

 -- Variable: buffer-stale-function
     The value of this variable is a function to check whether a
     non-file buffer needs reverting.  This should be a function with
     one optional argument NOCONFIRM.  The function should return
     non-`nil' if the buffer should be reverted.  The buffer is current
     when this function is called.

     While this function is mainly intended for use in auto-reverting,
     it could be used for other purposes as well.  For instance, if
     auto-reverting is not enabled, it could be used to warn the user
     that the buffer needs reverting.  The idea behind the NOCONFIRM
     argument is that it should be `t' if the buffer is going to be
     reverted without asking the user and `nil' if the function is just
     going to be used to warn the user that the buffer is out of date.
     In particular, for use in auto-reverting, NOCONFIRM is `t'.  If
     the function is only going to be used for auto-reverting, you can
     ignore the NOCONFIRM argument.

     If you just want to automatically auto-revert every
     `auto-revert-interval' seconds, use:

          (set (make-local-variable 'buffer-stale-function)
               #'(lambda (&optional noconfirm) 'fast))

     in the buffer's mode function.

     The special return value `fast' tells the caller that the need for
     reverting was not checked, but that reverting the buffer is fast.
     It also tells Auto Revert not to print any revert messages, even if
     `auto-revert-verbose' is non-`nil'.  This is important, as getting
     revert messages every `auto-revert-interval' seconds can be very
     annoying.  The information provided by this return value could
     also be useful if the function is consulted for purposes other than
     auto-reverting.

   Once the buffer has a `revert-buffer-function' and a
`buffer-stale-function', several problems usually remain.

   The buffer will only auto-revert if it is marked unmodified.  Hence,
you will have to make sure that various functions mark the buffer
modified if and only if either the buffer contains information that
might be lost by reverting or there is reason to believe that the user
might be inconvenienced by auto-reverting, because he is actively
working on the buffer.  The user can always override this by manually
adjusting the modified status of the buffer.  To support this, calling
the `revert-buffer-function' on a buffer that is marked unmodified
should always keep the buffer marked unmodified.

   It is important to assure that point does not continuously jump
around as a consequence of auto-reverting.  Of course, moving point
might be inevitable if the buffer radically changes.

   You should make sure that the `revert-buffer-function' does not
print messages that unnecessarily duplicate Auto Revert's own messages
if `auto-revert-verbose' is `t' and effectively override a `nil' value
for `auto-revert-verbose'.  Hence, adapting a mode for auto-reverting
often involves getting rid of such messages.  This is especially
important for buffers that automatically auto-revert every
`auto-revert-interval' seconds.

   Also, you may want to update the documentation string of
`global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers'.

   Finally, you should add a node to this chapter's menu.  This node
should at the very least make clear whether enabling auto-reverting for
the buffer reliably assures that all information in the buffer is
completely up to date (or will be after `auto-revert-interval' seconds).


File: emacs,  Node: Auto Save,  Next: File Aliases,  Prev: Autorevert,  Up: Files

23.6 Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters
==============================================

Emacs saves all the visited files from time to time (based on counting
your keystrokes) without being asked.  This is called "auto-saving".
It prevents you from losing more than a limited amount of work if the
system crashes.

   When Emacs determines that it is time for auto-saving, it considers
each buffer, and each is auto-saved if auto-saving is enabled for it
and it has been changed since the last time it was auto-saved.  The
message `Auto-saving...' is displayed in the echo area during
auto-saving, if any files are actually auto-saved.  Errors occurring
during auto-saving are caught so that they do not interfere with the
execution of commands you have been typing.

* Menu:

* Files: Auto Save Files.       The file where auto-saved changes are
                                  actually made until you save the file.
* Control: Auto Save Control.   Controlling when and how often to auto-save.
* Recover::		        Recovering text from auto-save files.


File: emacs,  Node: Auto Save Files,  Next: Auto Save Control,  Up: Auto Save

23.6.1 Auto-Save Files
----------------------

Auto-saving does not normally save in the files that you visited,
because it can be very undesirable to save a program that is in an
inconsistent state when you have made half of a planned change.
Instead, auto-saving is done in a different file called the "auto-save
file", and the visited file is changed only when you request saving
explicitly (such as with `C-x C-s').

   Normally, the auto-save file name is made by appending `#' to the
front and rear of the visited file name.  Thus, a buffer visiting file
`foo.c' is auto-saved in a file `#foo.c#'.  Most buffers that are not
visiting files are auto-saved only if you request it explicitly; when
they are auto-saved, the auto-save file name is made by appending `#'
to the front and rear of buffer name, then adding digits and letters at
the end for uniqueness.  For example, the `*mail*' buffer in which you
compose messages to be sent might be auto-saved in a file named
`#*mail*#704juu'.  Auto-save file names are made this way unless you
reprogram parts of Emacs to do something different (the functions
`make-auto-save-file-name' and `auto-save-file-name-p').  The file name
to be used for auto-saving in a buffer is calculated when auto-saving
is turned on in that buffer.

   The variable `auto-save-file-name-transforms' allows a degree of
control over the auto-save file name.  It lets you specify a series of
regular expressions and replacements to transform the auto save file
name.  The default value puts the auto-save files for remote files
(*note Remote Files::) into the temporary file directory on the local
machine.

   When you delete a substantial part of the text in a large buffer,
auto save turns off temporarily in that buffer.  This is because if you
deleted the text unintentionally, you might find the auto-save file more
useful if it contains the deleted text.  To reenable auto-saving after
this happens, save the buffer with `C-x C-s', or use `C-u 1 M-x
auto-save-mode'.

   If you want auto-saving to be done in the visited file rather than
in a separate auto-save file, set the variable
`auto-save-visited-file-name' to a non-`nil' value.  In this mode,
there is no real difference between auto-saving and explicit saving.

   A buffer's auto-save file is deleted when you save the buffer in its
visited file.  (You can inhibit this by setting the variable
`delete-auto-save-files' to `nil'.)  Changing the visited file name
with `C-x C-w' or `set-visited-file-name' renames any auto-save file to
go with the new visited name.


File: emacs,  Node: Auto Save Control,  Next: Recover,  Prev: Auto Save Files,  Up: Auto Save

23.6.2 Controlling Auto-Saving
------------------------------

Each time you visit a file, auto-saving is turned on for that file's
buffer if the variable `auto-save-default' is non-`nil' (but not in
batch mode; *note Entering Emacs::).  The default for this variable is
`t', so auto-saving is the usual practice for file-visiting buffers.
Auto-saving can be turned on or off for any existing buffer with the
command `M-x auto-save-mode'.  Like other minor mode commands, `M-x
auto-save-mode' turns auto-saving on with a positive argument, off with
a zero or negative argument; with no argument, it toggles.

   Emacs does auto-saving periodically based on counting how many
characters you have typed since the last time auto-saving was done.
The variable `auto-save-interval' specifies how many characters there
are between auto-saves.  By default, it is 300.  Emacs doesn't accept
values that are too small: if you customize `auto-save-interval' to a
value less than 20, Emacs will behave as if the value is 20.

   Auto-saving also takes place when you stop typing for a while.  The
variable `auto-save-timeout' says how many seconds Emacs should wait
before it does an auto save (and perhaps also a garbage collection).
(The actual time period is longer if the current buffer is long; this
is a heuristic which aims to keep out of your way when you are editing
long buffers, in which auto-save takes an appreciable amount of time.)
Auto-saving during idle periods accomplishes two things: first, it
makes sure all your work is saved if you go away from the terminal for
a while; second, it may avoid some auto-saving while you are actually
typing.

   Emacs also does auto-saving whenever it gets a fatal error.  This
includes killing the Emacs job with a shell command such as `kill
%emacs', or disconnecting a phone line or network connection.

   You can request an auto-save explicitly with the command `M-x
do-auto-save'.


File: emacs,  Node: Recover,  Prev: Auto Save Control,  Up: Auto Save

23.6.3 Recovering Data from Auto-Saves
--------------------------------------

You can use the contents of an auto-save file to recover from a loss of
data with the command `M-x recover-file <RET> FILE <RET>'.  This visits
FILE and then (after your confirmation) restores the contents from its
auto-save file `#FILE#'.  You can then save with `C-x C-s' to put the
recovered text into FILE itself.  For example, to recover file `foo.c'
from its auto-save file `#foo.c#', do:

     M-x recover-file <RET> foo.c <RET>
     yes <RET>
     C-x C-s

   Before asking for confirmation, `M-x recover-file' displays a
directory listing describing the specified file and the auto-save file,
so you can compare their sizes and dates.  If the auto-save file is
older, `M-x recover-file' does not offer to read it.

   If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover all the files you
were editing from their auto save files with the command `M-x
recover-session'.  This first shows you a list of recorded interrupted
sessions.  Move point to the one you choose, and type `C-c C-c'.

   Then `recover-session' asks about each of the files that were being
edited during that session, asking whether to recover that file.  If
you answer `y', it calls `recover-file', which works in its normal
fashion.  It shows the dates of the original file and its auto-save
file, and asks once again whether to recover that file.

   When `recover-session' is done, the files you've chosen to recover
are present in Emacs buffers.  You should then save them.  Only
this--saving them--updates the files themselves.

   Emacs records information about interrupted sessions for later
recovery in files named
`~/.emacs.d/auto-save-list/.saves-PID-HOSTNAME'.  All of this name
except the `PID-HOSTNAME' part comes from the value of
`auto-save-list-file-prefix'.  You can record sessions in a different
place by customizing that variable.  If you set
`auto-save-list-file-prefix' to `nil' in your `.emacs' file, sessions
are not recorded for recovery.


File: emacs,  Node: File Aliases,  Next: Version Control,  Prev: Auto Save,  Up: Files

23.7 File Name Aliases
======================

Symbolic links and hard links both make it possible for several file
names to refer to the same file.  Hard links are alternate names that
refer directly to the file; all the names are equally valid, and no one
of them is preferred.  By contrast, a symbolic link is a kind of defined
alias: when `foo' is a symbolic link to `bar', you can use either name
to refer to the file, but `bar' is the real name, while `foo' is just
an alias.  More complex cases occur when symbolic links point to
directories.

   Normally, if you visit a file which Emacs is already visiting under
a different name, Emacs displays a message in the echo area and uses
the existing buffer visiting that file.  This can happen on systems
that support hard or symbolic links, or if you use a long file name on
a system that truncates long file names, or on a case-insensitive file
system.  You can suppress the message by setting the variable
`find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings' to a non-`nil' value.  You can
disable this feature entirely by setting the variable
`find-file-existing-other-name' to `nil': then if you visit the same
file under two different names, you get a separate buffer for each file
name.

   If the variable `find-file-visit-truename' is non-`nil', then the
file name recorded for a buffer is the file's "truename" (made by
replacing all symbolic links with their target names), rather than the
name you specify.  Setting `find-file-visit-truename' also implies the
effect of `find-file-existing-other-name'.


File: emacs,  Node: Version Control,  Next: Directories,  Prev: File Aliases,  Up: Files

23.8 Version Control
====================

"Version control systems" are packages that can record multiple
versions of a source file, usually storing the unchanged parts of the
file just once.  Version control systems also record history information
such as the creation time of each version, who created it, and a
description of what was changed in that version.

   The Emacs version control interface is called VC.  Its commands work
with different version control systems--currently, it supports CVS, GNU
Arch, RCS, Meta-CVS, Subversion, and SCCS.  Of these, the GNU project
distributes CVS, GNU Arch, and RCS; we recommend that you use either
CVS or GNU Arch for your projects, and RCS for individual files.  We
also have free software to replace SCCS, known as CSSC; if you are
using SCCS and don't want to make the incompatible change to RCS or
CVS, you can switch to CSSC.

   VC is enabled by default in Emacs.  To disable it, set the
customizable variable `vc-handled-backends' to `nil' (*note Customizing
VC::).

* Menu:

* Introduction to VC::  How version control works in general.
* VC Mode Line::        How the mode line shows version control status.
* Basic VC Editing::    How to edit a file under version control.
* Old Versions::        Examining and comparing old versions.
* Secondary VC Commands::    The commands used a little less frequently.
* Branches::            Multiple lines of development.

* Remote Repositories:: Efficient access to remote CVS servers.
* Snapshots::           Sets of file versions treated as a unit.
* Miscellaneous VC::    Various other commands and features of VC.
* Customizing VC::      Variables that change VC's behavior.


File: emacs,  Node: Introduction to VC,  Next: VC Mode Line,  Up: Version Control

23.8.1 Introduction to Version Control
--------------------------------------

VC allows you to use a version control system from within Emacs,
integrating the version control operations smoothly with editing.  VC
provides a uniform interface to version control, so that regardless of
which version control system is in use, you can use it the same way.

   This section provides a general overview of version control, and
describes the version control systems that VC supports.  You can skip
this section if you are already familiar with the version control system
you want to use.

* Menu:

* Version Systems::  Supported version control back-end systems.
* VC Concepts::      Words and concepts related to version control.
* Types of Log File::    The per-file VC log in contrast to the ChangeLog.


File: emacs,  Node: Version Systems,  Next: VC Concepts,  Up: Introduction to VC

23.8.1.1 Supported Version Control Systems
..........................................

VC currently works with six different version control systems or "back
ends": CVS, GNU Arch, RCS, Meta-CVS, Subversion, and SCCS.

   CVS is a free version control system that is used for the majority
of free software projects today.  It allows concurrent multi-user
development either locally or over the network.  Some of its
shortcomings, corrected by newer systems such as GNU Arch, are that it
lacks atomic commits or support for renaming files.  VC supports all
basic editing operations under CVS, but for some less common tasks you
still need to call CVS from the command line.  Note also that before
using CVS you must set up a repository, which is a subject too complex
to treat here.

   GNU Arch is a new version control system that is designed for
distributed work.  It differs in many ways from old well-known systems,
such as CVS and RCS.  It supports different transports for
interoperating between users, offline operations, and it has good
branching and merging features.  It also supports atomic commits, and
history of file renaming and moving.  VC does not support all
operations provided by GNU Arch, so you must sometimes invoke it from
the command line, or use a specialized module.

   RCS is the free version control system around which VC was initially
built.  The VC commands are therefore conceptually closest to RCS.
Almost everything you can do with RCS can be done through VC.  You
cannot use RCS over the network though, and it only works at the level
of individual files, rather than projects.  You should use it if you
want a simple, yet reliable tool for handling individual files.

   Subversion is a free version control system designed to be similar
to CVS but without CVS's problems.  Subversion supports atomic commits,
and versions directories, symbolic links, meta-data, renames, copies,
and deletes.  It can be used via http or via its own protocol.

   Meta-CVS is another attempt to solve problems arising in CVS.  It
supports directory structure versioning, improved branching and
merging, and use of symbolic links and meta-data in repositories.

   SCCS is a proprietary but widely used version control system.  In
terms of capabilities, it is the weakest of the six that VC supports.
VC compensates for certain features missing in SCCS (snapshots, for
example) by implementing them itself, but some other VC features, such
as multiple branches, are not available with SCCS.  Since SCCS is
non-free, not respecting its users freedom, you should not use it; use
its free replacement CSSC instead.  But you should use CSSC only if for
some reason you cannot use RCS, or one of the higher-level systems such
as CVS or GNU Arch.

   In the following, we discuss mainly RCS, SCCS and CVS.  Nearly
everything said about CVS applies to GNU Arch, Subversion and Meta-CVS
as well.


File: emacs,  Node: VC Concepts,  Next: Types of Log File,  Prev: Version Systems,  Up: Introduction to VC

23.8.1.2 Concepts of Version Control
....................................

When a file is under version control, we also say that it is
"registered" in the version control system.  Each registered file has a
corresponding "master file" which represents the file's present state
plus its change history--enough to reconstruct the current version or
any earlier version.  Usually the master file also records a "log
entry" for each version, describing in words what was changed in that
version.

   The file that is maintained under version control is sometimes called
the "work file" corresponding to its master file.  You edit the work
file and make changes in it, as you would with an ordinary file.  (With
SCCS and RCS, you must "lock" the file before you start to edit it.)
After you are done with a set of changes, you "check the file in",
which records the changes in the master file, along with a log entry for
them.

   With CVS, there are usually multiple work files corresponding to a
single master file--often each user has his own copy.  It is also
possible to use RCS in this way, but this is not the usual way to use
RCS.

   A version control system typically has some mechanism to coordinate
between users who want to change the same file.  One method is
"locking" (analogous to the locking that Emacs uses to detect
simultaneous editing of a file, but distinct from it).  The other method
is to merge your changes with other people's changes when you check them
in.

   With version control locking, work files are normally read-only so
that you cannot change them.  You ask the version control system to make
a work file writable for you by locking it; only one user can do this
at any given time.  When you check in your changes, that unlocks the
file, making the work file read-only again.  This allows other users to
lock the file to make further changes.  SCCS always uses locking, and
RCS normally does.

   The other alternative for RCS is to let each user modify the work
file at any time.  In this mode, locking is not required, but it is
permitted; check-in is still the way to record a new version.

   CVS normally allows each user to modify his own copy of the work file
at any time, but requires merging with changes from other users at
check-in time.  However, CVS can also be set up to require locking.
(*note CVS Options::).


File: emacs,  Node: Types of Log File,  Prev: VC Concepts,  Up: Introduction to VC

23.8.1.3 Types of Log File
..........................

Projects that use a revision control system can have _two_ types of log
for changes.  One is the per-file log maintained by the revision
control system: each time you check in a change, you must fill out a
"log entry" for the change (*note Log Buffer::).  This kind of log is
called the "version control log", also the "revision control log", "RCS
log", or "CVS log".

   The other kind of log is the file `ChangeLog' (*note Change Log::).
It provides a chronological record of all changes to a large portion of
a program--typically one directory and its subdirectories.  A small
program would use one `ChangeLog' file; a large program may well merit
a `ChangeLog' file in each major directory.  *Note Change Log::.

   A project maintained with version control can use just the per-file
log, or it can use both kinds of logs.  It can handle some files one
way and some files the other way.  Each project has its policy, which
you should follow.

   When the policy is to use both, you typically want to write an entry
for each change just once, then put it into both logs.  You can write
the entry in `ChangeLog', then copy it to the log buffer when you check
in the change.  Or you can write the entry in the log buffer while
checking in the change, and later use the `C-x v a' command to copy it
to `ChangeLog' (*note Change Logs and VC::).


File: emacs,  Node: VC Mode Line,  Next: Basic VC Editing,  Prev: Introduction to VC,  Up: Version Control

23.8.2 Version Control and the Mode Line
----------------------------------------

When you visit a file that is under version control, Emacs indicates
this on the mode line.  For example, `RCS-1.3' says that RCS is used
for that file, and the current version is 1.3.

   The character between the back-end name and the version number
indicates the version control status of the file.  `-' means that the
work file is not locked (if locking is in use), or not modified (if
locking is not in use).  `:' indicates that the file is locked, or that
it is modified.  If the file is locked by some other user (for
instance, `jim'), that is displayed as `RCS:jim:1.3'.

   When Auto Revert mode (*note Reverting::) reverts a buffer that is
under version control, it updates the version control information in
the mode line.  However, Auto Revert mode may not properly update this
information if the version control status changes without changes to
the work file, from outside the current Emacs session.  If you set
`auto-revert-check-vc-info' to `t', Auto Revert mode updates the
version control status information every `auto-revert-interval'
seconds, even if the work file itself is unchanged.  The resulting CPU
usage depends on the version control system, but is usually not
excessive.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic VC Editing,  Next: Old Versions,  Prev: VC Mode Line,  Up: Version Control

23.8.3 Basic Editing under Version Control
------------------------------------------

The principal VC command is an all-purpose command that performs either
locking or check-in, depending on the situation.

`C-x v v'
     Perform the next logical version control operation on this file.

   The precise action of this command depends on the state of the file,
and whether the version control system uses locking or not.  SCCS and
RCS normally use locking; CVS normally does not use locking.

   As a special convenience that is particularly useful for files with
locking, you can let Emacs check a file in or out whenever you change
its read-only flag.  This means, for example, that you cannot
accidentally edit a file without properly checking it out first.  To
achieve this, bind the key `C-x C-q' to `vc-toggle-read-only' in your
`~/.emacs' file.  (*Note Init Rebinding::.)

* Menu:

* VC with Locking::     RCS in its default mode, SCCS, and optionally CVS.
* Without Locking::     Without locking: default mode for CVS.
* Advanced C-x v v::    Advanced features available with a prefix argument.
* Log Buffer::          Features available in log entry buffers.


File: emacs,  Node: VC with Locking,  Next: Without Locking,  Up: Basic VC Editing

23.8.3.1 Basic Version Control with Locking
...........................................

If locking is used for the file (as with SCCS, and RCS in its default
mode), `C-x v v' can either lock a file or check it in:

   * If the file is not locked, `C-x v v' locks it, and makes it
     writable so that you can change it.

   * If the file is locked by you, and contains changes, `C-x v v'
     checks in the changes.  In order to do this, it first reads the
     log entry for the new version.  *Note Log Buffer::.

   * If the file is locked by you, but you have not changed it since you
     locked it, `C-x v v' releases the lock and makes the file read-only
     again.

   * If the file is locked by some other user, `C-x v v' asks you
     whether you want to "steal the lock" from that user.  If you say
     yes, the file becomes locked by you, but a message is sent to the
     person who had formerly locked the file, to inform him of what has
     happened.

   These rules also apply when you use CVS in locking mode, except that
there is no such thing as stealing a lock.


File: emacs,  Node: Without Locking,  Next: Advanced C-x v v,  Prev: VC with Locking,  Up: Basic VC Editing

23.8.3.2 Basic Version Control without Locking
..............................................

When there is no locking--the default for CVS--work files are always
writable; you do not need to do anything before you begin to edit a
file.  The status indicator on the mode line is `-' if the file is
unmodified; it flips to `:' as soon as you save any changes in the work
file.

   Here is what `C-x v v' does when using CVS:

   * If some other user has checked in changes into the master file,
     Emacs asks you whether you want to merge those changes into your
     own work file.  You must do this before you can check in your own
     changes.  (To pick up any recent changes from the master file
     _without_ trying to commit your own changes, type `C-x v m <RET>'.)
     *Note Merging::.

   * If there are no new changes in the master file, but you have made
     modifications in your work file, `C-x v v' checks in your changes.
     In order to do this, it first reads the log entry for the new
     version.  *Note Log Buffer::.

   * If the file is not modified, the `C-x v v' does nothing.

   These rules also apply when you use RCS in the mode that does not
require locking, except that automatic merging of changes from the
master file is not implemented.  Unfortunately, this means that nothing
informs you if another user has checked in changes in the same file
since you began editing it, and when this happens, his changes will be
effectively removed when you check in your version (though they will
remain in the master file, so they will not be entirely lost).  You must
therefore verify that the current version is unchanged, before you
check in your changes.  We hope to eliminate this risk and provide
automatic merging with RCS in a future Emacs version.

   In addition, locking is possible with RCS even in this mode, although
it is not required; `C-x v v' with an unmodified file locks the file,
just as it does with RCS in its normal (locking) mode.


File: emacs,  Node: Advanced C-x v v,  Next: Log Buffer,  Prev: Without Locking,  Up: Basic VC Editing

23.8.3.3 Advanced Control in `C-x v v'
......................................

When you give a prefix argument to `vc-next-action' (`C-u C-x v v'), it
still performs the next logical version control operation, but accepts
additional arguments to specify precisely how to do the operation.

   * If the file is modified (or locked), you can specify the version
     number to use for the new version that you check in.  This is one
     way to create a new branch (*note Branches::).

   * If the file is not modified (and unlocked), you can specify the
     version to select; this lets you start working from an older
     version, or on another branch.  If you do not enter any version,
     that takes you to the highest version on the current branch;
     therefore `C-u C-x v v <RET>' is a convenient way to get the
     latest version of a file from the repository.

   * Instead of the version number, you can also specify the name of a
     version control system.  This is useful when one file is being
     managed with two version control systems at the same time (*note
     Local Version Control::).



File: emacs,  Node: Log Buffer,  Prev: Advanced C-x v v,  Up: Basic VC Editing

23.8.3.4 Features of the Log Entry Buffer
.........................................

When you check in changes, `C-x v v' first reads a log entry.  It pops
up a buffer called `*VC-Log*' for you to enter the log entry.

   Sometimes the `*VC-Log*' buffer contains default text when you enter
it, typically the last log message entered.  If it does, mark and point
are set around the entire contents of the buffer so that it is easy to
kill the contents of the buffer with `C-w'.

   If you work by writing entries in the `ChangeLog' (*note Change
Log::) and then commit the change under revision control, you can
generate the Log Edit text from the ChangeLog using `C-c C-a'
(`log-edit-insert-changelog').  This looks for entries for the file(s)
concerned in the top entry in the ChangeLog and uses those paragraphs
as the log text.  This text is only inserted if the top entry was made
under your user name on the current date.  *Note Change Logs and VC::,
for the opposite way of working--generating ChangeLog entries from the
revision control log.

   In the `*VC-Log*' buffer, `C-c C-f' (`M-x log-edit-show-files')
shows the list of files to be committed in case you need to check that.
(This can be a list of more than one file if you use VC Dired mode or
PCL-CVS.  *Note VC Dired Mode::, and *Note About PCL-CVS: (pcl-cvs)Top.)

   When you have finished editing the log message, type `C-c C-c' to
exit the buffer and commit the change.

   To abort check-in, just *don't* type `C-c C-c' in that buffer.  You
can switch buffers and do other editing.  As long as you don't try to
check in another file, the entry you were editing remains in the
`*VC-Log*' buffer, and you can go back to that buffer at any time to
complete the check-in.

   If you change several source files for the same reason, it is often
convenient to specify the same log entry for many of the files.  To do
this, use the history of previous log entries.  The commands `M-n',
`M-p', `M-s' and `M-r' for doing this work just like the minibuffer
history commands (except that these versions are used outside the
minibuffer).

   Each time you check in a file, the log entry buffer is put into VC
Log mode, which involves running two hooks: `text-mode-hook' and
`vc-log-mode-hook'.  *Note Hooks::.


File: emacs,  Node: Old Versions,  Next: Secondary VC Commands,  Prev: Basic VC Editing,  Up: Version Control

23.8.4 Examining And Comparing Old Versions
-------------------------------------------

One of the convenient features of version control is the ability to
examine any version of a file, or compare two versions.

`C-x v ~ VERSION <RET>'
     Examine version VERSION of the visited file, in a buffer of its
     own.

`C-x v ='
     Compare the current buffer contents with the master version from
     which you started editing.

`C-u C-x v = FILE <RET> OLDVERS <RET> NEWVERS <RET>'
     Compare the specified two versions of FILE.

`C-x v g'
     Display the file with per-line version information and using
     colors.

   To examine an old version in its entirety, visit the file and then
type `C-x v ~ VERSION <RET>' (`vc-version-other-window').  This puts
the text of version VERSION in a file named `FILENAME.~VERSION~', and
visits it in its own buffer in a separate window.  (In RCS, you can
also select an old version and create a branch from it.  *Note
Branches::.)

   It is usually more convenient to compare two versions of the file,
with the command `C-x v =' (`vc-diff').  Plain `C-x v =' compares the
current buffer contents (saving them in the file if necessary) with the
master version from which you started editing the file (this is not
necessarily the latest version of the file).  `C-u C-x v =', with a
numeric argument, reads a file name and two version numbers, then
compares those versions of the specified file.  Both forms display the
output in a special buffer in another window.

   You can specify a checked-in version by its number; an empty input
specifies the current contents of the work file (which may be different
from all the checked-in versions).  You can also specify a snapshot name
(*note Snapshots::) instead of one or both version numbers.

   If you supply a directory name instead of the name of a registered
file, this command compares the two specified versions of all registered
files in that directory and its subdirectories.

   `C-x v =' works by running a variant of the `diff' utility designed
to work with the version control system in use.  When you invoke `diff'
this way, in addition to the options specified by `diff-switches'
(*note Comparing Files::), it receives those specified by
`vc-diff-switches', plus those specified for the specific back end by
`vc-BACKEND-diff-switches'.  For instance, when the version control
back end is RCS, `diff' uses the options in `vc-rcs-diff-switches'.  The
`vc...diff-switches' variables are `nil' by default.

   The buffer produced by `C-x v =' supports the commands of
Compilation mode (*note Compilation Mode::), such as `C-x `' and `C-c
C-c', in both the "old" and "new" text, and they always find the
corresponding locations in the current work file.  (Older versions are
not, in general, present as files on your disk.)

   For some back ends, you can display the file "annotated" with
per-line version information and using colors to enhance the visual
appearance, with the command `M-x vc-annotate'.  It creates a new
buffer (the "annotate buffer") displaying the file's text, with each
part colored to show how old it is.  Text colored red is new, blue means
old, and intermediate colors indicate intermediate ages.  By default,
the color is scaled over the full range of ages, such that the oldest
changes are blue, and the newest changes are red.

   When you give a prefix argument to this command, it uses the
minibuffer to read two arguments: which version number to display and
annotate (instead of the current file contents), and the time span in
days the color range should cover.

   From the annotate buffer, these and other color scaling options are
available from the `VC-Annotate' menu.  In this buffer, you can also
use the following keys to browse the annotations of past revisions,
view diffs, or view log entries:

`P'
     Annotate the previous revision, that is to say, the revision before
     the one currently annotated.  A numeric prefix argument is a repeat
     count, so `C-u 10 P' would take you back 10 revisions.

`N'
     Annotate the next revision--the one after the revision currently
     annotated.  A numeric prefix argument is a repeat count.

`J'
     Annotate the revision indicated by the current line.

`A'
     Annotate the revision before the one indicated by the current line.
     This is useful to see the state the file was in before the change
     on the current line was made.

`D'
     Display the diff between the current line's revision and the
     previous revision.  This is useful to see what the current line's
     revision actually changed in the file.

`L'
     Show the log of the current line's revision.  This is useful to see
     the author's description of the changes in the revision on the
     current line.

`W'
     Annotate the workfile version-the one you are editing.  If you used
     `P' and `N' to browse to other revisions, use this key to return
     to your current version.


File: emacs,  Node: Secondary VC Commands,  Next: Branches,  Prev: Old Versions,  Up: Version Control

23.8.5 The Secondary Commands of VC
-----------------------------------

This section explains the secondary commands of VC; those that you might
use once a day.

* Menu:

* Registering::         Putting a file under version control.
* VC Status::           Viewing the VC status of files.
* VC Undo::             Canceling changes before or after check-in.

* VC Dired Mode::       Listing files managed by version control.
* VC Dired Commands::   Commands to use in a VC Dired buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Registering,  Next: VC Status,  Up: Secondary VC Commands

23.8.5.1 Registering a File for Version Control
...............................................

You can put any file under version control by simply visiting it, and
then typing `C-x v i' (`vc-register').

`C-x v i'
     Register the visited file for version control.

   To register the file, Emacs must choose which version control system
to use for it.  If the file's directory already contains files
registered in a version control system, Emacs uses that system.  If
there is more than one system in use for a directory, Emacs uses the
one that appears first in `vc-handled-backends' (*note Customizing
VC::).  On the other hand, if there are no files already registered,
Emacs uses the first system from `vc-handled-backends' that could
register the file (for example, you cannot register a file under CVS if
its directory is not already part of a CVS tree); with the default value
of `vc-handled-backends', this means that Emacs uses RCS in this
situation.

   If locking is in use, `C-x v i' leaves the file unlocked and
read-only.  Type `C-x v v' if you wish to start editing it.  After
registering a file with CVS, you must subsequently commit the initial
version by typing `C-x v v'.  Until you do that, the version appears as
`@@' in the mode line.

   The initial version number for a newly registered file is 1.1, by
default.  You can specify a different default by setting the variable
`vc-default-init-version', or you can give `C-x v i' a numeric
argument; then it reads the initial version number for this particular
file using the minibuffer.

   If `vc-initial-comment' is non-`nil', `C-x v i' reads an initial
comment to describe the purpose of this source file.  Reading the
initial comment works like reading a log entry (*note Log Buffer::).


File: emacs,  Node: VC Status,  Next: VC Undo,  Prev: Registering,  Up: Secondary VC Commands

23.8.5.2 VC Status Commands
...........................

`C-x v l'
     Display version control state and change history.

   To view the detailed version control status and history of a file,
type `C-x v l' (`vc-print-log').  It displays the history of changes to
the current file, including the text of the log entries.  The output
appears in a separate window.  The point is centered at the revision of
the file that is currently being visited.

   In the change log buffer, you can use the following keys to move
between the logs of revisions and of files, to view past revisions, and
to view diffs:

`p'
     Move to the previous revision-item in the buffer.  (Revision
     entries in the log buffer are usually in reverse-chronological
     order, so the previous revision-item usually corresponds to a
     newer revision.)  A numeric prefix argument is a repeat count.

`n'
     Move to the next revision-item (which most often corresponds to the
     previous revision of the file).  A numeric prefix argument is a
     repeat count.

`P'
     Move to the log of the previous file, when the logs of multiple
     files are in the log buffer (*note VC Dired Mode::).  Otherwise,
     just move to the beginning of the log.  A numeric prefix argument
     is a repeat count, so `C-u 10 P' would move backward 10 files.

`N'
     Move to the log of the next file, when the logs of multiple files
     are in the log buffer (*note VC Dired Mode::).  It also takes a
     numeric prefix argument as a repeat count.

`f'
     Visit the revision indicated at the current line, like typing `C-x
     v ~' and specifying this revision's number (*note Old Versions::).

`d'
     Display the diff (*note Comparing Files::) between the revision
     indicated at the current line and the next earlier revision.  This
     is useful to see what actually changed when the revision indicated
     on the current line was committed.


File: emacs,  Node: VC Undo,  Next: VC Dired Mode,  Prev: VC Status,  Up: Secondary VC Commands

23.8.5.3 Undoing Version Control Actions
........................................

`C-x v u'
     Revert the buffer and the file to the version from which you
     started editing the file.

`C-x v c'
     Remove the last-entered change from the master for the visited
     file.  This undoes your last check-in.

   If you want to discard your current set of changes and revert to the
version from which you started editing the file, use `C-x v u'
(`vc-revert-buffer').  This leaves the file unlocked; if locking is in
use, you must first lock the file again before you change it again.
`C-x v u' requires confirmation, unless it sees that you haven't made
any changes with respect to the master version.

   `C-x v u' is also the command to unlock a file if you lock it and
then decide not to change it.

   To cancel a change that you already checked in, use `C-x v c'
(`vc-cancel-version').  This command discards all record of the most
recent checked-in version, but only if your work file corresponds to
that version--you cannot use `C-x v c' to cancel a version that is not
the latest on its branch.  `C-x v c' also offers to revert your work
file and buffer to the previous version (the one that precedes the
version that is deleted).

   If you answer `no', VC keeps your changes in the buffer, and locks
the file.  The no-revert option is useful when you have checked in a
change and then discover a trivial error in it; you can cancel the
erroneous check-in, fix the error, and check the file in again.

   When `C-x v c' does not revert the buffer, it unexpands all version
control headers in the buffer instead (*note Version Headers::).  This
is because the buffer no longer corresponds to any existing version.
If you check it in again, the check-in process will expand the headers
properly for the new version number.

   However, it is impossible to unexpand the RCS `$Log$' header
automatically.  If you use that header feature, you have to unexpand it
by hand--by deleting the entry for the version that you just canceled.

   Be careful when invoking `C-x v c', as it is easy to lose a lot of
work with it.  To help you be careful, this command always requires
confirmation with `yes'.  Note also that this command is disabled under
CVS, because canceling versions is very dangerous and discouraged with
CVS.


File: emacs,  Node: VC Dired Mode,  Next: VC Dired Commands,  Prev: VC Undo,  Up: Secondary VC Commands

23.8.5.4 Dired under VC
.......................

The VC Dired Mode described here works with all the version control
systems that VC supports.  Another more powerful facility, designed
specifically for CVS, is called PCL-CVS.  *Note About PCL-CVS:
(pcl-cvs)Top.

   When you are working on a large program, it is often useful to find
out which files have changed within an entire directory tree, or to view
the status of all files under version control at once, and to perform
version control operations on collections of files.  You can use the
command `C-x v d' (`vc-directory') to make a directory listing that
includes only files relevant for version control.

   `C-x v d' creates a buffer which uses VC Dired Mode.  This looks
much like an ordinary Dired buffer (*note Dired::); however, normally
it shows only the noteworthy files (those locked or not up-to-date).
This is called "terse display".  If you set the variable
`vc-dired-terse-display' to `nil', then VC Dired shows all relevant
files--those managed under version control, plus all subdirectories
("full display").  The command `v t' in a VC Dired buffer toggles
between terse display and full display (*note VC Dired Commands::).

   By default, VC Dired produces a recursive listing of noteworthy or
relevant files at or below the given directory.  You can change this by
setting the variable `vc-dired-recurse' to `nil'; then VC Dired shows
only the files in the given directory.

   The line for an individual file shows the version control state in
the place of the hard link count, owner, group, and size of the file.
If the file is unmodified, in sync with the master file, the version
control state shown is blank.  Otherwise it consists of text in
parentheses.  Under RCS and SCCS, the name of the user locking the file
is shown; under CVS, an abbreviated version of the `cvs status' output
is used.  Here is an example using RCS:

       /home/jim/project:

       -rw-r--r-- (jim)      Apr  2 23:39 file1
       -r--r--r--            Apr  5 20:21 file2

The files `file1' and `file2' are under version control, `file1' is
locked by user jim, and `file2' is unlocked.

   Here is an example using CVS:

       /home/joe/develop:

       -rw-r--r-- (modified) Aug  2  1997 file1.c
       -rw-r--r--            Apr  4 20:09 file2.c
       -rw-r--r-- (merge)    Sep 13  1996 file3.c

   Here `file1.c' is modified with respect to the repository, and
`file2.c' is not.  `file3.c' is modified, but other changes have also
been checked in to the repository--you need to merge them with the work
file before you can check it in.

   In the above, if the repository were on a remote machine, VC would
only contact it when the variable `vc-stay-local' (or
`vc-cvs-stay-local') is nil (*note CVS Options::).  This is because
access to the repository may be slow, or you may be working offline and
not have access to the repository at all.  As a consequence, VC would
not be able to tell you that `file3.c' is in the "merge" state; you
would learn that only when you try to check-in your modified copy of
the file, or use a command such as `C-x v m'.

   In practice, this is not a problem because CVS handles this case
consistently whenever it arises.  In VC, you'll simply get prompted to
merge the remote changes into your work file first.  The benefits of
less network communication usually outweigh the disadvantage of not
seeing remote changes immediately.

   When VC Dired displays subdirectories (in the "full" display mode),
it omits some that should never contain any files under version control.
By default, this includes Version Control subdirectories such as `RCS'
and `CVS'; you can customize this by setting the variable
`vc-directory-exclusion-list'.

   You can fine-tune VC Dired's format by typing `C-u C-x v d'--as in
ordinary Dired, that allows you to specify additional switches for the
`ls' command.


File: emacs,  Node: VC Dired Commands,  Prev: VC Dired Mode,  Up: Secondary VC Commands

23.8.5.5 VC Dired Commands
..........................

All the usual Dired commands work normally in VC Dired mode, except for
`v', which is redefined as the version control prefix.  You can invoke
VC commands such as `vc-diff' and `vc-print-log' by typing `v =', or `v
l', and so on.  Most of these commands apply to the file name on the
current line.

   The command `v v' (`vc-next-action') operates on all the marked
files, so that you can lock or check in several files at once.  If it
operates on more than one file, it handles each file according to its
current state; thus, it might lock one file, but check in another file.
This could be confusing; it is up to you to avoid confusing behavior
by marking a set of files that are in a similar state.  If no files are
marked, `v v' operates on the file in the current line.

   If any files call for check-in, `v v' reads a single log entry, then
uses it for all the files being checked in.  This is convenient for
registering or checking in several files at once, as part of the same
change.

   You can toggle between terse display (only locked files, or files not
up-to-date) and full display at any time by typing `v t'
(`vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode').  There is also a special command `* l'
(`vc-dired-mark-locked'), which marks all files currently locked (or,
with CVS, all files not up-to-date).  Thus, typing `* l t k' is another
way to delete from the buffer all files except those currently locked.


File: emacs,  Node: Branches,  Next: Remote Repositories,  Prev: Secondary VC Commands,  Up: Version Control

23.8.6 Multiple Branches of a File
----------------------------------

One use of version control is to maintain multiple "current" versions
of a file.  For example, you might have different versions of a program
in which you are gradually adding various unfinished new features.
Each such independent line of development is called a "branch".  VC
allows you to create branches, switch between different branches, and
merge changes from one branch to another.  Please note, however, that
branches are not supported for SCCS.

   A file's main line of development is usually called the "trunk".
The versions on the trunk are normally numbered 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc.  At
any such version, you can start an independent branch.  A branch
starting at version 1.2 would have version number 1.2.1.1, and
consecutive versions on this branch would have numbers 1.2.1.2,
1.2.1.3, 1.2.1.4, and so on.  If there is a second branch also starting
at version 1.2, it would consist of versions 1.2.2.1, 1.2.2.2, 1.2.2.3,
etc.

   If you omit the final component of a version number, that is called a
"branch number".  It refers to the highest existing version on that
branch--the "head version" of that branch.  The branches in the example
above have branch numbers 1.2.1 and 1.2.2.

* Menu:

* Switching Branches::    How to get to another existing branch.
* Creating Branches::     How to start a new branch.
* Merging::               Transferring changes between branches.
* Multi-User Branching::  Multiple users working at multiple branches
                            in parallel.


File: emacs,  Node: Switching Branches,  Next: Creating Branches,  Up: Branches

23.8.6.1 Switching between Branches
...................................

To switch between branches, type `C-u C-x v v' and specify the version
number you want to select.  This version is then visited _unlocked_
(write-protected), so you can examine it before locking it.  Switching
branches in this way is allowed only when the file is not locked.

   You can omit the minor version number, thus giving only the branch
number; this takes you to the head version on the chosen branch.  If you
only type <RET>, Emacs goes to the highest version on the trunk.

   After you have switched to any branch (including the main branch),
you stay on it for subsequent VC commands, until you explicitly select
some other branch.


File: emacs,  Node: Creating Branches,  Next: Merging,  Prev: Switching Branches,  Up: Branches

23.8.6.2 Creating New Branches
..............................

To create a new branch from a head version (one that is the latest in
the branch that contains it), first select that version if necessary,
lock it with `C-x v v', and make whatever changes you want.  Then, when
you check in the changes, use `C-u C-x v v'.  This lets you specify the
version number for the new version.  You should specify a suitable
branch number for a branch starting at the current version.  For
example, if the current version is 2.5, the branch number should be
2.5.1, 2.5.2, and so on, depending on the number of existing branches at
that point.

   To create a new branch at an older version (one that is no longer the
head of a branch), first select that version (*note Switching
Branches::), then lock it with `C-x v v'.  You'll be asked to confirm,
when you lock the old version, that you really mean to create a new
branch--if you say no, you'll be offered a chance to lock the latest
version instead.

   Then make your changes and type `C-x v v' again to check in a new
version.  This automatically creates a new branch starting from the
selected version.  You need not specially request a new branch, because
that's the only way to add a new version at a point that is not the head
of a branch.

   After the branch is created, you "stay" on it.  That means that
subsequent check-ins create new versions on that branch.  To leave the
branch, you must explicitly select a different version with `C-u C-x v
v'.  To transfer changes from one branch to another, use the merge
command, described in the next section.


File: emacs,  Node: Merging,  Next: Multi-User Branching,  Prev: Creating Branches,  Up: Branches

23.8.6.3 Merging Branches
.........................

When you have finished the changes on a certain branch, you will often
want to incorporate them into the file's main line of development (the
trunk).  This is not a trivial operation, because development might
also have proceeded on the trunk, so that you must "merge" the changes
into a file that has already been changed otherwise.  VC allows you to
do this (and other things) with the `vc-merge' command.

`C-x v m (vc-merge)'
     Merge changes into the work file.

   `C-x v m' (`vc-merge') takes a set of changes and merges it into the
current version of the work file.  It firsts asks you in the minibuffer
where the changes should come from.  If you just type <RET>, Emacs
merges any changes that were made on the same branch since you checked
the file out (we call this "merging the news").  This is the common way
to pick up recent changes from the repository, regardless of whether
you have already changed the file yourself.

   You can also enter a branch number or a pair of version numbers in
the minibuffer.  Then `C-x v m' finds the changes from that branch, or
the differences between the two versions you specified, and merges them
into the current version of the current file.

   As an example, suppose that you have finished a certain feature on
branch 1.3.1.  In the meantime, development on the trunk has proceeded
to version 1.5.  To merge the changes from the branch to the trunk,
first go to the head version of the trunk, by typing `C-u C-x v v
<RET>'.  Version 1.5 is now current.  If locking is used for the file,
type `C-x v v' to lock version 1.5 so that you can change it.  Next,
type `C-x v m 1.3.1 <RET>'.  This takes the entire set of changes on
branch 1.3.1 (relative to version 1.3, where the branch started, up to
the last version on the branch) and merges it into the current version
of the work file.  You can now check in the changed file, thus creating
version 1.6 containing the changes from the branch.

   It is possible to do further editing after merging the branch, before
the next check-in.  But it is usually wiser to check in the merged
version, then lock it and make the further changes.  This will keep a
better record of the history of changes.

   When you merge changes into a file that has itself been modified, the
changes might overlap.  We call this situation a "conflict", and
reconciling the conflicting changes is called "resolving a conflict".

   Whenever conflicts occur during merging, VC detects them, tells you
about them in the echo area, and asks whether you want help in merging.
If you say yes, it starts an Ediff session (*note Ediff: (ediff)Top.).

   If you say no, the conflicting changes are both inserted into the
file, surrounded by "conflict markers".  The example below shows how a
conflict region looks; the file is called `name' and the current master
file version with user B's changes in it is 1.11.

     <<<<<<< name
       USER A'S VERSION
     =======
       USER B'S VERSION
     >>>>>>> 1.11

   Then you can resolve the conflicts by editing the file manually.  Or
you can type `M-x vc-resolve-conflicts' after visiting the file.  This
starts an Ediff session, as described above.  Don't forget to check in
the merged version afterwards.


File: emacs,  Node: Multi-User Branching,  Prev: Merging,  Up: Branches

23.8.6.4 Multi-User Branching
.............................

It is often useful for multiple developers to work simultaneously on
different branches of a file.  CVS allows this by default; for RCS, it
is possible if you create multiple source directories.  Each source
directory should have a link named `RCS' which points to a common
directory of RCS master files.  Then each source directory can have its
own choice of selected versions, but all share the same common RCS
records.

   This technique works reliably and automatically, provided that the
source files contain RCS version headers (*note Version Headers::).
The headers enable Emacs to be sure, at all times, which version number
is present in the work file.

   If the files do not have version headers, you must instead tell Emacs
explicitly in each session which branch you are working on.  To do this,
first find the file, then type `C-u C-x v v' and specify the correct
branch number.  This ensures that Emacs knows which branch it is using
during this particular editing session.


File: emacs,  Node: Remote Repositories,  Next: Snapshots,  Prev: Branches,  Up: Version Control

23.8.7 Remote Repositories
--------------------------

A common way of using CVS is to set up a central CVS repository on some
Internet host, then have each developer check out a personal working
copy of the files on his local machine.  Committing changes to the
repository, and picking up changes from other users into one's own
working area, then works by direct interactions with the CVS server.

   One difficulty is that access to the CVS server is often slow, and
that developers might need to work off-line as well.  VC is designed to
reduce the amount of network interaction necessary.

* Menu:

* Version Backups::        Keeping local copies of repository versions.
* Local Version Control::  Using another version system for local editing.


File: emacs,  Node: Version Backups,  Next: Local Version Control,  Up: Remote Repositories

23.8.7.1 Version Backups
........................

When VC sees that the CVS repository for a file is on a remote machine,
it automatically makes local backups of unmodified versions of the
file--"automatic version backups".  This means that you can compare the
file to the repository version (`C-x v ='), or revert to that version
(`C-x v u'), without any network interactions.

   The local copy of the unmodified file is called a "version backup"
to indicate that it corresponds exactly to a version that is stored in
the repository.  Note that version backups are not the same as ordinary
Emacs backup files (*note Backup::).  But they follow a similar naming
convention.

   For a file that comes from a remote CVS repository, VC makes a
version backup whenever you save the first changes to the file, and
removes it after you have committed your modified version to the
repository. You can disable the making of automatic version backups by
setting `vc-cvs-stay-local' to `nil' (*note CVS Options::).

   The name of the automatic version backup for version VERSION of file
FILE is `FILE.~VERSION.~'.  This is almost the same as the name used by
`C-x v ~' (*note Old Versions::), the only difference being the
additional dot (`.')  after the version number.  This similarity is
intentional, because both kinds of files store the same kind of
information.  The file made by `C-x v ~' acts as a "manual version
backup".

   All the VC commands that operate on old versions of a file can use
both kinds of version backups.  For instance, `C-x v ~' uses either an
automatic or a manual version backup, if possible, to get the contents
of the version you request.  Likewise, `C-x v =' and `C-x v u' use
either an automatic or a manual version backup, if one of them exists,
to get the contents of a version to compare or revert to.  If you
changed a file outside of Emacs, so that no automatic version backup
was created for the previous text, you can create a manual backup of
that version using `C-x v ~', and thus obtain the benefit of the local
copy for Emacs commands.

   The only difference in Emacs's handling of manual and automatic
version backups, once they exist, is that Emacs deletes automatic
version backups when you commit to the repository.  By contrast, manual
version backups remain until you delete them.


File: emacs,  Node: Local Version Control,  Prev: Version Backups,  Up: Remote Repositories

23.8.7.2 Local Version Control
..............................

When you make many changes to a file that comes from a remote
repository, it can be convenient to have version control on your local
machine as well.  You can then record intermediate versions, revert to
a previous state, etc., before you actually commit your changes to the
remote server.

   VC lets you do this by putting a file under a second, local version
control system, so that the file is effectively registered in two
systems at the same time.  For the description here, we will assume
that the remote system is CVS, and you use RCS locally, although the
mechanism works with any combination of version control systems ("back
ends").

   To make it work with other back ends, you must make sure that the
"more local" back end comes before the "more remote" back end in the
setting of `vc-handled-backends' (*note Customizing VC::).  By default,
this variable is set up so that you can use remote CVS and local RCS as
described here.

   To start using local RCS for a file that comes from a remote CVS
server, you must _register the file in RCS_, by typing `C-u C-x v v rcs
<RET>'.  (In other words, use `vc-next-action' with a prefix argument,
and specify RCS as the back end.)

   You can do this at any time; it does not matter whether you have
already modified the file with respect to the version in the CVS
repository.  If possible, VC tries to make the RCS master start with
the unmodified repository version, then checks in any local changes as
a new version.  This works if you have not made any changes yet, or if
the unmodified repository version exists locally as a version backup
(*note Version Backups::).  If the unmodified version is not available
locally, the RCS master starts with the modified version; the only
drawback to this is that you cannot compare your changes locally to
what is stored in the repository.

   The version number of the RCS master is derived from the current CVS
version, starting a branch from it.  For example, if the current CVS
version is 1.23, the local RCS branch will be 1.23.1.  Version 1.23 in
the RCS master will be identical to version 1.23 under CVS; your first
changes are checked in as 1.23.1.1.  (If the unmodified file is not
available locally, VC will check in the modified file twice, both as
1.23 and 1.23.1.1, to make the revision numbers consistent.)

   If you do not use locking under CVS (the default), locking is also
disabled for RCS, so that editing under RCS works exactly as under CVS.

   When you are done with local editing, you can commit the final
version back to the CVS repository by typing `C-u C-x v v cvs <RET>'.
This initializes the log entry buffer (*note Log Buffer::) to contain
all the log entries you have recorded in the RCS master; you can edit
them as you wish, and then commit in CVS by typing `C-c C-c'.  If the
commit is successful, VC removes the RCS master, so that the file is
once again registered under CVS only.  (The RCS master is not actually
deleted, just renamed by appending `~' to the name, so that you can
refer to it later if you wish.)

   While using local RCS, you can pick up recent changes from the CVS
repository into your local file, or commit some of your changes back to
CVS, without terminating local RCS version control.  To do this, switch
to the CVS back end temporarily, with the `C-x v b' command:

`C-x v b'
     Switch to another back end that the current file is registered
     under (`vc-switch-backend').

`C-u C-x v b BACKEND <RET>'
     Switch to BACKEND for the current file.

   `C-x v b' does not change the buffer contents, or any files; it only
changes VC's perspective on how to handle the file.  Any subsequent VC
commands for that file will operate on the back end that is currently
selected.

   If the current file is registered in more than one back end, typing
`C-x v b' "cycles" through all of these back ends.  With a prefix
argument, it asks for the back end to use in the minibuffer.

   Thus, if you are using local RCS, and you want to pick up some recent
changes in the file from remote CVS, first visit the file, then type
`C-x v b' to switch to CVS, and finally use `C-x v m <RET>' to merge
the news (*note Merging::).  You can then switch back to RCS by typing
`C-x v b' again, and continue to edit locally.

   But if you do this, the revision numbers in the RCS master no longer
correspond to those of CVS.  Technically, this is not a problem, but it
can become difficult to keep track of what is in the CVS repository and
what is not.  So we suggest that you return from time to time to
CVS-only operation, by committing your local changes back to the
repository using `C-u C-x v v cvs <RET>'.


File: emacs,  Node: Snapshots,  Next: Miscellaneous VC,  Prev: Remote Repositories,  Up: Version Control

23.8.8 Snapshots
----------------

A "snapshot" is a named set of file versions (one for each registered
file) that you can treat as a unit.  One important kind of snapshot is
a "release", a (theoretically) stable version of the system that is
ready for distribution to users.

* Menu:

* Making Snapshots::		The snapshot facilities.
* Snapshot Caveats::		Things to be careful of when using snapshots.


File: emacs,  Node: Making Snapshots,  Next: Snapshot Caveats,  Up: Snapshots

23.8.8.1 Making and Using Snapshots
...................................

There are two basic commands for snapshots; one makes a snapshot with a
given name, the other retrieves a named snapshot.

`C-x v s NAME <RET>'
     Define the last saved versions of every registered file in or
     under the current directory as a snapshot named NAME
     (`vc-create-snapshot').

`C-x v r NAME <RET>'
     For all registered files at or below the current directory level,
     select whatever versions correspond to the snapshot NAME
     (`vc-retrieve-snapshot').

     This command reports an error if any files are locked at or below
     the current directory, without changing anything; this is to avoid
     overwriting work in progress.

   A snapshot uses a very small amount of resources--just enough to
record the list of file names and which version belongs to the
snapshot.  Thus, you need not hesitate to create snapshots whenever
they are useful.

   You can give a snapshot name as an argument to `C-x v =' or `C-x v ~'
(*note Old Versions::).  Thus, you can use it to compare a snapshot
against the current files, or two snapshots against each other, or a
snapshot against a named version.


File: emacs,  Node: Snapshot Caveats,  Prev: Making Snapshots,  Up: Snapshots

23.8.8.2 Snapshot Caveats
.........................

VC's snapshot facilities are modeled on RCS's named-configuration
support.  They use RCS's native facilities for this, so snapshots made
using RCS through VC are visible even when you bypass VC.

   With CVS, Meta-CVS, and Subversion, VC also uses the native
mechanism provided by that back end to make snapshots and retrieve them
("tags" for CVS and Meta-CVS, "copies" for Subversion).

   For SCCS, VC implements snapshots itself.  The files it uses contain
name/file/version-number triples.  These snapshots are visible only
through VC.

   There is no support for VC snapshots using GNU Arch yet.

   A snapshot is a set of checked-in versions.  So make sure that all
the files are checked in and not locked when you make a snapshot.

   File renaming and deletion can create some difficulties with
snapshots.  This is not a VC-specific problem, but a general design
issue in version control systems that no one has solved very well yet.

   If you rename a registered file, you need to rename its master along
with it (the command `vc-rename-file' does this automatically).  If you
are using SCCS, you must also update the records of the snapshot, to
mention the file by its new name (`vc-rename-file' does this, too).  An
old snapshot that refers to a master file that no longer exists under
the recorded name is invalid; VC can no longer retrieve it.  It would
be beyond the scope of this manual to explain enough about RCS and SCCS
to explain how to update the snapshots by hand.

   Using `vc-rename-file' makes the snapshot remain valid for
retrieval, but it does not solve all problems.  For example, some of the
files in your program probably refer to others by name.  At the very
least, the makefile probably mentions the file that you renamed.  If you
retrieve an old snapshot, the renamed file is retrieved under its new
name, which is not the name that the makefile expects.  So the program
won't really work as retrieved.


File: emacs,  Node: Miscellaneous VC,  Next: Customizing VC,  Prev: Snapshots,  Up: Version Control

23.8.9 Miscellaneous Commands and Features of VC
------------------------------------------------

This section explains the less-frequently-used features of VC.

* Menu:

* Change Logs and VC::  Generating a change log file from log entries.
* Renaming and VC::     A command to rename both the source and master
                          file correctly.
* Version Headers::     Inserting version control headers into working files.


File: emacs,  Node: Change Logs and VC,  Next: Renaming and VC,  Up: Miscellaneous VC

23.8.9.1 Change Logs and VC
...........................

If you use RCS or CVS for a program and also maintain a change log file
for it (*note Change Log::), you can generate change log entries
automatically from the version control log entries:

`C-x v a'
     Visit the current directory's change log file and, for registered
     files in that directory, create new entries for versions checked
     in since the most recent entry in the change log file.
     (`vc-update-change-log').

     This command works with RCS or CVS only, not with any of the other
     back ends.

`C-u C-x v a'
     As above, but only find entries for the current buffer's file.

`M-1 C-x v a'
     As above, but find entries for all the currently visited files
     that are maintained with version control.  This works only with
     RCS, and it puts all entries in the log for the default directory,
     which may not be appropriate.

   For example, suppose the first line of `ChangeLog' is dated
1999-04-10, and that the only check-in since then was by Nathaniel
Bowditch to `rcs2log' on 1999-05-22 with log text `Ignore log messages
that start with `#'.'.  Then `C-x v a' visits `ChangeLog' and inserts
text like this:

     1999-05-22  Nathaniel Bowditch  <nat@apn.org>

             * rcs2log: Ignore log messages that start with `#'.

You can then edit the new change log entry further as you wish.

   Some of the new change log entries may duplicate what's already in
ChangeLog.  You will have to remove these duplicates by hand.

   Normally, the log entry for file `foo' is displayed as `* foo: TEXT
OF LOG ENTRY'.  The `:' after `foo' is omitted if the text of the log
entry starts with `(FUNCTIONNAME): '.  For example, if the log entry
for `vc.el' is `(vc-do-command): Check call-process status.', then the
text in `ChangeLog' looks like this:

     1999-05-06  Nathaniel Bowditch  <nat@apn.org>

             * vc.el (vc-do-command): Check call-process status.

   When `C-x v a' adds several change log entries at once, it groups
related log entries together if they all are checked in by the same
author at nearly the same time.  If the log entries for several such
files all have the same text, it coalesces them into a single entry.
For example, suppose the most recent check-ins have the following log
entries:

* For `vc.texinfo': `Fix expansion typos.'
* For `vc.el': `Don't call expand-file-name.'
* For `vc-hooks.el': `Don't call expand-file-name.'

They appear like this in `ChangeLog':

     1999-04-01  Nathaniel Bowditch  <nat@apn.org>

             * vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.

             * vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.

   Normally, `C-x v a' separates log entries by a blank line, but you
can mark several related log entries to be clumped together (without an
intervening blank line) by starting the text of each related log entry
with a label of the form `{CLUMPNAME} '.  The label itself is not
copied to `ChangeLog'.  For example, suppose the log entries are:

* For `vc.texinfo': `{expand} Fix expansion typos.'
* For `vc.el': `{expand} Don't call expand-file-name.'
* For `vc-hooks.el': `{expand} Don't call expand-file-name.'

Then the text in `ChangeLog' looks like this:

     1999-04-01  Nathaniel Bowditch  <nat@apn.org>

             * vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.
             * vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.

   A log entry whose text begins with `#' is not copied to `ChangeLog'.
For example, if you merely fix some misspellings in comments, you can
log the change with an entry beginning with `#' to avoid putting such
trivia into `ChangeLog'.


File: emacs,  Node: Renaming and VC,  Next: Version Headers,  Prev: Change Logs and VC,  Up: Miscellaneous VC

23.8.9.2 Renaming VC Work Files and Master Files
................................................

When you rename a registered file, you must also rename its master file
correspondingly to get proper results.  Use `vc-rename-file' to rename
the source file as you specify, and rename its master file accordingly.
It also updates any snapshots (*note Snapshots::) that mention the
file, so that they use the new name; despite this, the snapshot thus
modified may not completely work (*note Snapshot Caveats::).

   Some back ends do not provide an explicit rename operation to their
repositories.  After issuing `vc-rename-file', use `C-x v v' on the
original and renamed buffers and provide the necessary edit log.

   You cannot use `vc-rename-file' on a file that is locked by someone
else.


File: emacs,  Node: Version Headers,  Prev: Renaming and VC,  Up: Miscellaneous VC

23.8.9.3 Inserting Version Control Headers
..........................................

Sometimes it is convenient to put version identification strings
directly into working files.  Certain special strings called "version
headers" are replaced in each successive version by the number of that
version, the name of the user who created it, and other relevant
information.  All of the back ends that VC supports have such a
mechanism, except GNU Arch.

   VC does not normally use the information contained in these headers.
The exception is RCS--with RCS, version headers are sometimes more
reliable than the master file to determine which version of the file
you are editing.  Note that in a multi-branch environment, version
headers are necessary to make VC behave correctly (*note Multi-User
Branching::).

   Searching for RCS version headers is controlled by the variable
`vc-consult-headers'.  If it is non-`nil' (the default), Emacs searches
for headers to determine the version number you are editing.  Setting
it to `nil' disables this feature.

   Note that although CVS uses the same kind of version headers as RCS
does, VC never searches for these headers if you are using CVS,
regardless of the above setting.

   You can use the `C-x v h' command (`vc-insert-headers') to insert a
suitable header string.

`C-x v h'
     Insert headers in a file for use with your version-control system.

   The default header string is `$Id$' for RCS and `%W%' for SCCS.  You
can specify other headers to insert by setting the variables
`vc-BACKEND-header' where BACKEND is `rcs' or `sccs'.

   Instead of a single string, you can specify a list of strings; then
each string in the list is inserted as a separate header on a line of
its own.

   It may be necessary to use apparently-superfluous backslashes when
writing the strings that you put in this variable.  For instance, you
might write `"$Id\$"' rather than `"$Id$"'.  The extra backslash
prevents the string constant from being interpreted as a header, if the
Emacs Lisp file containing it is maintained with version control.

   Each header is inserted surrounded by tabs, inside comment
delimiters, on a new line at point.  Normally the ordinary comment
start and comment end strings of the current mode are used, but for
certain modes, there are special comment delimiters for this purpose;
the variable `vc-comment-alist' specifies them.  Each element of this
list has the form `(MODE STARTER ENDER)'.

   The variable `vc-static-header-alist' specifies further strings to
add based on the name of the buffer.  Its value should be a list of
elements of the form `(REGEXP . FORMAT)'.  Whenever REGEXP matches the
buffer name, FORMAT is inserted as part of the header.  A header line
is inserted for each element that matches the buffer name, and for each
string specified by `vc-BACKEND-header'.  The header line is made by
processing the string from `vc-BACKEND-header' with the format taken
from the element.  The default value for `vc-static-header-alist' is as
follows:

     (("\\.c$" .
       "\n#ifndef lint\nstatic char vcid[] = \"\%s\";\n\
     #endif /* lint */\n"))

It specifies insertion of text of this form:


     #ifndef lint
     static char vcid[] = "STRING";
     #endif /* lint */

Note that the text above starts with a blank line.

   If you use more than one version header in a file, put them close
together in the file.  The mechanism in `revert-buffer' that preserves
markers may not handle markers positioned between two version headers.


File: emacs,  Node: Customizing VC,  Prev: Miscellaneous VC,  Up: Version Control

23.8.10 Customizing VC
----------------------

The variable `vc-handled-backends' determines which version control
systems VC should handle.  The default value is `(RCS CVS SVN SCCS Arch
MCVS)', so it contains all six version systems that are currently
supported.  If you want VC to ignore one or more of these systems,
exclude its name from the list.  To disable VC entirely, set this
variable to `nil'.

   The order of systems in the list is significant: when you visit a
file registered in more than one system (*note Local Version
Control::), VC uses the system that comes first in
`vc-handled-backends' by default.  The order is also significant when
you register a file for the first time, see *Note Registering::, for
details.

* Menu:

* General VC Options::  Options that apply to multiple back ends.
* RCS and SCCS::        Options for RCS and SCCS.
* CVS Options::         Options for CVS.


File: emacs,  Node: General VC Options,  Next: RCS and SCCS,  Up: Customizing VC

23.8.10.1 General Options
.........................

Emacs normally does not save backup files for source files that are
maintained with version control.  If you want to make backup files even
for files that use version control, set the variable
`vc-make-backup-files' to a non-`nil' value.

   Normally the work file exists all the time, whether it is locked or
not.  If you set `vc-keep-workfiles' to `nil', then checking in a new
version with `C-x v v' deletes the work file; but any attempt to visit
the file with Emacs creates it again.  (With CVS, work files are always
kept.)

   Editing a version-controlled file through a symbolic link can be
dangerous.  It bypasses the version control system--you can edit the
file without locking it, and fail to check your changes in.  Also, your
changes might overwrite those of another user.  To protect against
this, VC checks each symbolic link that you visit, to see if it points
to a file under version control.

   The variable `vc-follow-symlinks' controls what to do when a
symbolic link points to a version-controlled file.  If it is `nil', VC
only displays a warning message.  If it is `t', VC automatically
follows the link, and visits the real file instead, telling you about
this in the echo area.  If the value is `ask' (the default), VC asks
you each time whether to follow the link.

   If `vc-suppress-confirm' is non-`nil', then `C-x v v' and `C-x v i'
can save the current buffer without asking, and `C-x v u' also operates
without asking for confirmation.  (This variable does not affect `C-x v
c'; that operation is so drastic that it should always ask for
confirmation.)

   VC mode does much of its work by running the shell commands for RCS,
CVS and SCCS.  If `vc-command-messages' is non-`nil', VC displays
messages to indicate which shell commands it runs, and additional
messages when the commands finish.

   You can specify additional directories to search for version control
programs by setting the variable `vc-path'.  These directories are
searched before the usual search path.  It is rarely necessary to set
this variable, because VC normally finds the proper files automatically.


File: emacs,  Node: RCS and SCCS,  Next: CVS Options,  Prev: General VC Options,  Up: Customizing VC

23.8.10.2 Options for RCS and SCCS
..................................

By default, RCS uses locking to coordinate the activities of several
users, but there is a mode called "non-strict locking" in which you can
check-in changes without locking the file first.  Use `rcs -U' to
switch to non-strict locking for a particular file, see the `rcs'
manual page for details.

   When deducing the version control state of an RCS file, VC first
looks for an RCS version header string in the file (*note Version
Headers::).  If there is no header string, VC normally looks at the
file permissions of the work file; this is fast.  But there might be
situations when the file permissions cannot be trusted.  In this case
the master file has to be consulted, which is rather expensive.  Also
the master file can only tell you _if_ there's any lock on the file,
but not whether your work file really contains that locked version.

   You can tell VC not to use version headers to determine the file
status by setting `vc-consult-headers' to `nil'.  VC then always uses
the file permissions (if it is supposed to trust them), or else checks
the master file.

   You can specify the criterion for whether to trust the file
permissions by setting the variable `vc-mistrust-permissions'.  Its
value can be `t' (always mistrust the file permissions and check the
master file), `nil' (always trust the file permissions), or a function
of one argument which makes the decision.  The argument is the
directory name of the `RCS' subdirectory.  A non-`nil' value from the
function says to mistrust the file permissions.  If you find that the
file permissions of work files are changed erroneously, set
`vc-mistrust-permissions' to `t'.  Then VC always checks the master
file to determine the file's status.

   VC determines the version control state of files under SCCS much as
with RCS.  It does not consider SCCS version headers, though.  Thus,
the variable `vc-mistrust-permissions' affects SCCS use, but
`vc-consult-headers' does not.


File: emacs,  Node: CVS Options,  Prev: RCS and SCCS,  Up: Customizing VC

23.8.10.3 Options specific for CVS
..................................

By default, CVS does not use locking to coordinate the activities of
several users; anyone can change a work file at any time.  However,
there are ways to restrict this, resulting in behavior that resembles
locking.

   For one thing, you can set the `CVSREAD' environment variable (the
value you use makes no difference).  If this variable is defined, CVS
makes your work files read-only by default.  In Emacs, you must type
`C-x v v' to make the file writable, so that editing works in fact
similar as if locking was used.  Note however, that no actual locking
is performed, so several users can make their files writable at the
same time.  When setting `CVSREAD' for the first time, make sure to
check out all your modules anew, so that the file protections are set
correctly.

   Another way to achieve something similar to locking is to use the
"watch" feature of CVS.  If a file is being watched, CVS makes it
read-only by default, and you must also use `C-x v v' in Emacs to make
it writable.  VC calls `cvs edit' to make the file writable, and CVS
takes care to notify other developers of the fact that you intend to
change the file.  See the CVS documentation for details on using the
watch feature.

   When a file's repository is on a remote machine, VC tries to keep
network interactions to a minimum.  This is controlled by the variable
`vc-cvs-stay-local'.  There is another variable, `vc-stay-local', which
enables the feature also for other back ends that support it, including
CVS.  In the following, we will talk only about `vc-cvs-stay-local',
but everything applies to `vc-stay-local' as well.

   If `vc-cvs-stay-local' is `t' (the default), then VC uses only the
entry in the local CVS subdirectory to determine the file's state (and
possibly information returned by previous CVS commands).  One
consequence of this is that when you have modified a file, and somebody
else has already checked in other changes to the file, you are not
notified of it until you actually try to commit.  (But you can try to
pick up any recent changes from the repository first, using `C-x v m
<RET>', *note Merging::).

   When `vc-cvs-stay-local' is `t', VC also makes local version
backups, so that simple diff and revert operations are completely local
(*note Version Backups::).

   On the other hand, if you set `vc-cvs-stay-local' to `nil', then VC
queries the remote repository _before_ it decides what to do in
`vc-next-action' (`C-x v v'), just as it does for local repositories.
It also does not make any version backups.

   You can also set `vc-cvs-stay-local' to a regular expression that is
matched against the repository host name; VC then stays local only for
repositories from hosts that match the pattern.

   You can specify additional command line options to pass to all CVS
operations in the variable `vc-cvs-global-switches'.  These switches
are inserted immediately after the `cvs' command, before the name of
the operation to invoke.


File: emacs,  Node: Directories,  Next: Comparing Files,  Prev: Version Control,  Up: Files

23.9 File Directories
=====================

The file system groups files into "directories".  A "directory listing"
is a list of all the files in a directory.  Emacs provides commands to
create and delete directories, and to make directory listings in brief
format (file names only) and verbose format (sizes, dates, and authors
included).  Emacs also includes a directory browser feature called
Dired; see *Note Dired::.

`C-x C-d DIR-OR-PATTERN <RET>'
     Display a brief directory listing (`list-directory').

`C-u C-x C-d DIR-OR-PATTERN <RET>'
     Display a verbose directory listing.

`M-x make-directory <RET> DIRNAME <RET>'
     Create a new directory named DIRNAME.

`M-x delete-directory <RET> DIRNAME <RET>'
     Delete the directory named DIRNAME.  It must be empty, or you get
     an error.

   The command to display a directory listing is `C-x C-d'
(`list-directory').  It reads using the minibuffer a file name which is
either a directory to be listed or a wildcard-containing pattern for
the files to be listed.  For example,

     C-x C-d /u2/emacs/etc <RET>

lists all the files in directory `/u2/emacs/etc'.  Here is an example
of specifying a file name pattern:

     C-x C-d /u2/emacs/src/*.c <RET>

   Normally, `C-x C-d' displays a brief directory listing containing
just file names.  A numeric argument (regardless of value) tells it to
make a verbose listing including sizes, dates, and owners (like `ls
-l').

   The text of a directory listing is mostly obtained by running `ls'
in an inferior process.  Two Emacs variables control the switches
passed to `ls': `list-directory-brief-switches' is a string giving the
switches to use in brief listings (`"-CF"' by default), and
`list-directory-verbose-switches' is a string giving the switches to
use in a verbose listing (`"-l"' by default).

   In verbose directory listings, Emacs adds information about the
amount of free space on the disk that contains the directory.  To do
this, it runs the program specified by `directory-free-space-program'
with arguments `directory-free-space-args'.


File: emacs,  Node: Comparing Files,  Next: Diff Mode,  Prev: Directories,  Up: Files

23.10 Comparing Files
=====================

The command `M-x diff' compares two files, displaying the differences
in an Emacs buffer named `*diff*'.  It works by running the `diff'
program, using options taken from the variable `diff-switches'.  The
value of `diff-switches' should be a string; the default is `"-c"' to
specify a context diff.  *Note Diff: (diff)Top, for more information
about `diff' output formats.

   The command `M-x diff-backup' compares a specified file with its most
recent backup.  If you specify the name of a backup file, `diff-backup'
compares it with the source file that it is a backup of.

   The command `M-x compare-windows' compares the text in the current
window with that in the next window.  (For more information about
windows in Emacs, *Note Windows::.)  Comparison starts at point in each
window, after pushing each initial point value on the mark ring in its
respective buffer.  Then it moves point forward in each window, one
character at a time, until it reaches characters that don't match.
Then the command exits.

   If point in the two windows is followed by non-matching text when
the command starts, `M-x compare-windows' tries heuristically to
advance up to matching text in the two windows, and then exits.  So if
you use `M-x compare-windows' repeatedly, each time it either skips one
matching range or finds the start of another.

   With a numeric argument, `compare-windows' ignores changes in
whitespace.  If the variable `compare-ignore-case' is non-`nil', the
comparison ignores differences in case as well.  If the variable
`compare-ignore-whitespace' is non-`nil', `compare-windows' normally
ignores changes in whitespace, and a prefix argument turns that off.

   You can use `M-x smerge-mode' to turn on Smerge mode, a minor mode
for editing output from the `diff3' program.  This is typically the
result of a failed merge from a version control system "update" outside
VC, due to conflicting changes to a file.  Smerge mode provides
commands to resolve conflicts by selecting specific changes.

   *Note Emerge::, for the Emerge facility, which provides a powerful
interface for merging files.


File: emacs,  Node: Diff Mode,  Next: Misc File Ops,  Prev: Comparing Files,  Up: Files

23.11 Diff Mode
===============

Diff mode is used for the output of `M-x diff'; it is also useful for
editing patches and comparisons produced by the `diff' program.  To
select Diff mode manually, type `M-x diff-mode'.

   One general feature of Diff mode is that manual edits to the patch
automatically correct line numbers, including those in the hunk header,
so that you can actually apply the edited patch.  Diff mode treats each
hunk location as an "error message," so that you can use commands such
as `C-x '' to visit the corresponding source locations.  It also
provides the following commands to navigate, manipulate and apply parts
of patches:

`M-n'
     Move to the next hunk-start (`diff-hunk-next').

`M-p'
     Move to the previous hunk-start (`diff-hunk-prev').

`M-}'
     Move to the next file-start, in a multi-file patch
     (`diff-file-next').

`M-{'
     Move to the previous file-start, in a multi-file patch
     (`diff-file-prev').

`M-k'
     Kill the hunk at point (`diff-hunk-kill').

`M-K'
     In a multi-file patch, kill the current file part.
     (`diff-file-kill').

`C-c C-a'
     Apply this hunk to its target file (`diff-apply-hunk').  With a
     prefix argument of `C-u', revert this hunk.

`C-c C-c'
     Go to the source corresponding to this hunk (`diff-goto-source').

`C-c C-e'
     Start an Ediff session with the patch (`diff-ediff-patch').  *Note
     Ediff: (ediff)Top.

`C-c C-n'
     Restrict the view to the current hunk (`diff-restrict-view').
     *Note Narrowing::.  With a prefix argument of `C-u', restrict the
     view to the current patch of a multiple file patch.  To widen
     again, use `C-x n w'.

`C-c C-r'
     Reverse the direction of comparison for the entire buffer
     (`diff-reverse-direction').

`C-c C-s'
     Split the hunk at point (`diff-split-hunk').  This is for manually
     editing patches, and only works with the unified diff format.

`C-c C-u'
     Convert the entire buffer to unified format
     (`diff-context->unified').  With a prefix argument, convert
     unified format to context format.  In Transient Mark mode, when the
     mark is active, this command operates only on the region.

`C-c C-w'
     Refine the current hunk so that it disregards changes in whitespace
     (`diff-refine-hunk').

   `C-x 4 a' in Diff mode operates on behalf of the target file, but
gets the function name from the patch itself.  *Note Change Log::.
This is useful for making log entries for functions that are deleted by
the patch.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc File Ops,  Next: Compressed Files,  Prev: Diff Mode,  Up: Files

23.12 Miscellaneous File Operations
===================================

Emacs has commands for performing many other operations on files.  All
operate on one file; they do not accept wildcard file names.

   `M-x view-file' allows you to scan or read a file by sequential
screenfuls.  It reads a file name argument using the minibuffer.  After
reading the file into an Emacs buffer, `view-file' displays the
beginning.  You can then type <SPC> to scroll forward one windowful, or
<DEL> to scroll backward.  Various other commands are provided for
moving around in the file, but none for changing it; type `?' while
viewing for a list of them.  They are mostly the same as normal Emacs
cursor motion commands.  To exit from viewing, type `q'.  The commands
for viewing are defined by a special minor mode called View mode.

   A related command, `M-x view-buffer', views a buffer already present
in Emacs.  *Note Misc Buffer::.

   `M-x insert-file' (also `C-x i') inserts a copy of the contents of
the specified file into the current buffer at point, leaving point
unchanged before the contents and the mark after them.

   `M-x insert-file-literally' is like `M-x insert-file', except the
file is inserted "literally": it is treated as a sequence of ASCII
characters with no special encoding or conversion, similar to the `M-x
find-file-literally' command (*note Visiting::).

   `M-x write-region' is the inverse of `M-x insert-file'; it copies
the contents of the region into the specified file.  `M-x
append-to-file' adds the text of the region to the end of the specified
file.  *Note Accumulating Text::.  The variable
`write-region-inhibit-fsync' applies to these commands, as well as
saving files; see *Note Customize Save::.

   `M-x delete-file' deletes the specified file, like the `rm' command
in the shell.  If you are deleting many files in one directory, it may
be more convenient to use Dired (*note Dired::).

   `M-x rename-file' reads two file names OLD and NEW using the
minibuffer, then renames file OLD as NEW.  If the file name NEW already
exists, you must confirm with `yes' or renaming is not done; this is
because renaming causes the old meaning of the name NEW to be lost.  If
OLD and NEW are on different file systems, the file OLD is copied and
deleted.

   If the argument NEW is just a directory name, the real new name is
in that directory, with the same non-directory component as OLD.  For
example, `M-x rename-file RET ~/foo RET /tmp RET' renames `~/foo' to
`/tmp/foo'.  The same rule applies to all the remaining commands in
this section.  All of them ask for confirmation when the new file name
already exists, too.

   The similar command `M-x add-name-to-file' is used to add an
additional name to an existing file without removing its old name.  The
new name is created as a "hard link" to the existing file.  The new
name must belong on the same file system that the file is on.  On
MS-Windows, this command works only if the file resides in an NTFS file
system.  On MS-DOS, it works by copying the file.

   `M-x copy-file' reads the file OLD and writes a new file named NEW
with the same contents.

   `M-x make-symbolic-link' reads two file names TARGET and LINKNAME,
then creates a symbolic link named LINKNAME, which points at TARGET.
The effect is that future attempts to open file LINKNAME will refer to
whatever file is named TARGET at the time the opening is done, or will
get an error if the name TARGET is nonexistent at that time.  This
command does not expand the argument TARGET, so that it allows you to
specify a relative name as the target of the link.

   Not all systems support symbolic links; on systems that don't
support them, this command is not defined.


File: emacs,  Node: Compressed Files,  Next: File Archives,  Prev: Misc File Ops,  Up: Files

23.13 Accessing Compressed Files
================================

Emacs automatically uncompresses compressed files when you visit them,
and automatically recompresses them if you alter them and save them.
Emacs recognizes compressed files by their file names.  File names
ending in `.gz' indicate a file compressed with `gzip'.  Other endings
indicate other compression programs.

   Automatic uncompression and compression apply to all the operations
in which Emacs uses the contents of a file.  This includes visiting it,
saving it, inserting its contents into a buffer, loading it, and byte
compiling it.

   To disable this feature, type the command `M-x
auto-compression-mode'.  You can disable it permanently by customizing
the variable `auto-compression-mode'.


File: emacs,  Node: File Archives,  Next: Remote Files,  Prev: Compressed Files,  Up: Files

23.14 File Archives
===================

A file whose name ends in `.tar' is normally an "archive" made by the
`tar' program.  Emacs views these files in a special mode called Tar
mode which provides a Dired-like list of the contents (*note Dired::).
You can move around through the list just as you would in Dired, and
visit the subfiles contained in the archive.  However, not all Dired
commands are available in Tar mode.

   If Auto Compression mode is enabled (*note Compressed Files::), then
Tar mode is used also for compressed archives--files with extensions
`.tgz', `.tar.Z' and `.tar.gz'.

   The keys `e', `f' and <RET> all extract a component file into its
own buffer.  You can edit it there, and if you save the buffer, the
edited version will replace the version in the Tar buffer.  `v'
extracts a file into a buffer in View mode.  `o' extracts the file and
displays it in another window, so you could edit the file and operate
on the archive simultaneously.  `d' marks a file for deletion when you
later use `x', and `u' unmarks a file, as in Dired.  `C' copies a file
from the archive to disk and `R' renames a file within the archive.
`g' reverts the buffer from the archive on disk.

   The keys `M', `G', and `O' change the file's permission bits, group,
and owner, respectively.

   If your display supports colors and the mouse, moving the mouse
pointer across a file name highlights that file name, indicating that
you can click on it.  Clicking `Mouse-2' on the highlighted file name
extracts the file into a buffer and displays that buffer.

   Saving the Tar buffer writes a new version of the archive to disk
with the changes you made to the components.

   You don't need the `tar' program to use Tar mode--Emacs reads the
archives directly.  However, accessing compressed archives requires the
appropriate uncompression program.

   A separate but similar Archive mode is used for archives produced by
the programs `arc', `jar', `lzh', `zip', and `zoo', which have
extensions corresponding to the program names.  Archive mode also works
for those `exe' files that are self-extracting executables.

   The key bindings of Archive mode are similar to those in Tar mode,
with the addition of the `m' key which marks a file for subsequent
operations, and `M-<DEL>' which unmarks all the marked files.  Also,
the `a' key toggles the display of detailed file information, for those
archive types where it won't fit in a single line.  Operations such as
renaming a subfile, or changing its mode or owner, are supported only
for some of the archive formats.

   Unlike Tar mode, Archive mode runs the archiving program to unpack
and repack archives.  Details of the program names and their options
can be set in the `Archive' Customize group.  However, you don't need
these programs to look at the archive table of contents, only to
extract or manipulate the subfiles in the archive.


File: emacs,  Node: Remote Files,  Next: Quoted File Names,  Prev: File Archives,  Up: Files

23.15 Remote Files
==================

You can refer to files on other machines using a special file name
syntax:

     /HOST:FILENAME
     /USER@HOST:FILENAME
     /USER@HOST#PORT:FILENAME
     /METHOD:USER@HOST:FILENAME
     /METHOD:USER@HOST#PORT:FILENAME

To carry out this request, Emacs uses either the FTP program or a
remote-login program such as `ssh', `rlogin', or `telnet'.  You can
always specify in the file name which method to use--for example,
`/ftp:USER@HOST:FILENAME' uses FTP, whereas `/ssh:USER@HOST:FILENAME'
uses `ssh'.  When you don't specify a method in the file name, Emacs
chooses the method as follows:

  1. If the host name starts with `ftp.' (with dot), then Emacs uses
     FTP.

  2. If the user name is `ftp' or `anonymous', then Emacs uses FTP.

  3. Otherwise, Emacs uses `ssh'.

Remote file access through FTP is handled by the Ange-FTP package, which
is documented in the following.  Remote file access through the other
methods is handled by the Tramp package, which has its own manual.
*Note The Tramp Manual: (tramp)Top.

   When the Ange-FTP package is used, Emacs logs in through FTP using
your user name or the name USER.  It may ask you for a password from
time to time; this is used for logging in on HOST.  The form using PORT
allows you to access servers running on a non-default TCP port.

   If you want to disable backups for remote files, set the variable
`ange-ftp-make-backup-files' to `nil'.

   By default, the auto-save files (*note Auto Save Files::) for remote
files are made in the temporary file directory on the local machine.
This is achieved using the variable `auto-save-file-name-transforms'.

   Normally, if you do not specify a user name in a remote file name,
that means to use your own user name.  But if you set the variable
`ange-ftp-default-user' to a string, that string is used instead.

   To visit files accessible by anonymous FTP, you use special user
names `anonymous' or `ftp'.  Passwords for these user names are handled
specially.  The variable `ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password'
controls what happens: if the value of this variable is a string, then
that string is used as the password; if non-`nil' (the default), then
the value of `user-mail-address' is used; if `nil', then Emacs prompts
you for a password as usual.

   Sometimes you may be unable to access files on a remote machine
because a "firewall" in between blocks the connection for security
reasons.  If you can log in on a "gateway" machine from which the
target files _are_ accessible, and whose FTP server supports gatewaying
features, you can still use remote file names; all you have to do is
specify the name of the gateway machine by setting the variable
`ange-ftp-gateway-host', and set `ange-ftp-smart-gateway' to `t'.
Otherwise you may be able to make remote file names work, but the
procedure is complex.  You can read the instructions by typing `M-x
finder-commentary <RET> ange-ftp <RET>'.

   You can entirely turn off the FTP file name feature by removing the
entries `ange-ftp-completion-hook-function' and
`ange-ftp-hook-function' from the variable `file-name-handler-alist'.
You can turn off the feature in individual cases by quoting the file
name with `/:' (*note Quoted File Names::).


File: emacs,  Node: Quoted File Names,  Next: File Name Cache,  Prev: Remote Files,  Up: Files

23.16 Quoted File Names
=======================

You can "quote" an absolute file name to prevent special characters and
syntax in it from having their special effects.  The way to do this is
to add `/:' at the beginning.

   For example, you can quote a local file name which appears remote, to
prevent it from being treated as a remote file name.  Thus, if you have
a directory named `/foo:' and a file named `bar' in it, you can refer
to that file in Emacs as `/:/foo:/bar'.

   `/:' can also prevent `~' from being treated as a special character
for a user's home directory.  For example, `/:/tmp/~hack' refers to a
file whose name is `~hack' in directory `/tmp'.

   Quoting with `/:' is also a way to enter in the minibuffer a file
name that contains `$'.  In order for this to work, the `/:' must be at
the beginning of the minibuffer contents.  (You can also double each
`$'; see *Note File Names with $::.)

   You can also quote wildcard characters with `/:', for visiting.  For
example, `/:/tmp/foo*bar' visits the file `/tmp/foo*bar'.

   Another method of getting the same result is to enter
`/tmp/foo[*]bar', which is a wildcard specification that matches only
`/tmp/foo*bar'.  However, in many cases there is no need to quote the
wildcard characters because even unquoted they give the right result.
For example, if the only file name in `/tmp' that starts with `foo' and
ends with `bar' is `foo*bar', then specifying `/tmp/foo*bar' will visit
only `/tmp/foo*bar'.


File: emacs,  Node: File Name Cache,  Next: File Conveniences,  Prev: Quoted File Names,  Up: Files

23.17 File Name Cache
=====================

You can use the "file name cache" to make it easy to locate a file by
name, without having to remember exactly where it is located.  When
typing a file name in the minibuffer, `C-<tab>'
(`file-cache-minibuffer-complete') completes it using the file name
cache.  If you repeat `C-<tab>', that cycles through the possible
completions of what you had originally typed.  (However, note that the
`C-<tab>' character cannot be typed on most text-only terminals.)

   The file name cache does not fill up automatically.  Instead, you
load file names into the cache using these commands:

`M-x file-cache-add-directory <RET> DIRECTORY <RET>'
     Add each file name in DIRECTORY to the file name cache.

`M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-find <RET> DIRECTORY <RET>'
     Add each file name in DIRECTORY and all of its nested
     subdirectories to the file name cache.

`M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-locate <RET> DIRECTORY <RET>'
     Add each file name in DIRECTORY and all of its nested
     subdirectories to the file name cache, using `locate' to find them
     all.

`M-x file-cache-add-directory-list <RET> VARIABLE <RET>'
     Add each file name in each directory listed in VARIABLE to the
     file name cache.  VARIABLE should be a Lisp variable such as
     `load-path' or `exec-path', whose value is a list of directory
     names.

`M-x file-cache-clear-cache <RET>'
     Clear the cache; that is, remove all file names from it.

   The file name cache is not persistent: it is kept and maintained
only for the duration of the Emacs session.  You can view the contents
of the cache with the `file-cache-display' command.


File: emacs,  Node: File Conveniences,  Next: Filesets,  Prev: File Name Cache,  Up: Files

23.18 Convenience Features for Finding Files
============================================

In this section, we introduce some convenient facilities for finding
recently-opened files, reading file names from a buffer, and viewing
image files.

   If you enable Recentf mode, with `M-x recentf-mode', the `File' menu
includes a submenu containing a list of recently opened files.  `M-x
recentf-save-list' saves the current `recent-file-list' to a file, and
`M-x recentf-edit-list' edits it.

   The `M-x ffap' command generalizes `find-file' with more powerful
heuristic defaults (*note FFAP::), often based on the text at point.
Partial Completion mode offers other features extending `find-file',
which can be used with `ffap'.  *Note Completion Options::.

   Visiting image files automatically selects Image mode.  This major
mode allows you to toggle between displaying the file as an image in
the Emacs buffer, and displaying its underlying text representation,
using the command `C-c C-c' (`image-toggle-display').  This works only
when Emacs can display the specific image type.

   See also the Image-Dired package (*note Image-Dired::) for viewing
images as thumbnails.


File: emacs,  Node: Filesets,  Prev: File Conveniences,  Up: Files

23.19 Filesets
==============

If you regularly edit a certain group of files, you can define them as
a "fileset".  This lets you perform certain operations, such as
visiting, `query-replace', and shell commands on all the files at once.
To make use of filesets, you must first add the expression
`(filesets-init)' to your `.emacs' file (*note Init File::).  This adds
a `Filesets' menu to the menu bar.

   The simplest way to define a fileset is by adding files to it one at
a time.  To add a file to fileset NAME, visit the file and type `M-x
filesets-add-buffer RET NAME RET'.  If there is no fileset NAME, this
creates a new one, which initially creates only the current file.  The
command `M-x filesets-remove-buffer' removes the current file from a
fileset.

   You can also edit the list of filesets directly, with `M-x
filesets-edit' (or by choosing `Edit Filesets' from the `Filesets'
menu).  The editing is performed in a Customize buffer (*note Easy
Customization::).  Filesets need not be a simple list of files--you can
also define filesets using regular expression matching file names.
Some examples of these more complicated filesets are shown in the
Customize buffer.  Remember to select `Save for future sessions' if you
want to use the same filesets in future Emacs sessions.

   You can use the command `M-x filesets-open' to visit all the files
in a fileset, and `M-x filesets-close' to close them.  Use `M-x
filesets-run-cmd' to run a shell command on all the files in a fileset.
These commands are also available from the `Filesets' menu, where each
existing fileset is represented by a submenu.


File: emacs,  Node: Buffers,  Next: Windows,  Prev: Files,  Up: Top

24 Using Multiple Buffers
*************************

The text you are editing in Emacs resides in an object called a
"buffer".  Each time you visit a file, a buffer is created to hold the
file's text.  Each time you invoke Dired, a buffer is created to hold
the directory listing.  If you send a message with `C-x m', a buffer
named `*mail*' is used to hold the text of the message.  When you ask
for a command's documentation, that appears in a buffer called `*Help*'.

   At any time, one and only one buffer is "current".  It is also
called the "selected buffer".  Often we say that a command operates on
"the buffer" as if there were only one; but really this means that the
command operates on the current buffer (most commands do).

   When Emacs has multiple windows, each window has its own chosen
buffer and displays it; at any time, only one of the windows is
selected, and its chosen buffer is the current buffer.  Each window's
mode line normally displays the name of the window's chosen buffer
(*note Windows::).

   Each buffer has a name, which can be of any length, and you can
select any buffer by giving its name.  Most buffers are made by
visiting files, and their names are derived from the files' names.  But
you can also create an empty buffer with any name you want.  A newly
started Emacs has a buffer named `*scratch*' which can be used for
evaluating Lisp expressions in Emacs.  The distinction between upper
and lower case matters in buffer names.

   Each buffer records individually what file it is visiting, whether
it is modified, and what major mode and minor modes are in effect in it
(*note Major Modes::).  Any Emacs variable can be made "local to" a
particular buffer, meaning its value in that buffer can be different
from the value in other buffers.  *Note Locals::.

   A buffer's size cannot be larger than some maximum, which is defined
by the largest buffer position representable by the "Emacs integer"
data type.  This is because Emacs tracks buffer positions using that
data type.  For 32-bit machines, the largest buffer size is 256
megabytes.

* Menu:

* Select Buffer::       Creating a new buffer or reselecting an old one.
* List Buffers::        Getting a list of buffers that exist.
* Misc Buffer::	        Renaming; changing read-onlyness; copying text.
* Kill Buffer::	        Killing buffers you no longer need.
* Several Buffers::     How to go through the list of all buffers
			  and operate variously on several of them.
* Indirect Buffers::    An indirect buffer shares the text of another buffer.
* Buffer Convenience::  Convenience and customization features for
                          buffer handling.


File: emacs,  Node: Select Buffer,  Next: List Buffers,  Up: Buffers

24.1 Creating and Selecting Buffers
===================================

`C-x b BUFFER <RET>'
     Select or create a buffer named BUFFER (`switch-to-buffer').

`C-x 4 b BUFFER <RET>'
     Similar, but select BUFFER in another window
     (`switch-to-buffer-other-window').

`C-x 5 b BUFFER <RET>'
     Similar, but select BUFFER in a separate frame
     (`switch-to-buffer-other-frame').

`C-x <LEFT>'
     Select the previous buffer in the list of existing buffers.

`C-x <RIGHT>'
     Select the next buffer in the list of existing buffers.

`C-u M-g M-g'
`C-u M-g g'
     Read a number N and move to line N in the most recently selected
     buffer other than the current buffer.

   To select the buffer named BUFNAME, type `C-x b BUFNAME <RET>'.
This runs the command `switch-to-buffer' with argument BUFNAME.  You
can use completion to enter the buffer name (*note Completion::).  An
empty argument to `C-x b' specifies the buffer that was current most
recently among those not now displayed in any window.

   For conveniently switching between a few buffers, use the commands
`C-x <LEFT>' and `C-x <RIGHT>'.  `C-x <RIGHT>' (`previous-buffer')
selects the previous buffer (following the order of most recent
selection in the current frame), while `C-x <LEFT>' (`next-buffer')
moves through buffers in the reverse direction.

   To select a buffer in a window other than the current one, type `C-x
4 b BUFNAME <RET>'.  This runs the command
`switch-to-buffer-other-window' which displays the buffer BUFNAME in
another window.  By default, if displaying the buffer causes two
vertically adjacent windows to be displayed, the heights of those
windows are evened out; to countermand that and preserve the window
configuration, set the variable `even-window-heights' to `nil'.

   Similarly, `C-x 5 b BUFFER <RET>' runs the command
`switch-to-buffer-other-frame' which selects a buffer in another frame.

   You can control how certain buffers are handled by these commands by
customizing the variables `special-display-buffer-names',
`special-display-regexps', `same-window-buffer-names', and
`same-window-regexps'.  See *Note Force Same Window::, and *Note
Special Buffer Frames::, for more about these variables.  In addition,
if the value of `display-buffer-reuse-frames' is non-`nil', and the
buffer you want to switch to is already displayed in some frame, Emacs
will just raise that frame.

   Most buffers are created by visiting files, or by Emacs commands that
want to display some text, but you can also create a buffer explicitly
by typing `C-x b BUFNAME <RET>'.  This makes a new, empty buffer that
is not visiting any file, and selects it for editing.  Such buffers are
used for making notes to yourself.  If you try to save one, you are
asked for the file name to use.  The new buffer's major mode is
determined by the value of `default-major-mode' (*note Major Modes::).

   Note that `C-x C-f', and any other command for visiting a file, can
also be used to switch to an existing file-visiting buffer.  *Note
Visiting::.

   `C-u M-g M-g', that is `goto-line' with a prefix argument of just
`C-u', reads a number N using the minibuffer, selects the most recently
selected buffer other than the current buffer in another window, and
then moves point to the beginning of line number N in that buffer.
This is mainly useful in a buffer that refers to line numbers in
another buffer: if point is on or just after a number, `goto-line' uses
that number as the default for N.  Note that prefix arguments other
than just `C-u' behave differently.  `C-u 4 M-g M-g' goes to line 4 in
the _current_ buffer, without reading a number from the minibuffer.
(Remember that `M-g M-g' without prefix argument reads a number N and
then moves to line number N in the current buffer.)

   Emacs uses buffer names that start with a space for internal
purposes.  It treats these buffers specially in minor ways--for
example, by default they do not record undo information.  It is best to
avoid using such buffer names yourself.


File: emacs,  Node: List Buffers,  Next: Misc Buffer,  Prev: Select Buffer,  Up: Buffers

24.2 Listing Existing Buffers
=============================

`C-x C-b'
     List the existing buffers (`list-buffers').

   To display a list of existing buffers, type `C-x C-b'.  Each line in
the list shows one buffer's name, major mode and visited file.  The
buffers are listed in the order that they were current; the buffers
that were current most recently come first.

   `*' in the first field of a line indicates the buffer is "modified."
If several buffers are modified, it may be time to save some with `C-x
s' (*note Save Commands::).  `%' indicates a read-only buffer.  `.'
marks the current buffer.  Here is an example of a buffer list:

     CRM Buffer                Size  Mode              File
     . * .emacs                3294  Emacs-Lisp        ~/.emacs
      %  *Help*                 101  Help
         search.c             86055  C                 ~/cvs/emacs/src/search.c
      %  src                  20959  Dired by name     ~/cvs/emacs/src/
       * *mail*                  42  Mail
      %  HELLO                 1607  Fundamental       ~/cvs/emacs/etc/HELLO
      %  NEWS                481184  Outline           ~/cvs/emacs/etc/NEWS
         *scratch*              191  Lisp Interaction
       * *Messages*            1554  Fundamental

Note that the buffer `*Help*' was made by a help request; it is not
visiting any file.  The buffer `src' was made by Dired on the directory
`~/cvs/emacs/src/'.  You can list only buffers that are visiting files
by giving the command a prefix argument, as in `C-u C-x C-b'.

   `list-buffers' omits buffers whose names begin with a space, unless
they visit files: such buffers are used internally by Emacs.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc Buffer,  Next: Kill Buffer,  Prev: List Buffers,  Up: Buffers

24.3 Miscellaneous Buffer Operations
====================================

`C-x C-q'
     Toggle read-only status of buffer (`toggle-read-only').

`M-x rename-buffer <RET> NAME <RET>'
     Change the name of the current buffer.

`M-x rename-uniquely'
     Rename the current buffer by adding `<NUMBER>' to the end.

`M-x view-buffer <RET> BUFFER <RET>'
     Scroll through buffer BUFFER.

   A buffer can be "read-only", which means that commands to change its
contents are not allowed.  The mode line indicates read-only buffers
with `%%' or `%*' near the left margin.  Read-only buffers are usually
made by subsystems such as Dired and Rmail that have special commands
to operate on the text; also by visiting a file whose access control
says you cannot write it.

   If you wish to make changes in a read-only buffer, use the command
`C-x C-q' (`toggle-read-only').  It makes a read-only buffer writable,
and makes a writable buffer read-only.  This works by setting the
variable `buffer-read-only', which has a local value in each buffer and
makes the buffer read-only if its value is non-`nil'.  If you have
files under version control, you may find it convenient to bind `C-x
C-q' to `vc-toggle-read-only' instead.  Then, typing `C-x C-q' not only
changes the read-only flag, but it also checks the file in or out.
*Note Version Control::.

   `M-x rename-buffer' changes the name of the current buffer.  You
specify the new name as a minibuffer argument; there is no default.  If
you specify a name that is in use for some other buffer, an error
happens and no renaming is done.

   `M-x rename-uniquely' renames the current buffer to a similar name
with a numeric suffix added to make it both different and unique.  This
command does not need an argument.  It is useful for creating multiple
shell buffers: if you rename the `*shell*' buffer, then do `M-x shell'
again, it makes a new shell buffer named `*shell*'; meanwhile, the old
shell buffer continues to exist under its new name.  This method is
also good for mail buffers, compilation buffers, and most Emacs
features that create special buffers with particular names.  (With some
of these features, such as `M-x compile', `M-x grep' an `M-x info', you
need to switch to some other buffer before using the command, in order
for it to make a different buffer.)

   `M-x view-buffer' is much like `M-x view-file' (*note Misc File
Ops::) except that it examines an already existing Emacs buffer.  View
mode provides commands for scrolling through the buffer conveniently
but not for changing it.  When you exit View mode with `q', that
switches back to the buffer (and the position) which was previously
displayed in the window.  Alternatively, if you exit View mode with
`e', the buffer and the value of point that resulted from your perusal
remain in effect.

   The commands `M-x append-to-buffer' and `M-x insert-buffer' can be
used to copy text from one buffer to another.  *Note Accumulating
Text::.


File: emacs,  Node: Kill Buffer,  Next: Several Buffers,  Prev: Misc Buffer,  Up: Buffers

24.4 Killing Buffers
====================

If you continue an Emacs session for a while, you may accumulate a
large number of buffers.  You may then find it convenient to "kill" the
buffers you no longer need.  On most operating systems, killing a
buffer releases its space back to the operating system so that other
programs can use it.  Here are some commands for killing buffers:

`C-x k BUFNAME <RET>'
     Kill buffer BUFNAME (`kill-buffer').

`M-x kill-some-buffers'
     Offer to kill each buffer, one by one.

   `C-x k' (`kill-buffer') kills one buffer, whose name you specify in
the minibuffer.  The default, used if you type just <RET> in the
minibuffer, is to kill the current buffer.  If you kill the current
buffer, another buffer becomes current: one that was current in the
recent past but is not displayed in any window now.  If you ask to kill
a file-visiting buffer that is modified (has unsaved editing), then you
must confirm with `yes' before the buffer is killed.

   The command `M-x kill-some-buffers' asks about each buffer, one by
one.  An answer of `y' means to kill the buffer.  Killing the current
buffer or a buffer containing unsaved changes selects a new buffer or
asks for confirmation just like `kill-buffer'.

   The buffer menu feature (*note Several Buffers::) is also convenient
for killing various buffers.

   If you want to do something special every time a buffer is killed,
you can add hook functions to the hook `kill-buffer-hook' (*note
Hooks::).

   If you run one Emacs session for a period of days, as many people do,
it can fill up with buffers that you used several days ago.  The command
`M-x clean-buffer-list' is a convenient way to purge them; it kills all
the unmodified buffers that you have not used for a long time.  An
ordinary buffer is killed if it has not been displayed for three days;
however, you can specify certain buffers that should never be killed
automatically, and others that should be killed if they have been unused
for a mere hour.

   You can also have this buffer purging done for you, every day at
midnight, by enabling Midnight mode.  Midnight mode operates each day at
midnight; at that time, it runs `clean-buffer-list', or whichever
functions you have placed in the normal hook `midnight-hook' (*note
Hooks::).

   To enable Midnight mode, use the Customization buffer to set the
variable `midnight-mode' to `t'.  *Note Easy Customization::.


File: emacs,  Node: Several Buffers,  Next: Indirect Buffers,  Prev: Kill Buffer,  Up: Buffers

24.5 Operating on Several Buffers
=================================

The "buffer-menu" facility is like a "Dired for buffers"; it allows you
to request operations on various Emacs buffers by editing an Emacs
buffer containing a list of them.  You can save buffers, kill them
(here called "deleting" them, for consistency with Dired), or display
them.

`M-x buffer-menu'
     Begin editing a buffer listing all Emacs buffers.

`M-x buffer-menu-other-window.'
     Similar, but do it in another window.

   The command `buffer-menu' writes a list of all Emacs buffers(1) into
the buffer `*Buffer List*', and selects that buffer in Buffer Menu mode.

   The buffer is read-only, and can be changed only through the special
commands described in this section.  The usual Emacs cursor motion
commands can be used in the `*Buffer List*' buffer.  The following
commands apply to the buffer described on the current line.

`d'
     Request to delete (kill) the buffer, then move down.  The request
     shows as a `D' on the line, before the buffer name.  Requested
     deletions take place when you type the `x' command.

`C-d'
     Like `d' but move up afterwards instead of down.

`s'
     Request to save the buffer.  The request shows as an `S' on the
     line.  Requested saves take place when you type the `x' command.
     You may request both saving and deletion for the same buffer.

`x'
     Perform previously requested deletions and saves.

`u'
     Remove any request made for the current line, and move down.

`<DEL>'
     Move to previous line and remove any request made for that line.

   The `d', `C-d', `s' and `u' commands to add or remove flags also
move down (or up) one line.  They accept a numeric argument as a repeat
count.

   These commands operate immediately on the buffer listed on the
current line:

`~'
     Mark the buffer "unmodified."  The command `~' does this
     immediately when you type it.

`%'
     Toggle the buffer's read-only flag.  The command `%' does this
     immediately when you type it.

`t'
     Visit the buffer as a tags table.  *Note Select Tags Table::.

   There are also commands to select another buffer or buffers:

`q'
     Quit the buffer menu--immediately display the most recent formerly
     visible buffer in its place.

`<RET>'
`f'
     Immediately select this line's buffer in place of the `*Buffer
     List*' buffer.

`o'
     Immediately select this line's buffer in another window as if by
     `C-x 4 b', leaving `*Buffer List*' visible.

`C-o'
     Immediately display this line's buffer in another window, but don't
     select the window.

`1'
     Immediately select this line's buffer in a full-screen window.

`2'
     Immediately set up two windows, with this line's buffer selected in
     one, and the previously current buffer (aside from the buffer
     `*Buffer List*') displayed in the other.

`b'
     Bury the buffer listed on this line.

`m'
     Mark this line's buffer to be displayed in another window if you
     exit with the `v' command.  The request shows as a `>' at the
     beginning of the line.  (A single buffer may not have both a delete
     request and a display request.)

`v'
     Immediately select this line's buffer, and also display in other
     windows any buffers previously marked with the `m' command.  If
     you have not marked any buffers, this command is equivalent to `1'.

   There is also a command that affects the entire buffer list:

`T'
     Delete, or reinsert, lines for non-file buffers.  This command
     toggles the inclusion of such buffers in the buffer list.

   What `buffer-menu' actually does is create and switch to a suitable
buffer, and turn on Buffer Menu mode in it.  Everything else described
above is implemented by the special commands provided in Buffer Menu
mode.  One consequence of this is that you can switch from the `*Buffer
List*' buffer to another Emacs buffer, and edit there.  You can
reselect the `*Buffer List*' buffer later, to perform the operations
already requested, or you can kill it, or pay no further attention to
it.

   The list in the `*Buffer List*' buffer looks exactly like the buffer
list described in *Note List Buffers::, because they really are the
same.  The only difference between `buffer-menu' and `list-buffers' is
that `buffer-menu' switches to the `*Buffer List*' buffer in the
selected window; `list-buffers' displays the same buffer in another
window.  If you run `list-buffers' (that is, type `C-x C-b') and select
the buffer list manually, you can use all of the commands described
here.

   Normally, the buffer `*Buffer List*' is not updated automatically
when buffers are created and killed; its contents are just text.  If
you have created, deleted or renamed buffers, the way to update
`*Buffer List*' to show what you have done is to type `g'
(`revert-buffer').  You can make this happen regularly every
`auto-revert-interval' seconds if you enable Auto Revert mode in this
buffer, as long as it is not marked modified.  Global Auto Revert mode
applies to the `*Buffer List*' buffer only if
`global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers' is non-`nil'.  *Note
global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers: Autorevert, for details.

   The command `buffer-menu-other-window' works the same as
`buffer-menu', except that it displays the buffers list in another
window.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Buffers which don't visit files and whose names begin with a
space are omitted: these are used internally by Emacs.


File: emacs,  Node: Indirect Buffers,  Next: Buffer Convenience,  Prev: Several Buffers,  Up: Buffers

24.6 Indirect Buffers
=====================

An "indirect buffer" shares the text of some other buffer, which is
called the "base buffer" of the indirect buffer.  In some ways it is
the analogue, for buffers, of a symbolic link between files.

`M-x make-indirect-buffer <RET> BASE-BUFFER <RET> INDIRECT-NAME <RET>'
     Create an indirect buffer named INDIRECT-NAME whose base buffer is
     BASE-BUFFER.  

`M-x clone-indirect-buffer <RET>'
     Create an indirect buffer that is a twin copy of the current
     buffer.

`C-x 4 c'
     Create an indirect buffer that is a twin copy of the current
     buffer, and select it in another window
     (`clone-indirect-buffer-other-window').

   The text of the indirect buffer is always identical to the text of
its base buffer; changes made by editing either one are visible
immediately in the other.  But in all other respects, the indirect
buffer and its base buffer are completely separate.  They have
different names, different values of point, different narrowing,
different markers, different major modes, and different local variables.

   An indirect buffer cannot visit a file, but its base buffer can.  If
you try to save the indirect buffer, that actually works by saving the
base buffer.  Killing the base buffer effectively kills the indirect
buffer, but killing an indirect buffer has no effect on its base buffer.

   One way to use indirect buffers is to display multiple views of an
outline.  *Note Outline Views::.

   A quick and handy way to make an indirect buffer is with the command
`M-x clone-indirect-buffer'.  It creates and selects an indirect buffer
whose base buffer is the current buffer.  With a numeric argument, it
prompts for the name of the indirect buffer; otherwise it uses the name
of the current buffer, with a `<N>' suffix added.  `C-x 4 c'
(`clone-indirect-buffer-other-window') works like `M-x
clone-indirect-buffer', but it selects the new buffer in another window.

   The more general way to make an indirect buffer is with the command
`M-x make-indirect-buffer'.  It creates an indirect buffer from buffer
BASE-BUFFER, under the name INDIRECT-NAME.  It prompts for both
BASE-BUFFER and INDIRECT-NAME using the minibuffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Buffer Convenience,  Prev: Indirect Buffers,  Up: Buffers

24.7 Convenience Features and Customization of Buffer Handling
==============================================================

This section describes several modes and features that make it more
convenient to switch between buffers.

* Menu:

* Uniquify::               Making buffer names unique with directory parts.
* Iswitchb::               Switching between buffers with substrings.
* Buffer Menus::           Configurable buffer menu.


File: emacs,  Node: Uniquify,  Next: Iswitchb,  Up: Buffer Convenience

24.7.1 Making Buffer Names Unique
---------------------------------

When several buffers visit identically-named files, Emacs must give the
buffers distinct names.  The usual method for making buffer names
unique adds `<2>', `<3>', etc. to the end of the buffer names (all but
one of them).

   Other methods work by adding parts of each file's directory to the
buffer name.  To select one, customize the variable
`uniquify-buffer-name-style' (*note Easy Customization::).

   To begin with, the `forward' naming method includes part of the
file's directory name at the beginning of the buffer name; using this
method, buffers visiting the files `/u/rms/tmp/Makefile' and
`/usr/projects/zaphod/Makefile' would be named `tmp/Makefile' and
`zaphod/Makefile', respectively (instead of `Makefile' and
`Makefile<2>').

   In contrast, the `post-forward' naming method would call the buffers
`Makefile|tmp' and `Makefile|zaphod', and the `reverse' naming method
would call them `Makefile\tmp' and `Makefile\zaphod'.  The nontrivial
difference between `post-forward' and `reverse' occurs when just one
directory name is not enough to distinguish two files; then `reverse'
puts the directory names in reverse order, so that `/top/middle/file'
becomes `file\middle\top', while `post-forward' puts them in forward
order after the file name, as in `file|top/middle'.

   Which rule to follow for putting the directory names in the buffer
name is not very important if you are going to _look_ at the buffer
names before you type one.  But as an experienced user, if you know the
rule, you won't have to look.  And then you may find that one rule or
another is easier for you to remember and apply quickly.


File: emacs,  Node: Iswitchb,  Next: Buffer Menus,  Prev: Uniquify,  Up: Buffer Convenience

24.7.2 Switching Between Buffers using Substrings
-------------------------------------------------

Iswitchb global minor mode provides convenient switching between
buffers using substrings of their names.  It replaces the normal
definitions of `C-x b', `C-x 4 b', `C-x 5 b', and `C-x 4 C-o' with
alternative commands that are somewhat "smarter."

   When one of these commands prompts you for a buffer name, you can
type in just a substring of the name you want to choose.  As you enter
the substring, Iswitchb mode continuously displays a list of buffers
that match the substring you have typed.

   At any time, you can type <RET> to select the first buffer in the
list.  So the way to select a particular buffer is to make it the first
in the list.  There are two ways to do this.  You can type more of the
buffer name and thus narrow down the list, excluding unwanted buffers
above the desired one.  Alternatively, you can use `C-s' and `C-r' to
rotate the list until the desired buffer is first.

   <TAB> while entering the buffer name performs completion on the
string you have entered, based on the displayed list of buffers.

   To enable Iswitchb mode, type `M-x iswitchb-mode', or customize the
variable `iswitchb-mode' to `t' (*note Easy Customization::).


File: emacs,  Node: Buffer Menus,  Prev: Iswitchb,  Up: Buffer Convenience

24.7.3 Customizing Buffer Menus
-------------------------------

`M-x bs-show'
     Make a list of buffers similarly to `M-x list-buffers' but
     customizable.

   `M-x bs-show' pops up a buffer list similar to the one normally
displayed by `C-x C-b' but which you can customize.  If you prefer this
to the usual buffer list, you can bind this command to `C-x C-b'.  To
customize this buffer list, use the `bs' Custom group (*note Easy
Customization::).

   MSB global minor mode ("MSB" stands for "mouse select buffer")
provides a different and customizable mouse buffer menu which you may
prefer.  It replaces the bindings of `mouse-buffer-menu', normally on
`C-Down-Mouse-1', and the menu bar buffer menu.  You can customize the
menu in the `msb' Custom group.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows,  Next: Frames,  Prev: Buffers,  Up: Top

25 Multiple Windows
*******************

Emacs can split a frame into two or many windows.  Multiple windows can
display parts of different buffers, or different parts of one buffer.
Multiple frames always imply multiple windows, because each frame has
its own set of windows.  Each window belongs to one and only one frame.

* Menu:

* Basic Window::        Introduction to Emacs windows.
* Split Window::        New windows are made by splitting existing windows.
* Other Window::        Moving to another window or doing something to it.
* Pop Up Window::       Finding a file or buffer in another window.
* Force Same Window::   Forcing certain buffers to appear in the selected
                          window rather than in another window.
* Change Window::       Deleting windows and changing their sizes.
* Window Convenience::  Convenience functions for window handling.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Window,  Next: Split Window,  Up: Windows

25.1 Concepts of Emacs Windows
==============================

Each Emacs window displays one Emacs buffer at any time.  A single
buffer may appear in more than one window; if it does, any changes in
its text are displayed in all the windows where it appears.  But these
windows can show different parts of the buffer, because each window has
its own value of point.

   At any time, one Emacs window is the "selected window"; the buffer
this window is displaying is the current buffer.  The terminal's cursor
shows the location of point in this window.  Each other window has a
location of point as well.  On text-only terminals, there is no way to
show where those locations are, since the terminal has only one cursor.
On a graphical display, the location of point in a non-selected window
is indicated by a hollow box; the cursor in the selected window is
blinking or solid.

   Commands to move point affect the value of point for the selected
Emacs window only.  They do not change the value of point in other Emacs
windows, even those showing the same buffer.  The same is true for
commands such as `C-x b' to switch buffers in the selected window; they
do not affect other windows at all.  However, there are other commands
such as `C-x 4 b' that select a different window and switch buffers in
it.  Also, all commands that display information in a window, including
(for example) `C-h f' (`describe-function') and `C-x C-b'
(`list-buffers'), work by switching buffers in a nonselected window
without affecting the selected window.

   When multiple windows show the same buffer, they can have different
regions, because they can have different values of point.  However,
they all have the same value for the mark, because each buffer has only
one mark position.

   Each window has its own mode line, which displays the buffer name,
modification status and major and minor modes of the buffer that is
displayed in the window.  The selected window's mode line appears in a
different color.  *Note Mode Line::, for full details on the mode line.


File: emacs,  Node: Split Window,  Next: Other Window,  Prev: Basic Window,  Up: Windows

25.2 Splitting Windows
======================

`C-x 2'
     Split the selected window into two windows, one above the other
     (`split-window-vertically').

`C-x 3'
     Split the selected window into two windows positioned side by side
     (`split-window-horizontally').

`C-Mouse-2'
     In the mode line or scroll bar of a window, split that window.

   The command `C-x 2' (`split-window-vertically') breaks the selected
window into two windows, one above the other.  Both windows start out
displaying the same buffer, with the same value of point.  By default
the two windows each get half the height of the window that was split; a
numeric argument specifies how many lines to give to the top window.

   `C-x 3' (`split-window-horizontally') breaks the selected window
into two side-by-side windows.  A numeric argument specifies how many
columns to give the one on the left.  If you are not using scrollbars,
a vertical line separates the two windows.  You can customize its color
with the face `vertical-border'.  Windows that are not the full width
of the screen have mode lines, but they are truncated.  On terminals
where Emacs does not support highlighting, truncated mode lines
sometimes do not appear in inverse video.

   You can split a window horizontally or vertically by clicking
`C-Mouse-2' in the mode line or the scroll bar.  The line of splitting
goes through the place where you click: if you click on the mode line,
the new scroll bar goes above the spot; if you click in the scroll bar,
the mode line of the split window is side by side with your click.

   When a window is less than the full width, text lines too long to
fit are frequent.  Continuing all those lines might be confusing, so if
the variable `truncate-partial-width-windows' is non-`nil', that forces
truncation in all windows less than the full width of the screen,
independent of the buffer being displayed and its value for
`truncate-lines'.  *Note Line Truncation::.

   Horizontal scrolling is often used in side-by-side windows.  *Note
Horizontal Scrolling::.

   If `split-window-keep-point' is non-`nil', the default, both of the
windows resulting from `C-x 2' inherit the value of point from the
window that was split.  This means that scrolling is inevitable.  If
this variable is `nil', then `C-x 2' tries to avoid scrolling the text
currently visible on the screen, by putting point in each window at a
position already visible in the window.  It also selects whichever
window contains the screen line that the cursor was previously on.
Some users prefer that mode on slow terminals.


File: emacs,  Node: Other Window,  Next: Pop Up Window,  Prev: Split Window,  Up: Windows

25.3 Using Other Windows
========================

`C-x o'
     Select another window (`other-window').  That is `o', not zero.

`C-M-v'
     Scroll the next window (`scroll-other-window').

`M-x compare-windows'
     Find next place where the text in the selected window does not
     match the text in the next window.

`Mouse-1'
     `Mouse-1', in a window's mode line, selects that window but does
     not move point in it (`mouse-select-window').

   To select a different window, click with `Mouse-1' on its mode line.
With the keyboard, you can switch windows by typing `C-x o'
(`other-window').  That is an `o', for "other," not a zero.  When there
are more than two windows, this command moves through all the windows
in a cyclic order, generally top to bottom and left to right.  After
the rightmost and bottommost window, it goes back to the one at the
upper left corner.  A numeric argument means to move several steps in
the cyclic order of windows.  A negative argument moves around the
cycle in the opposite order.  When the minibuffer is active, the
minibuffer is the last window in the cycle; you can switch from the
minibuffer window to one of the other windows, and later switch back and
finish supplying the minibuffer argument that is requested.  *Note
Minibuffer Edit::.

   The usual scrolling commands (*note Display::) apply to the selected
window only, but there is one command to scroll the next window.
`C-M-v' (`scroll-other-window') scrolls the window that `C-x o' would
select.  It takes arguments, positive and negative, like `C-v'.  (In
the minibuffer, `C-M-v' scrolls the window that contains the minibuffer
help display, if any, rather than the next window in the standard
cyclic order.)

   The command `M-x compare-windows' lets you compare two files or
buffers visible in two windows, by moving through them to the next
mismatch.  *Note Comparing Files::, for details.

   If you set `mouse-autoselect-window' to a non-`nil' value, moving
the mouse into a different window selects that window.  This feature is
off by default.


File: emacs,  Node: Pop Up Window,  Next: Force Same Window,  Prev: Other Window,  Up: Windows

25.4 Displaying in Another Window
=================================

`C-x 4' is a prefix key for commands that select another window
(splitting the window if there is only one) and select a buffer in that
window.  Different `C-x 4' commands have different ways of finding the
buffer to select.

`C-x 4 b BUFNAME <RET>'
     Select buffer BUFNAME in another window.  This runs
     `switch-to-buffer-other-window'.

`C-x 4 C-o BUFNAME <RET>'
     Display buffer BUFNAME in another window, but don't select that
     buffer or that window.  This runs `display-buffer'.

`C-x 4 f FILENAME <RET>'
     Visit file FILENAME and select its buffer in another window.  This
     runs `find-file-other-window'.  *Note Visiting::.

`C-x 4 d DIRECTORY <RET>'
     Select a Dired buffer for directory DIRECTORY in another window.
     This runs `dired-other-window'.  *Note Dired::.

`C-x 4 m'
     Start composing a mail message in another window.  This runs
     `mail-other-window'; its same-window analogue is `C-x m' (*note
     Sending Mail::).

`C-x 4 .'
     Find a tag in the current tags table, in another window.  This runs
     `find-tag-other-window', the multiple-window variant of `M-.'
     (*note Tags::).

`C-x 4 r FILENAME <RET>'
     Visit file FILENAME read-only, and select its buffer in another
     window.  This runs `find-file-read-only-other-window'.  *Note
     Visiting::.


File: emacs,  Node: Force Same Window,  Next: Change Window,  Prev: Pop Up Window,  Up: Windows

25.5 Forcing Display in the Same Window
=======================================

Certain Emacs commands switch to a specific buffer with special
contents.  For example, `M-x shell' switches to a buffer named
`*shell*'.  By convention, all these commands are written to pop up the
buffer in a separate window.  But you can specify that certain of these
buffers should appear in the selected window.

   If you add a buffer name to the list `same-window-buffer-names', the
effect is that such commands display that particular buffer by
switching to it in the selected window.  For example, if you add the
element `"*grep*"' to the list, the `grep' command will display its
output buffer in the selected window.

   The default value of `same-window-buffer-names' is not `nil': it
specifies buffer names `*info*', `*mail*' and `*shell*' (as well as
others used by more obscure Emacs packages).  This is why `M-x shell'
normally switches to the `*shell*' buffer in the selected window.  If
you delete this element from the value of `same-window-buffer-names',
the behavior of `M-x shell' will change--it will pop up the buffer in
another window instead.

   You can specify these buffers more generally with the variable
`same-window-regexps'.  Set it to a list of regular expressions; then
any buffer whose name matches one of those regular expressions is
displayed by switching to it in the selected window.  (Once again, this
applies only to buffers that normally get displayed for you in a
separate window.)  The default value of this variable specifies Telnet
and rlogin buffers.

   An analogous feature lets you specify buffers which should be
displayed in their own individual frames.  *Note Special Buffer
Frames::.


File: emacs,  Node: Change Window,  Next: Window Convenience,  Prev: Force Same Window,  Up: Windows

25.6 Deleting and Rearranging Windows
=====================================

`C-x 0'
     Delete the selected window (`delete-window').  The last character
     in this key sequence is a zero.

`C-x 1'
     Delete all windows in the selected frame except the selected window
     (`delete-other-windows').

`C-x 4 0'
     Delete the selected window and kill the buffer that was showing in
     it (`kill-buffer-and-window').  The last character in this key
     sequence is a zero.

`C-x ^'
     Make selected window taller (`enlarge-window').

`C-x }'
     Make selected window wider (`enlarge-window-horizontally').

`C-x {'
     Make selected window narrower (`shrink-window-horizontally').

`C-x -'
     Shrink this window if its buffer doesn't need so many lines
     (`shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer').

`C-x +'
     Make all windows the same height (`balance-windows').

   To delete a window, type `C-x 0' (`delete-window').  (That is a
zero.)  The space occupied by the deleted window is given to an
adjacent window (but not the minibuffer window, even if that is active
at the time).  Once a window is deleted, its attributes are forgotten;
only restoring a window configuration can bring it back.  Deleting the
window has no effect on the buffer it used to display; the buffer
continues to exist, and you can select it in any window with `C-x b'.

   `C-x 4 0' (`kill-buffer-and-window') is a stronger command than `C-x
0'; it kills the current buffer and then deletes the selected window.

   `C-x 1' (`delete-other-windows') is more powerful in a different
way; it deletes all the windows except the selected one (and the
minibuffer); the selected window expands to use the whole frame except
for the echo area.

   To readjust the division of space among vertically adjacent windows,
use `C-x ^' (`enlarge-window').  It makes the currently selected window
one line bigger, or as many lines as is specified with a numeric
argument.  With a negative argument, it makes the selected window
smaller.  `C-x }' (`enlarge-window-horizontally') makes the selected
window wider by the specified number of columns.  `C-x {'
(`shrink-window-horizontally') makes the selected window narrower by
the specified number of columns.

   When you make a window bigger, the space comes from its peers.  If
this makes any window too small, it is deleted and its space is given
to an adjacent window.  The minimum size is specified by the variables
`window-min-height' and `window-min-width'.

   The command `C-x -' (`shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer') reduces
the height of the selected window, if it is taller than necessary to
show the whole text of the buffer it is displaying.  It gives the extra
lines to other windows in the frame.

   You can also use `C-x +' (`balance-windows') to even out the heights
of all the windows in the selected frame.

   Mouse clicks on the mode line provide another way to change window
heights and to delete windows.  *Note Mode Line Mouse::.


File: emacs,  Node: Window Convenience,  Prev: Change Window,  Up: Windows

25.7 Window Handling Convenience Features and Customization
===========================================================

`M-x winner-mode' is a global minor mode that records the changes in
the window configuration (i.e. how the frames are partitioned into
windows), so that you can "undo" them.  To undo, use `C-c left'
(`winner-undo').  If you change your mind while undoing, you can redo
the changes you had undone using `C-c right' (`M-x winner-redo').
Another way to enable Winner mode is by customizing the variable
`winner-mode'.

   The Windmove commands move directionally between neighboring windows
in a frame.  `M-x windmove-right' selects the window immediately to the
right of the currently selected one, and similarly for the "left," "up,"
and "down" counterparts.  `M-x windmove-default-keybindings' binds
these commands to `S-right' etc.  (Not all terminals support shifted
arrow keys, however.)

   Follow minor mode (`M-x follow-mode') synchronizes several windows
on the same buffer so that they always display adjacent sections of
that buffer.  *Note Follow Mode::.

   `M-x scroll-all-mode' provides commands to scroll all visible
windows together.  You can also turn it on by customizing the variable
`scroll-all-mode'.  The commands provided are `M-x
scroll-all-scroll-down-all', `M-x scroll-all-page-down-all' and their
corresponding "up" equivalents.  To make this mode useful, you should
bind these commands to appropriate keys.


File: emacs,  Node: Frames,  Next: International,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Top

26 Frames and Graphical Displays
********************************

When using a graphical display, you can create multiple windows at the
system in a single Emacs session.  Each system-level window that
belongs to Emacs displays a "frame" which can contain one or several
Emacs windows.  A frame initially contains a single general-purpose
Emacs window which you can subdivide vertically or horizontally into
smaller windows.  A frame normally contains its own echo area and
minibuffer, but you can make frames that don't have these--they use the
echo area and minibuffer of another frame.

   To avoid confusion, we reserve the word "window" for the
subdivisions that Emacs implements, and never use it to refer to a
frame.

   Editing you do in one frame affects the other frames.  For instance,
if you put text in the kill ring in one frame, you can yank it in
another frame.  If you exit Emacs through `C-x C-c' in one frame, it
terminates all the frames.  To delete just one frame, use `C-x 5 0'
(that is zero, not `o').

   Emacs compiled for MS-DOS emulates some windowing functionality, so
that you can use many of the features described in this chapter.  *Note
MS-DOS Mouse::.

* Menu:

* Cut and Paste::       Mouse commands for cut and paste.
* Mouse References::    Using the mouse to select an item from a list.
* Menu Mouse Clicks::   Mouse clicks that bring up menus.
* Mode Line Mouse::     Mouse clicks on the mode line.
* Creating Frames::     Creating additional Emacs frames with various contents.
* Frame Commands::      Iconifying, deleting, and switching frames.
* Speedbar::            How to make and use a speedbar frame.
* Multiple Displays::   How one Emacs job can talk to several displays.
* Special Buffer Frames::  You can make certain buffers have their own frames.
* Frame Parameters::    Changing the colors and other modes of frames.
* Scroll Bars::	        How to enable and disable scroll bars; how to use them.
* Wheeled Mice::        Using mouse wheels for scrolling.
* Drag and Drop::       Using drag and drop to open files and insert text.
* Menu Bars::	        Enabling and disabling the menu bar.
* Tool Bars::           Enabling and disabling the tool bar.
* Dialog Boxes::        Controlling use of dialog boxes.
* Tooltips::            Displaying information at the current mouse position.
* Mouse Avoidance::     Moving the mouse pointer out of the way.
* Non-Window Terminals::  Multiple frames on terminals that show only one.
* Text-Only Mouse::     Using the mouse in text-only terminals.


File: emacs,  Node: Cut and Paste,  Next: Mouse References,  Up: Frames

26.1 Killing and Yanking on Graphical Displays
==============================================

This section describes facilities for selecting a region, killing, and
yanking using the mouse.

* Menu:

* Mouse Commands::      Moving, cutting, and pasting, with the mouse.
* Cut/Paste Other App:: Transfering text between Emacs and other apps.
* Word and Line Mouse:: Mouse commands for selecting whole words or lines.
* Secondary Selection:: Cutting without altering point and mark.
* Clipboard::           Using the clipboard for selections.


File: emacs,  Node: Mouse Commands,  Next: Cut/Paste Other App,  Up: Cut and Paste

26.1.1 Mouse Commands for Editing
---------------------------------

The mouse commands for selecting and copying a region are mostly
compatible with the `xterm' program.  You can use the same mouse
commands for copying between Emacs and other window-based programs.
Most of these commands also work in Emacs when you run it under an
`xterm' terminal.

   If you select a region with any of these mouse commands, and then
immediately afterward type the <DELETE> function key, it deletes the
region that you selected.  The <BACKSPACE> function key and the ASCII
character <DEL> do not do this; if you type any other key in between
the mouse command and <DELETE>, it does not do this.

`Mouse-1'
     Move point to where you click (`mouse-set-point').  This is
     normally the left button.

     Normally, Emacs does not distinguish between ordinary mouse clicks
     and clicks that select a frame.  When you click on a frame to
     select it, that also changes the selected window and cursor
     position according to the mouse click position.  On the X window
     system, you can change this behavior by setting the variable
     `x-mouse-click-focus-ignore-position' to `t'.  Then the first
     click selects the frame, but does not affect the selected window
     or cursor position.  If you click again in the same place, since
     that click will be in the selected frame, it will change the
     window or cursor position.

`Drag-Mouse-1'
     Set the region to the text you select by dragging, and copy it to
     the kill ring (`mouse-set-region').  You can specify both ends of
     the region with this single command.

     If you move the mouse off the top or bottom of the window while
     dragging, the window scrolls at a steady rate until you move the
     mouse back into the window.  This way, you can select regions that
     don't fit entirely on the screen.  The number of lines scrolled
     per step depends on how far away from the window edge the mouse
     has gone; the variable `mouse-scroll-min-lines' specifies a
     minimum step size.

     If the variable `mouse-drag-copy-region' is `nil', this mouse
     command does not copy the selected region into the kill ring.

`Mouse-2'
     Yank the last killed text, where you click (`mouse-yank-at-click').
     This is normally the middle button.

`Mouse-3'
     This command, `mouse-save-then-kill', has several functions
     depending on where you click and the status of the region.

     The most basic case is when you click `Mouse-1' in one place and
     then `Mouse-3' in another.  This selects the text between those two
     positions as the region.  It also copies the new region to the kill
     ring, so that you can copy it to someplace else.

     If you click `Mouse-1' in the text, scroll with the scroll bar, and
     then click `Mouse-3', it remembers where point was before scrolling
     (where you put it with `Mouse-1'), and uses that position as the
     other end of the region.  This is so that you can select a region
     that doesn't fit entirely on the screen.

     More generally, if you do not have a highlighted region, `Mouse-3'
     selects the text between point and the click position as the
     region.  It does this by setting the mark where point was, and
     moving point to where you click.

     If you have a highlighted region, or if the region was set just
     before by dragging button 1, `Mouse-3' adjusts the nearer end of
     the region by moving it to where you click.  The adjusted region's
     text also replaces the old region's text in the kill ring.

     If you originally specified the region using a double or triple
     `Mouse-1', so that the region is defined to consist of entire words
     or lines, then adjusting the region with `Mouse-3' also proceeds by
     entire words or lines.

     If you use `Mouse-3' a second time consecutively, at the same
     place, that kills the region already selected.

   The simplest way to kill text with the mouse is to press `Mouse-1'
at one end, then press `Mouse-3' twice at the other end.  *Note
Killing::.  To copy the text into the kill ring without deleting it
from the buffer, press `Mouse-3' just once--or just drag across the
text with `Mouse-1'.  Then you can copy it elsewhere by yanking it.

   To yank the killed or copied text somewhere else, move the mouse
there and press `Mouse-2'.  *Note Yanking::.  However, if
`mouse-yank-at-point' is non-`nil', `Mouse-2' yanks at point.  Then it
does not matter where you click, or even which of the frame's windows
you click on.  The default value is `nil'.  This variable also affects
yanking the secondary selection.

   Many graphical applications follow the convention that insertion
while text is selected deletes the selected text.  You can make Emacs
behave this way by enabling Delete Selection mode--with `M-x
delete-selection-mode' or using Custom.  Another effect of this mode is
that <DEL>, `C-d' and some other keys, when a selection exists, will
kill the whole selection.  It also enables Transient Mark mode (*note
Transient Mark::).


File: emacs,  Node: Cut/Paste Other App,  Next: Word and Line Mouse,  Prev: Mouse Commands,  Up: Cut and Paste

26.1.2 Cut and Paste with Other Window Applications
---------------------------------------------------

To copy text to another windowing application, kill it or save it in
the kill ring.  Then use the "paste" or "yank" command of the other
application to insert the text.

   To copy text from another windowing application, use its "cut" or
"copy" command to select the text you want.  Then yank it in Emacs with
`C-y' or `Mouse-2'.

   When Emacs puts text into the kill ring, or rotates text to the
front of the kill ring, it sets the "primary selection" in the window
system.  This is how other windowing applications can access the text.
On the X Window System, emacs also stores the text in the cut buffer,
but only if the text is short enough (the value of `x-cut-buffer-max'
specifies the maximum number of characters); putting long strings in
the cut buffer can be slow.

   The commands to yank the first entry in the kill ring actually check
first for a primary selection in another program; after that, they check
for text in the cut buffer.  If neither of those sources provides text
to yank, the kill ring contents are used.

   The standard coding system for X Window System selections is
`compound-text-with-extensions'.  To specify another coding system for
selections, use `C-x <RET> x' or `C-x <RET> X'.  *Note Communication
Coding::.


File: emacs,  Node: Word and Line Mouse,  Next: Secondary Selection,  Prev: Cut/Paste Other App,  Up: Cut and Paste

26.1.3 Mouse Commands for Words and Lines
-----------------------------------------

These variants of `Mouse-1' select entire words or lines at a time.

`Double-Mouse-1'
     This key sets the region around the word which you click on.  If
     you click on a character with "symbol" syntax (such as underscore,
     in C mode), it sets the region around the symbol surrounding that
     character.

     If you click on a character with open-parenthesis or
     close-parenthesis syntax, it sets the region around the
     parenthetical grouping which that character starts or ends.  If
     you click on a character with string-delimiter syntax (such as a
     singlequote or doublequote in C), it sets the region around the
     string constant (using heuristics to figure out whether that
     character is the beginning or the end of it).

`Double-Drag-Mouse-1'
     This key selects a region made up of the words you drag across.

`Triple-Mouse-1'
     This key sets the region around the line you click on.

`Triple-Drag-Mouse-1'
     This key selects a region made up of the lines you drag across.


File: emacs,  Node: Secondary Selection,  Next: Clipboard,  Prev: Word and Line Mouse,  Up: Cut and Paste

26.1.4 Secondary Selection
--------------------------

The "secondary selection" is another way of selecting text using the X
Window System.  It does not use point or the mark, so you can use it to
kill text without setting point or the mark.

`M-Drag-Mouse-1'
     Set the secondary selection, with one end at the place where you
     press down the button, and the other end at the place where you
     release it (`mouse-set-secondary').  The highlighting appears and
     changes as you drag.  You can control the appearance of the
     highlighting by customizing the `secondary-selection' face (*note
     Face Customization::).

     If you move the mouse off the top or bottom of the window while
     dragging, the window scrolls at a steady rate until you move the
     mouse back into the window.  This way, you can mark regions that
     don't fit entirely on the screen.

     This way of setting the secondary selection does not alter the
     kill ring.

`M-Mouse-1'
     Set one endpoint for the "secondary selection"
     (`mouse-start-secondary').

`M-Mouse-3'
     Make a secondary selection, using the place specified with
     `M-Mouse-1' as the other end (`mouse-secondary-save-then-kill').
     This also puts the selected text in the kill ring.  A second click
     at the same place kills the secondary selection just made.

`M-Mouse-2'
     Insert the secondary selection where you click
     (`mouse-yank-secondary').  This places point at the end of the
     yanked text.

   Double or triple clicking of `M-Mouse-1' operates on words and
lines, much like `Mouse-1'.

   If `mouse-yank-at-point' is non-`nil', `M-Mouse-2' yanks at point.
Then it does not matter precisely where you click, or even which of the
frame's windows you click on.  *Note Mouse Commands::.


File: emacs,  Node: Clipboard,  Prev: Secondary Selection,  Up: Cut and Paste

26.1.5 Using the Clipboard
--------------------------

Apart from the primary and secondary selection types, Emacs can handle
the "clipboard" selection type which is used by some applications,
particularly under OpenWindows and Gnome.

   The command `M-x menu-bar-enable-clipboard' makes the `Cut', `Paste'
and `Copy' menu items, as well as the keys of the same names, all use
the clipboard.

   You can customize the variable `x-select-enable-clipboard' to make
the Emacs yank functions consult the clipboard before the primary
selection, and to make the kill functions to store in the clipboard as
well as the primary selection.  Otherwise they do not access the
clipboard at all.  Using the clipboard is the default on MS-Windows and
Mac, but not on other systems.


File: emacs,  Node: Mouse References,  Next: Menu Mouse Clicks,  Prev: Cut and Paste,  Up: Frames

26.2 Following References with the Mouse
========================================

Some read-only Emacs buffers include references you can follow, or
commands you can activate.  These include names of files, of buffers,
of possible completions, of matches for a pattern, as well as the
buttons in Help buffers and customization buffers.  You can follow the
reference or activate the command by moving point to it and typing
<RET>.  You can also do this with the mouse, using either `Mouse-1' or
`Mouse-2'.

   Since yanking text into a read-only buffer is not allowed, these
buffers generally define `Mouse-2' to follow a reference or activate a
command.  For example, if you click `Mouse-2' on a file name in a Dired
buffer, you visit that file.  If you click `Mouse-2' on an error
message in the `*Compilation*' buffer, you go to the source code for
that error message.  If you click `Mouse-2' on a completion in the
`*Completions*' buffer, you choose that completion.

   However, most applications use `Mouse-1' to do this sort of thing,
so Emacs implements this too.  If you click `Mouse-1' quickly on a
reference or button, it follows or activates.  If you click slowly, it
moves point as usual.  Dragging, meaning moving the mouse while it is
held down, also has its usual behavior of setting the region.

   Normally, the `Mouse-1' click behavior is performed on links in any
window.  The variable `mouse-1-click-in-non-selected-windows' controls
whether `Mouse-1' has this behavior even in non-selected windows, or
only in the selected window.

   You can usually tell when `Mouse-1' and `Mouse-2' have this special
sort of meaning because the sensitive text highlights when you move the
mouse over it.  The variable `mouse-highlight' controls whether to do
this highlighting always (even when such text appears where the mouse
already is), never, or only immediately after you move the mouse.

   In Emacs versions before 22, only `Mouse-2' follows links and
`Mouse-1' always sets point.  If you prefer this older behavior, set
the variable `mouse-1-click-follows-link' to `nil'.  This variable also
lets you choose various other alternatives for following links with the
mouse.  Type `C-h v mouse-1-click-follows-link <RET>' for more details.


File: emacs,  Node: Menu Mouse Clicks,  Next: Mode Line Mouse,  Prev: Mouse References,  Up: Frames

26.3 Mouse Clicks for Menus
===========================

Several mouse clicks with the <CTRL> and <SHIFT> modifiers bring up
menus.

`C-Mouse-1'
     This menu is for selecting a buffer.

     The MSB ("mouse select buffer") global minor mode makes this menu
     smarter and more customizable.  *Note Buffer Menus::.

`C-Mouse-2'
     This menu is for specifying faces and other text properties for
     editing formatted text.  *Note Formatted Text::.

`C-Mouse-3'
     This menu is mode-specific.  For most modes if Menu-bar mode is on,
     this menu has the same items as all the mode-specific menu-bar
     menus put together.  Some modes may specify a different menu for
     this button.(1)  If Menu-bar mode is off, this menu contains all
     the items which would be present in the menu bar--not just the
     mode-specific ones--so that you can access them without having to
     display the menu bar.

`S-Mouse-1'
     This menu is for specifying the frame's default font.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Some systems use `Mouse-3' for a mode-specific menu.  We took a
survey of users, and found they preferred to keep `Mouse-3' for
selecting and killing regions.  Hence the decision to use `C-Mouse-3'
for this menu.  To use `Mouse-3' instead, do `(global-set-key [mouse-3]
'mouse-popup-menubar-stuff)'.


File: emacs,  Node: Mode Line Mouse,  Next: Creating Frames,  Prev: Menu Mouse Clicks,  Up: Frames

26.4 Mode Line Mouse Commands
=============================

You can use mouse clicks on window mode lines to select and manipulate
windows.

   Some areas of the mode line, such as the buffer name and the major
mode name, have their own special mouse bindings.  These areas are
highlighted when you hold the mouse over them, and information about
the special bindings will be displayed (*note Tooltips::).  This
section's commands do not apply in those areas.

`Mouse-1'
     `Mouse-1' on a mode line selects the window it belongs to.  By
     dragging `Mouse-1' on the mode line, you can move it, thus
     changing the height of the windows above and below.  Changing
     heights with the mouse in this way never deletes windows, it just
     refuses to make any window smaller than the minimum height.

`Mouse-2'
     `Mouse-2' on a mode line expands that window to fill its frame.

`Mouse-3'
     `Mouse-3' on a mode line deletes the window it belongs to.  If the
     frame has only one window, it buries the current buffer instead,
     and switches to another buffer.

`C-Mouse-2'
     `C-Mouse-2' on a mode line splits the window above horizontally,
     above the place in the mode line where you click.

   Using `Mouse-1' on the divider between two side-by-side mode lines,
you can move the vertical boundary left or right.  Using `C-Mouse-2' on
a scroll bar splits the corresponding window vertically.  *Note Split
Window::.


File: emacs,  Node: Creating Frames,  Next: Frame Commands,  Prev: Mode Line Mouse,  Up: Frames

26.5 Creating Frames
====================

The prefix key `C-x 5' is analogous to `C-x 4', with parallel
subcommands.  The difference is that `C-x 5' commands create a new
frame rather than just a new window in the selected frame (*note Pop Up
Window::).  If an existing visible or iconified frame already displays
the requested material, these commands use the existing frame, after
raising or deiconifying as necessary.

   The various `C-x 5' commands differ in how they find or create the
buffer to select:

`C-x 5 2'
     Create a new frame (`make-frame-command').

`C-x 5 b BUFNAME <RET>'
     Select buffer BUFNAME in another frame.  This runs
     `switch-to-buffer-other-frame'.

`C-x 5 f FILENAME <RET>'
     Visit file FILENAME and select its buffer in another frame.  This
     runs `find-file-other-frame'.  *Note Visiting::.

`C-x 5 d DIRECTORY <RET>'
     Select a Dired buffer for directory DIRECTORY in another frame.
     This runs `dired-other-frame'.  *Note Dired::.

`C-x 5 m'
     Start composing a mail message in another frame.  This runs
     `mail-other-frame'.  It is the other-frame variant of `C-x m'.
     *Note Sending Mail::.

`C-x 5 .'
     Find a tag in the current tag table in another frame.  This runs
     `find-tag-other-frame', the multiple-frame variant of `M-.'.
     *Note Tags::.

`C-x 5 r FILENAME <RET>'
     Visit file FILENAME read-only, and select its buffer in another
     frame.  This runs `find-file-read-only-other-frame'.  *Note
     Visiting::.

   You can control the appearance of new frames you create by setting
the frame parameters in `default-frame-alist'.  You can use the
variable `initial-frame-alist' to specify parameters that affect only
the initial frame.  *Note Initial Parameters: (elisp)Initial
Parameters, for more information.

   The easiest way to specify the principal font for all your Emacs
frames is with an X resource (*note Font X::), but you can also do it by
modifying `default-frame-alist' to specify the `font' parameter, as
shown here:

     (add-to-list 'default-frame-alist '(font . "10x20"))

Here's a similar example for specifying a foreground color:

     (add-to-list 'default-frame-alist '(foreground-color . "blue"))

By putting such customizations in your `~/.emacs' init file, you can
control the appearance of all the frames Emacs creates, including the
initial one.


File: emacs,  Node: Frame Commands,  Next: Speedbar,  Prev: Creating Frames,  Up: Frames

26.6 Frame Commands
===================

The following commands let you create, delete and operate on frames:

`C-z'
     Iconify the selected Emacs frame (`iconify-or-deiconify-frame').
     When typed on an Emacs frame's icon, deiconify instead.

     The normal meaning of `C-z', to suspend Emacs, is not useful under
     a graphical display that allows multiple applications to operate
     simultaneously in their own windows, so Emacs gives `C-z' a
     different binding in that case.

`C-x 5 0'
     Delete the selected frame (`delete-frame').  This is not allowed if
     there is only one frame.

`C-x 5 o'
     Select another frame, raise it, and warp the mouse to it so that it
     stays selected.  If you repeat this command, it cycles through all
     the frames on your terminal.

`C-x 5 1'
     Delete all frames except the selected one.

   To make the command `C-x 5 o' work properly, you must tell Emacs how
the system (or the window manager) generally handles focus-switching
between windows.  There are two possibilities: either simply moving the
mouse onto a window selects it (gives it focus), or you have to click
on it in a suitable way to do so.  On X, this focus policy also affects
whether the focus is given to a frame that Emacs raises.  Unfortunately
there is no way Emacs can find out automatically which way the system
handles this, so you have to explicitly say, by setting the variable
`focus-follows-mouse'.  If just moving the mouse onto a window selects
it, that variable should be `t'; if a click is necessary, the variable
should be `nil'.

   The window manager that is part of MS-Windows always gives focus to a
frame that raises, so this variable has no effect in the native
MS-Windows build of Emacs.


File: emacs,  Node: Speedbar,  Next: Multiple Displays,  Prev: Frame Commands,  Up: Frames

26.7 Speedbar Frames
====================

The "speedbar" is a special frame for conveniently navigating in or
operating on another frame.  The speedbar, when it exists, is always
associated with a specific frame, called its "attached frame"; all
speedbar operations act on that frame.

   Type `M-x speedbar' to create the speedbar and associate it with the
current frame.  To dismiss the speedbar, type `M-x speedbar' again, or
select the speedbar and type `q'.  (You can also delete the speedbar
frame like any other Emacs frame.)  If you wish to associate the
speedbar with a different frame, dismiss it and call `M-x speedbar'
from that frame.

   The speedbar can operate in various modes.  Its default mode is
"File Display" mode, which shows the files in the current directory of
the selected window of the attached frame, one file per line.  Clicking
on a file name visits that file in the selected window of the attached
frame, and clicking on a directory name shows that directory in the
speedbar (*note Mouse References::).  Each line also has a box, `[+]'
or `<+>', that you can click on to "expand" the contents of that item.
Expanding a directory adds the contents of that directory to the
speedbar display, underneath the directory's own line.  Expanding an
ordinary file adds a list of the tags in that file to the speedbar
display; you can click on a tag name to jump to that tag in the
selected window of the attached frame.  When a file or directory is
expanded, the `[+]' changes to `[-]'; you can click on that box to
"contract" the item, hiding its contents.

   You navigate through the speedbar using the keyboard, too.  Typing
`RET' while point is on a line in the speedbar is equivalent to
clicking the item on the current line, and `SPC' expands or contracts
the item.  `U' displays the parent directory of the current directory.
To copy, delete, or rename the file on the current line, type `C', `D',
and `R' respectively.  To create a new directory, type `M'.

   Another general-purpose speedbar mode is "Buffer Display" mode; in
this mode, the speedbar displays a list of Emacs buffers.  To switch to
this mode, type `b' in the speedbar.  To return to File Display mode,
type `f'.  You can also change the display mode by clicking `mouse-3'
anywhere in the speedbar window (or `mouse-1' on the mode-line) and
selecting `Displays' in the pop-up menu.

   Some major modes, including Rmail mode, Info, and GUD, have
specialized ways of putting useful items into the speedbar for you to
select.  For example, in Rmail mode, the speedbar shows a list of Rmail
files, and lets you move the current message to another Rmail file by
clicking on its `<M>' box.

   For more details on using and programming the speedbar, *Note
Speedbar: (speedbar)Top.


File: emacs,  Node: Multiple Displays,  Next: Special Buffer Frames,  Prev: Speedbar,  Up: Frames

26.8 Multiple Displays
======================

A single Emacs can talk to more than one X display.  Initially, Emacs
uses just one display--the one specified with the `DISPLAY' environment
variable or with the `--display' option (*note Initial Options::).  To
connect to another display, use the command `make-frame-on-display':

`M-x make-frame-on-display <RET> DISPLAY <RET>'
     Create a new frame on display DISPLAY.

   A single X server can handle more than one screen.  When you open
frames on two screens belonging to one server, Emacs knows they share a
single keyboard, and it treats all the commands arriving from these
screens as a single stream of input.

   When you open frames on different X servers, Emacs makes a separate
input stream for each server.  This way, two users can type
simultaneously on the two displays, and Emacs will not garble their
input.  Each server also has its own selected frame.  The commands you
enter with a particular X server apply to that server's selected frame.

   Despite these features, people using the same Emacs job from
different displays can still interfere with each other if they are not
careful.  For example, if any one types `C-x C-c', that exits the Emacs
job for all of them!


File: emacs,  Node: Special Buffer Frames,  Next: Frame Parameters,  Prev: Multiple Displays,  Up: Frames

26.9 Special Buffer Frames
==========================

You can make certain chosen buffers, which Emacs normally displays in
"another window," appear in special frames of their own.  To do this,
set the variable `special-display-buffer-names' to a list of buffer
names; any buffer whose name is in that list automatically gets a
special frame, when an Emacs command wants to display it "in another
window."

   For example, if you set the variable this way,

     (setq special-display-buffer-names
           '("*Completions*" "*grep*" "*tex-shell*"))

then completion lists, `grep' output and the TeX mode shell buffer get
individual frames of their own.  These frames, and the windows in them,
are never automatically split or reused for any other buffers.  They
continue to show the buffers they were created for, unless you alter
them by hand.  Killing the special buffer deletes its frame
automatically.

   More generally, you can set `special-display-regexps' to a list of
regular expressions; then a buffer gets its own frame if its name
matches any of those regular expressions.  (Once again, this applies
only to buffers that normally get displayed for you in "another
window.")

   The variable `special-display-frame-alist' specifies the frame
parameters for these frames.  It has a default value, so you don't need
to set it.

   For those who know Lisp, an element of
`special-display-buffer-names' or `special-display-regexps' can also be
a list.  Then the first element is the buffer name or regular
expression; the rest of the list specifies how to create the frame.  It
can be an association list specifying frame parameter values; these
values take precedence over parameter values specified in
`special-display-frame-alist'.  If you specify the symbol `same-window'
as a "frame parameter" in this list, with a non-`nil' value, that means
to use the selected window if possible.  If you use the symbol
`same-frame' as a "frame parameter" in this list, with a non-`nil'
value, that means to use the selected frame if possible.

   Alternatively, the value can have this form:

     (FUNCTION ARGS...)

where FUNCTION is a symbol.  Then the frame is constructed by calling
FUNCTION; its first argument is the buffer, and its remaining arguments
are ARGS.

   An analogous feature lets you specify buffers which should be
displayed in the selected window.  *Note Force Same Window::.  The
same-window feature takes precedence over the special-frame feature;
therefore, if you add a buffer name to `special-display-buffer-names'
and it has no effect, check to see whether that feature is also in use
for the same buffer name.


File: emacs,  Node: Frame Parameters,  Next: Scroll Bars,  Prev: Special Buffer Frames,  Up: Frames

26.10 Setting Frame Parameters
==============================

You can specify the font and colors used for text display, and the
colors for the frame borders, the cursor, and the mouse cursor, by
customizing the faces `default', `border', `cursor' and `mouse'.  *Note
Face Customization::.  You can also set a frame's default font through
a pop-up menu.  Press `S-Mouse-1' to activate this menu.

   These commands are available for controlling the window management
behavior of the selected frame.

`M-x auto-raise-mode'
     Toggle whether or not the selected frame should auto-raise.
     Auto-raise means that every time you move the mouse onto the
     frame, it raises the frame.

     Some window managers also implement auto-raise.  If you enable
     auto-raise for Emacs frames in your window manager, it will work,
     but it is beyond Emacs' control, so `auto-raise-mode' has no effect
     on it.

`M-x auto-lower-mode'
     Toggle whether or not the selected frame should auto-lower.
     Auto-lower means that every time you move the mouse off the frame,
     the frame moves to the bottom of the stack on the screen.

     The command `auto-lower-mode' has no effect on auto-lower
     implemented by the window manager.  To control that, you must use
     the appropriate window manager features.

   In Emacs versions that use an X toolkit, the color-setting and
font-setting functions don't affect menus and the menu bar, since they
are displayed by their own widget classes.  To change the appearance of
the menus and menu bar, you must use X resources (*note Resources::).
*Note Colors::, regarding colors.  *Note Font X::, regarding choice of
font.

   Colors, fonts, and other attributes of the frame's display can also
be customized by setting frame parameters in the variable
`default-frame-alist' (*note Creating Frames::).  For a detailed
description of frame parameters and customization, see *Note Frame
Parameters: (elisp)Frame Parameters.


File: emacs,  Node: Scroll Bars,  Next: Wheeled Mice,  Prev: Frame Parameters,  Up: Frames

26.11 Scroll Bars
=================

On graphical displays, Emacs normally makes a "scroll bar" at the left
of each Emacs window.(1)  The scroll bar runs the height of the window,
and shows a moving rectangular inner box which represents the portion
of the buffer currently displayed.  The entire height of the scroll bar
represents the entire length of the buffer.

   You can use `Mouse-2' (normally, the middle button) in the scroll
bar to move or drag the inner box up and down.  If you move it to the
top of the scroll bar, you see the top of the buffer.  If you move it to
the bottom of the scroll bar, you see the bottom of the buffer.

   The left and right buttons in the scroll bar scroll by controlled
increments.  `Mouse-1' (normally, the left button) moves the line at
the level where you click up to the top of the window.  `Mouse-3'
(normally, the right button) moves the line at the top of the window
down to the level where you click.  By clicking repeatedly in the same
place, you can scroll by the same distance over and over.

   You can also click `C-Mouse-2' in the scroll bar to split a window
vertically.  The split occurs on the line where you click.

   You can enable or disable Scroll Bar mode with the command `M-x
scroll-bar-mode'.  With no argument, it toggles the use of scroll bars.
With an argument, it turns use of scroll bars on if and only if the
argument is positive.  This command applies to all frames, including
frames yet to be created.  Customize the variable `scroll-bar-mode' to
control the use of scroll bars at startup.  You can use it to specify
that they are placed at the right of windows if you prefer that.  You
have to set this variable through the `Customize' interface (*note Easy
Customization::), or it will not work properly.

   You can also use the X resource `verticalScrollBars' to control the
initial setting of Scroll Bar mode.  *Note Resources::.

   To enable or disable scroll bars for just the selected frame, use the
command `M-x toggle-scroll-bar'.

   You can control the scroll bar width by changing the value of the
`scroll-bar-width' frame parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Placing it at the left is usually more useful with overlapping
frames with text starting at the left margin.


File: emacs,  Node: Wheeled Mice,  Next: Drag and Drop,  Prev: Scroll Bars,  Up: Frames

26.12 Scrolling With "Wheeled" Mice
===================================

Some mice have a "wheel" instead of a third button.  You can usually
click the wheel to act as either `Mouse-2' or `Mouse-3', depending on
the setup.  You can also use the wheel to scroll windows instead of
using the scroll bar or keyboard commands.  Mouse wheel support only
works if the system generates appropriate events; whenever possible, it
is turned on by default.  To toggle this feature, use `M-x
mouse-wheel-mode'.

   The two variables `mouse-wheel-follow-mouse' and
`mouse-wheel-scroll-amount' determine where and by how much buffers are
scrolled.  The variable `mouse-wheel-progressive-speed' determines
whether the scroll speed is linked to how fast you move the wheel.


File: emacs,  Node: Drag and Drop,  Next: Menu Bars,  Prev: Wheeled Mice,  Up: Frames

26.13 Drag and Drop
===================

Emacs supports "drag and drop" using the mouse.  For instance, dropping
text onto an Emacs frame inserts the text where it is dropped.
Dropping a file onto an Emacs frame visits that file.  As a special
case, dropping the file on a Dired buffer moves or copies the file
(according to the conventions of the application it came from) into the
directory displayed in that buffer.

   Dropping a file normally visits it in the window you drop it on.  If
you prefer to visit the file in a new window in such cases, customize
the variable `dnd-open-file-other-window'.

   The XDND and Motif drag and drop protocols, and the old KDE 1.x
protocol, are currently supported.


File: emacs,  Node: Menu Bars,  Next: Tool Bars,  Prev: Drag and Drop,  Up: Frames

26.14 Menu Bars
===============

You can turn display of menu bars on or off with `M-x menu-bar-mode' or
by customizing the variable `menu-bar-mode'.  With no argument, this
command toggles Menu Bar mode, a minor mode.  With an argument, the
command turns Menu Bar mode on if the argument is positive, off if the
argument is not positive.  You can use the X resource `menuBarLines' to
control the initial setting of Menu Bar mode.  *Note Resources::.

   Expert users often turn off the menu bar, especially on text-only
terminals, where this makes one additional line available for text.  If
the menu bar is off, you can still pop up a menu of its contents with
`C-Mouse-3' on a display which supports pop-up menus.  *Note Menu Mouse
Clicks::.

   *Note Menu Bar::, for information on how to invoke commands with the
menu bar.  *Note X Resources::, for how to customize the menu bar
menus' visual appearance.


File: emacs,  Node: Tool Bars,  Next: Dialog Boxes,  Prev: Menu Bars,  Up: Frames

26.15 Tool Bars
===============

The "tool bar" is a line (or lines) of icons at the top of the Emacs
window, just below the menu bar.  You can click on these icons with the
mouse to do various jobs.

   The global tool bar contains general commands.  Some major modes
define their own tool bars to replace it.  A few "special" modes that
are not designed for ordinary editing remove some items from the global
tool bar.

   Tool bars work only on a graphical display.  The tool bar uses
colored XPM icons if Emacs was built with XPM support.  Otherwise, the
tool bar uses monochrome icons (PBM or XBM format).

   You can turn display of tool bars on or off with `M-x tool-bar-mode'
or by customizing the option `tool-bar-mode'.


File: emacs,  Node: Dialog Boxes,  Next: Tooltips,  Prev: Tool Bars,  Up: Frames

26.16 Using Dialog Boxes
========================

A dialog box is a special kind of menu for asking you a yes-or-no
question or some other special question.  Many Emacs commands use a
dialog box to ask a yes-or-no question, if you used the mouse to invoke
the command to begin with.

   You can customize the variable `use-dialog-box' to suppress the use
of dialog boxes.  This also controls whether to use file selection
windows (but those are not supported on all platforms).

   A file selection window is a special kind of dialog box for asking
for file names.  You can customize the variable `use-file-dialog' to
suppress the use of file selection windows, even if you still want
other kinds of dialogs.  This variable has no effect if you have
suppressed all dialog boxes with the variable `use-dialog-box'.

   For Gtk+ version 2.4 and newer, Emacs use the Gtk+ file chooser
dialog.  Emacs adds a toggle button that enables and disables showing
of hidden files (files starting with a dot) in that dialog.  The
variable `x-gtk-show-hidden-files' controls whether to show hidden
files by default.

   For Gtk+ versions 2.4 through 2.10, you can select the old file
dialog (`gtk-file-selector') by setting the variable
`x-gtk-use-old-file-dialog' to a non-`nil' value.  If it is `nil',
Emacs uses `gtk-file-chooser'.  If Emacs is built with a Gtk+ version
that has only one file dialog, this variable has no effect.

   Emacs adds help text to the Gtk+ file chooser dialog.  The variable
`x-gtk-file-dialog-help-text' specifies the text to add; if it is
`nil', that disables the added text.


File: emacs,  Node: Tooltips,  Next: Mouse Avoidance,  Prev: Dialog Boxes,  Up: Frames

26.17 Tooltips
==============

"Tooltips" are small windows that display text information at the
current mouse position.  They activate when there is a pause in mouse
movement.  There are two types of tooltip: help tooltips and GUD
tooltips.

   "Help tooltips" typically display over text--including the mode
line--but are also available for other parts of the Emacs frame, such
as the tool bar and menu items.

   You can toggle display of help tooltips (Tooltip mode) with the
command `M-x tooltip-mode'.  When Tooltip mode is disabled, the help
text is displayed in the echo area instead.

   "GUD tooltips" show values of variables.  They are useful when you
are debugging a program.  *Note Debugger Operation::.

   The variables `tooltip-delay' specifies how long Emacs should wait
before displaying a tooltip.  For additional customization options for
displaying tooltips, use `M-x customize-group <RET> tooltip <RET>'.
*Note X Resources::, for information on customizing the windows that
display tooltips.


File: emacs,  Node: Mouse Avoidance,  Next: Non-Window Terminals,  Prev: Tooltips,  Up: Frames

26.18 Mouse Avoidance
=====================

Mouse Avoidance mode keeps the mouse pointer away from point, to avoid
obscuring text you want to edit.  Whenever it moves the mouse, it also
raises the frame.  To use Mouse Avoidance mode, customize the variable
`mouse-avoidance-mode'.  You can set this to various values to move the
mouse in several ways:

`banish'
     Move the mouse to the upper-right corner on any key-press;

`exile'
     Move the mouse to the corner only if the cursor gets too close,
     and allow it to return once the cursor is out of the way;

`jump'
     If the cursor gets too close to the mouse, displace the mouse a
     random distance & direction;

`animate'
     As `jump', but shows steps along the way for illusion of motion;

`cat-and-mouse'
     The same as `animate';

`proteus'
     As `animate', but changes the shape of the mouse pointer too.

   You can also use the command `M-x mouse-avoidance-mode' to enable
the mode.


File: emacs,  Node: Non-Window Terminals,  Next: Text-Only Mouse,  Prev: Mouse Avoidance,  Up: Frames

26.19 Non-Window Terminals
==========================

On a text-only terminal, Emacs can display only one Emacs frame at a
time.  However, you can still create multiple Emacs frames, and switch
between them.  Switching frames on these terminals is much like
switching between different window configurations.

   Use `C-x 5 2' to create a new frame and switch to it; use `C-x 5 o'
to cycle through the existing frames; use `C-x 5 0' to delete the
current frame.

   Each frame has a number to distinguish it.  If your terminal can
display only one frame at a time, the selected frame's number N appears
near the beginning of the mode line, in the form `FN'.

   `FN' is in fact the frame's initial name.  You can give frames more
meaningful names if you wish, and you can select a frame by its name.
Use the command `M-x set-frame-name <RET> NAME <RET>' to specify a new
name for the selected frame, and use `M-x select-frame-by-name <RET>
NAME <RET>' to select a frame according to its name.  The name you
specify appears in the mode line when the frame is selected.


File: emacs,  Node: Text-Only Mouse,  Prev: Non-Window Terminals,  Up: Frames

26.20 Using a Mouse in Terminal Emulators
=========================================

Some terminal emulators support mouse clicks in the terminal window.

   In a terminal emulator which is compatible with `xterm', you can use
`M-x xterm-mouse-mode' to give Emacs control over simple use of the
mouse--basically, only non-modified single clicks are supported.  The
normal `xterm' mouse functionality for such clicks is still available
by holding down the `SHIFT' key when you press the mouse button.  Xterm
Mouse mode is a global minor mode (*note Minor Modes::).  Repeating the
command turns the mode off again.

   In the console on GNU/Linux, you can use `M-x t-mouse-mode'.  You
need to have the gpm package installed and running on your system in
order for this to work.


File: emacs,  Node: International,  Next: Major Modes,  Prev: Frames,  Up: Top

27 International Character Set Support
**************************************

Emacs supports a wide variety of international character sets,
including European and Vietnamese variants of the Latin alphabet, as
well as Cyrillic, Devanagari (for Hindi and Marathi), Ethiopic, Greek,
Han (for Chinese and Japanese), Hangul (for Korean), Hebrew, IPA,
Kannada, Lao, Malayalam, Tamil, Thai, Tibetan, and Vietnamese scripts.
Emacs also supports various encodings of these characters used by other
internationalized software, such as word processors and mailers.

   Emacs allows editing text with international characters by supporting
all the related activities:

   * You can visit files with non-ASCII characters, save non-ASCII
     text, and pass non-ASCII text between Emacs and programs it
     invokes (such as compilers, spell-checkers, and mailers).  Setting
     your language environment (*note Language Environments::) takes
     care of setting up the coding systems and other options for a
     specific language or culture.  Alternatively, you can specify how
     Emacs should encode or decode text for each command; see *Note
     Text Coding::.

   * You can display non-ASCII characters encoded by the various
     scripts.  This works by using appropriate fonts on graphics
     displays (*note Defining Fontsets::), and by sending special codes
     to text-only displays (*note Terminal Coding::).  If some
     characters are displayed incorrectly, refer to *Note Undisplayable
     Characters::, which describes possible problems and explains how
     to solve them.

   * You can insert non-ASCII characters or search for them.  To do
     that, you can specify an input method (*note Select Input
     Method::) suitable for your language, or use the default input
     method set up when you set your language environment.  If your
     keyboard can produce non-ASCII characters, you can select an
     appropriate keyboard coding system (*note Terminal Coding::), and
     Emacs will accept those characters.  Latin-1 characters can also
     be input by using the `C-x 8' prefix, see *Note Unibyte Mode::.

     On X Window systems, your locale should be set to an appropriate
     value to make sure Emacs interprets keyboard input correctly; see
     *Note locales: Language Environments.

   The rest of this chapter describes these issues in detail.

* Menu:

* International Chars::     Basic concepts of multibyte characters.
* Enabling Multibyte::      Controlling whether to use multibyte characters.
* Language Environments::   Setting things up for the language you use.
* Input Methods::           Entering text characters not on your keyboard.
* Select Input Method::     Specifying your choice of input methods.
* Multibyte Conversion::    How single-byte characters convert to multibyte.
* Coding Systems::          Character set conversion when you read and
                              write files, and so on.
* Recognize Coding::        How Emacs figures out which conversion to use.
* Specify Coding::          Specifying a file's coding system explicitly.
* Output Coding::           Choosing coding systems for output.
* Text Coding::             Choosing conversion to use for file text.
* Communication Coding::    Coding systems for interprocess communication.
* File Name Coding::        Coding systems for file _names_.
* Terminal Coding::         Specifying coding systems for converting
                              terminal input and output.
* Fontsets::                Fontsets are collections of fonts
                              that cover the whole spectrum of characters.
* Defining Fontsets::       Defining a new fontset.
* Undisplayable Characters:: When characters don't display.
* Unibyte Mode::            You can pick one European character set
                              to use without multibyte characters.
* Charsets::                How Emacs groups its internal character codes.


File: emacs,  Node: International Chars,  Next: Enabling Multibyte,  Up: International

27.1 Introduction to International Character Sets
=================================================

The users of international character sets and scripts have established
many more-or-less standard coding systems for storing files.  Emacs
internally uses a single multibyte character encoding, so that it can
intermix characters from all these scripts in a single buffer or
string.  This encoding represents each non-ASCII character as a
sequence of bytes in the range 0200 through 0377.  Emacs translates
between the multibyte character encoding and various other coding
systems when reading and writing files, when exchanging data with
subprocesses, and (in some cases) in the `C-q' command (*note Multibyte
Conversion::).

   The command `C-h h' (`view-hello-file') displays the file
`etc/HELLO', which shows how to say "hello" in many languages.  This
illustrates various scripts.  If some characters can't be displayed on
your terminal, they appear as `?' or as hollow boxes (*note
Undisplayable Characters::).

   Keyboards, even in the countries where these character sets are used,
generally don't have keys for all the characters in them.  So Emacs
supports various "input methods", typically one for each script or
language, to make it convenient to type them.

   The prefix key `C-x <RET>' is used for commands that pertain to
multibyte characters, coding systems, and input methods.


File: emacs,  Node: Enabling Multibyte,  Next: Language Environments,  Prev: International Chars,  Up: International

27.2 Enabling Multibyte Characters
==================================

By default, Emacs starts in multibyte mode, because that allows you to
use all the supported languages and scripts without limitations.

   You can enable or disable multibyte character support, either for
Emacs as a whole, or for a single buffer.  When multibyte characters
are disabled in a buffer, we call that "unibyte mode".  Then each byte
in that buffer represents a character, even codes 0200 through 0377.

   The old features for supporting the European character sets, ISO
Latin-1 and ISO Latin-2, work in unibyte mode as they did in Emacs 19
and also work for the other ISO 8859 character sets.  However, there is
no need to turn off multibyte character support to use ISO Latin; the
Emacs multibyte character set includes all the characters in these
character sets, and Emacs can translate automatically to and from the
ISO codes.

   To edit a particular file in unibyte representation, visit it using
`find-file-literally'.  *Note Visiting::.  To convert a buffer in
multibyte representation into a single-byte representation of the same
characters, the easiest way is to save the contents in a file, kill the
buffer, and find the file again with `find-file-literally'.  You can
also use `C-x <RET> c' (`universal-coding-system-argument') and specify
`raw-text' as the coding system with which to find or save a file.
*Note Text Coding::.  Finding a file as `raw-text' doesn't disable
format conversion, uncompression and auto mode selection as
`find-file-literally' does.

   To turn off multibyte character support by default, start Emacs with
the `--unibyte' option (*note Initial Options::), or set the
environment variable `EMACS_UNIBYTE'.  You can also customize
`enable-multibyte-characters' or, equivalently, directly set the
variable `default-enable-multibyte-characters' to `nil' in your init
file to have basically the same effect as `--unibyte'.

   To convert a unibyte session to a multibyte session, set
`default-enable-multibyte-characters' to `t'.  Buffers which were
created in the unibyte session before you turn on multibyte support
will stay unibyte.  You can turn on multibyte support in a specific
buffer by invoking the command `toggle-enable-multibyte-characters' in
that buffer.

   With `--unibyte', multibyte strings are not created during
initialization from the values of environment variables, `/etc/passwd'
entries etc. that contain non-ASCII 8-bit characters.

   Emacs normally loads Lisp files as multibyte, regardless of whether
you used `--unibyte'.  This includes the Emacs initialization file,
`.emacs', and the initialization files of Emacs packages such as Gnus.
However, you can specify unibyte loading for a particular Lisp file, by
putting `-*-unibyte: t;-*-' in a comment on the first line (*note File
Variables::).  Then that file is always loaded as unibyte text, even if
you did not start Emacs with `--unibyte'.  The motivation for these
conventions is that it is more reliable to always load any particular
Lisp file in the same way.  However, you can load a Lisp file as
unibyte, on any one occasion, by typing `C-x <RET> c raw-text <RET>'
immediately before loading it.

   The mode line indicates whether multibyte character support is
enabled in the current buffer.  If it is, there are two or more
characters (most often two dashes) near the beginning of the mode line,
before the indication of the visited file's end-of-line convention
(colon, backslash, etc.).  When multibyte characters are not enabled,
nothing precedes the colon except a single dash.  *Note Mode Line::,
for more details about this.


File: emacs,  Node: Language Environments,  Next: Input Methods,  Prev: Enabling Multibyte,  Up: International

27.3 Language Environments
==========================

All supported character sets are supported in Emacs buffers whenever
multibyte characters are enabled; there is no need to select a
particular language in order to display its characters in an Emacs
buffer.  However, it is important to select a "language environment" in
order to set various defaults.  The language environment really
represents a choice of preferred script (more or less) rather than a
choice of language.

   The language environment controls which coding systems to recognize
when reading text (*note Recognize Coding::).  This applies to files,
incoming mail, netnews, and any other text you read into Emacs.  It may
also specify the default coding system to use when you create a file.
Each language environment also specifies a default input method.

   To select a language environment, you can customize the variable
`current-language-environment' or use the command `M-x
set-language-environment'.  It makes no difference which buffer is
current when you use this command, because the effects apply globally to
the Emacs session.  The supported language environments include:

     ASCII, Belarusian, Brazilian Portuguese, Bulgarian, Chinese-BIG5,
     Chinese-CNS, Chinese-EUC-TW, Chinese-GB, Croatian, Cyrillic-ALT,
     Cyrillic-ISO, Cyrillic-KOI8, Czech, Devanagari, Dutch, English,
     Esperanto, Ethiopic, French, Georgian, German, Greek, Hebrew, IPA,
     Italian, Japanese, Kannada, Korean, Lao, Latin-1, Latin-2, Latin-3,
     Latin-4, Latin-5, Latin-6, Latin-7, Latin-8 (Celtic), Latin-9
     (updated Latin-1 with the Euro sign), Latvian, Lithuanian,
     Malayalam, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish,
     Swedish, Tajik, Tamil, Thai, Tibetan, Turkish, UTF-8 (for a setup
     which prefers Unicode characters and files encoded in UTF-8),
     Ukrainian, Vietnamese, Welsh, and Windows-1255 (for a setup which
     prefers Cyrillic characters and files encoded in Windows-1255).

   To display the script(s) used by your language environment on a
graphical display, you need to have a suitable font.  If some of the
characters appear as empty boxes, you should install the GNU Intlfonts
package, which includes fonts for most supported scripts.(1) *Note
Fontsets::, for more details about setting up your fonts.

   Some operating systems let you specify the character-set locale you
are using by setting the locale environment variables `LC_ALL',
`LC_CTYPE', or `LANG'.(2)  During startup, Emacs looks up your
character-set locale's name in the system locale alias table, matches
its canonical name against entries in the value of the variables
`locale-charset-language-names' and `locale-language-names', and
selects the corresponding language environment if a match is found.
(The former variable overrides the latter.)  It also adjusts the display
table and terminal coding system, the locale coding system, the
preferred coding system as needed for the locale, and--last but not
least--the way Emacs decodes non-ASCII characters sent by your keyboard.

   If you modify the `LC_ALL', `LC_CTYPE', or `LANG' environment
variables while running Emacs, you may want to invoke the
`set-locale-environment' function afterwards to readjust the language
environment from the new locale.

   The `set-locale-environment' function normally uses the preferred
coding system established by the language environment to decode system
messages.  But if your locale matches an entry in the variable
`locale-preferred-coding-systems', Emacs uses the corresponding coding
system instead.  For example, if the locale `ja_JP.PCK' matches
`japanese-shift-jis' in `locale-preferred-coding-systems', Emacs uses
that encoding even though it might normally use `japanese-iso-8bit'.

   You can override the language environment chosen at startup with
explicit use of the command `set-language-environment', or with
customization of `current-language-environment' in your init file.

   To display information about the effects of a certain language
environment LANG-ENV, use the command `C-h L LANG-ENV <RET>'
(`describe-language-environment').  This tells you which languages this
language environment is useful for, and lists the character sets,
coding systems, and input methods that go with it.  It also shows some
sample text to illustrate scripts used in this language environment.
If you give an empty input for LANG-ENV, this command describes the
chosen language environment.

   You can customize any language environment with the normal hook
`set-language-environment-hook'.  The command
`set-language-environment' runs that hook after setting up the new
language environment.  The hook functions can test for a specific
language environment by checking the variable
`current-language-environment'.  This hook is where you should put
non-default settings for specific language environment, such as coding
systems for keyboard input and terminal output, the default input
method, etc.

   Before it starts to set up the new language environment,
`set-language-environment' first runs the hook
`exit-language-environment-hook'.  This hook is useful for undoing
customizations that were made with `set-language-environment-hook'.
For instance, if you set up a special key binding in a specific language
environment using `set-language-environment-hook', you should set up
`exit-language-environment-hook' to restore the normal binding for that
key.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) If you run Emacs on X, you need to inform the X server about the
location of the newly installed fonts with the following commands:

      xset fp+ /usr/local/share/emacs/fonts
      xset fp rehash

   (2) If more than one of these is set, the first one that is nonempty
specifies your locale for this purpose.


File: emacs,  Node: Input Methods,  Next: Select Input Method,  Prev: Language Environments,  Up: International

27.4 Input Methods
==================

An "input method" is a kind of character conversion designed
specifically for interactive input.  In Emacs, typically each language
has its own input method; sometimes several languages which use the same
characters can share one input method.  A few languages support several
input methods.

   The simplest kind of input method works by mapping ASCII letters
into another alphabet; this allows you to use one other alphabet
instead of ASCII.  The Greek and Russian input methods work this way.

   A more powerful technique is composition: converting sequences of
characters into one letter.  Many European input methods use composition
to produce a single non-ASCII letter from a sequence that consists of a
letter followed by accent characters (or vice versa).  For example, some
methods convert the sequence `a'' into a single accented letter.  These
input methods have no special commands of their own; all they do is
compose sequences of printing characters.

   The input methods for syllabic scripts typically use mapping followed
by composition.  The input methods for Thai and Korean work this way.
First, letters are mapped into symbols for particular sounds or tone
marks; then, sequences of these which make up a whole syllable are
mapped into one syllable sign.

   Chinese and Japanese require more complex methods.  In Chinese input
methods, first you enter the phonetic spelling of a Chinese word (in
input method `chinese-py', among others), or a sequence of portions of
the character (input methods `chinese-4corner' and `chinese-sw', and
others).  One input sequence typically corresponds to many possible
Chinese characters.  You select the one you mean using keys such as
`C-f', `C-b', `C-n', `C-p', and digits, which have special meanings in
this situation.

   The possible characters are conceptually arranged in several rows,
with each row holding up to 10 alternatives.  Normally, Emacs displays
just one row at a time, in the echo area; `(I/J)' appears at the
beginning, to indicate that this is the Ith row out of a total of J
rows.  Type `C-n' or `C-p' to display the next row or the previous row.

   Type `C-f' and `C-b' to move forward and backward among the
alternatives in the current row.  As you do this, Emacs highlights the
current alternative with a special color; type `C-<SPC>' to select the
current alternative and use it as input.  The alternatives in the row
are also numbered; the number appears before the alternative.  Typing a
digit N selects the Nth alternative of the current row and uses it as
input.

   <TAB> in these Chinese input methods displays a buffer showing all
the possible characters at once; then clicking `Mouse-2' on one of them
selects that alternative.  The keys `C-f', `C-b', `C-n', `C-p', and
digits continue to work as usual, but they do the highlighting in the
buffer showing the possible characters, rather than in the echo area.

   In Japanese input methods, first you input a whole word using
phonetic spelling; then, after the word is in the buffer, Emacs
converts it into one or more characters using a large dictionary.  One
phonetic spelling corresponds to a number of different Japanese words;
to select one of them, use `C-n' and `C-p' to cycle through the
alternatives.

   Sometimes it is useful to cut off input method processing so that the
characters you have just entered will not combine with subsequent
characters.  For example, in input method `latin-1-postfix', the
sequence `e '' combines to form an `e' with an accent.  What if you
want to enter them as separate characters?

   One way is to type the accent twice; this is a special feature for
entering the separate letter and accent.  For example, `e ' '' gives
you the two characters `e''.  Another way is to type another letter
after the `e'--something that won't combine with that--and immediately
delete it.  For example, you could type `e e <DEL> '' to get separate
`e' and `''.

   Another method, more general but not quite as easy to type, is to use
`C-\ C-\' between two characters to stop them from combining.  This is
the command `C-\' (`toggle-input-method') used twice.  *Note Select
Input Method::.

   `C-\ C-\' is especially useful inside an incremental search, because
it stops waiting for more characters to combine, and starts searching
for what you have already entered.

   To find out how to input the character after point using the current
input method, type `C-u C-x ='.  *Note Position Info::.

   The variables `input-method-highlight-flag' and
`input-method-verbose-flag' control how input methods explain what is
happening.  If `input-method-highlight-flag' is non-`nil', the partial
sequence is highlighted in the buffer (for most input methods--some
disable this feature).  If `input-method-verbose-flag' is non-`nil',
the list of possible characters to type next is displayed in the echo
area (but not when you are in the minibuffer).


File: emacs,  Node: Select Input Method,  Next: Multibyte Conversion,  Prev: Input Methods,  Up: International

27.5 Selecting an Input Method
==============================

`C-\'
     Enable or disable use of the selected input method.

`C-x <RET> C-\ METHOD <RET>'
     Select a new input method for the current buffer.

`C-h I METHOD <RET>'
`C-h C-\ METHOD <RET>'
     Describe the input method METHOD (`describe-input-method').  By
     default, it describes the current input method (if any).  This
     description should give you the full details of how to use any
     particular input method.

`M-x list-input-methods'
     Display a list of all the supported input methods.

   To choose an input method for the current buffer, use `C-x <RET>
C-\' (`set-input-method').  This command reads the input method name
from the minibuffer; the name normally starts with the language
environment that it is meant to be used with.  The variable
`current-input-method' records which input method is selected.

   Input methods use various sequences of ASCII characters to stand for
non-ASCII characters.  Sometimes it is useful to turn off the input
method temporarily.  To do this, type `C-\' (`toggle-input-method').
To reenable the input method, type `C-\' again.

   If you type `C-\' and you have not yet selected an input method, it
prompts for you to specify one.  This has the same effect as using `C-x
<RET> C-\' to specify an input method.

   When invoked with a numeric argument, as in `C-u C-\',
`toggle-input-method' always prompts you for an input method,
suggesting the most recently selected one as the default.

   Selecting a language environment specifies a default input method for
use in various buffers.  When you have a default input method, you can
select it in the current buffer by typing `C-\'.  The variable
`default-input-method' specifies the default input method (`nil' means
there is none).

   In some language environments, which support several different input
methods, you might want to use an input method different from the
default chosen by `set-language-environment'.  You can instruct Emacs
to select a different default input method for a certain language
environment, if you wish, by using `set-language-environment-hook'
(*note set-language-environment-hook: Language Environments.).  For
example:

     (defun my-chinese-setup ()
       "Set up my private Chinese environment."
       (if (equal current-language-environment "Chinese-GB")
           (setq default-input-method "chinese-tonepy")))
     (add-hook 'set-language-environment-hook 'my-chinese-setup)

This sets the default input method to be `chinese-tonepy' whenever you
choose a Chinese-GB language environment.

   Some input methods for alphabetic scripts work by (in effect)
remapping the keyboard to emulate various keyboard layouts commonly used
for those scripts.  How to do this remapping properly depends on your
actual keyboard layout.  To specify which layout your keyboard has, use
the command `M-x quail-set-keyboard-layout'.

   You can use the command `M-x quail-show-key' to show what key (or
key sequence) to type in order to input the character following point,
using the selected keyboard layout.  The command `C-u C-x =' also shows
that information in addition to the other information about the
character.

   To see a list of all the supported input methods, type `M-x
list-input-methods'.  The list gives information about each input
method, including the string that stands for it in the mode line.


File: emacs,  Node: Multibyte Conversion,  Next: Coding Systems,  Prev: Select Input Method,  Up: International

27.6 Unibyte and Multibyte Non-ASCII characters
===============================================

When multibyte characters are enabled, character codes 0240 (octal)
through 0377 (octal) are not really legitimate in the buffer.  The valid
non-ASCII printing characters have codes that start from 0400.

   If you type a self-inserting character in the range 0240 through
0377, or if you use `C-q' to insert one, Emacs assumes you intended to
use one of the ISO Latin-N character sets, and converts it to the Emacs
code representing that Latin-N character.  You select _which_ ISO Latin
character set to use through your choice of language environment (*note
Language Environments::).  If you do not specify a choice, the default
is Latin-1.

   If you insert a character in the range 0200 through 0237, which
forms the `eight-bit-control' character set, it is inserted literally.
You should normally avoid doing this since buffers containing such
characters have to be written out in either the `emacs-mule' or
`raw-text' coding system, which is usually not what you want.


File: emacs,  Node: Coding Systems,  Next: Recognize Coding,  Prev: Multibyte Conversion,  Up: International

27.7 Coding Systems
===================

Users of various languages have established many more-or-less standard
coding systems for representing them.  Emacs does not use these coding
systems internally; instead, it converts from various coding systems to
its own system when reading data, and converts the internal coding
system to other coding systems when writing data.  Conversion is
possible in reading or writing files, in sending or receiving from the
terminal, and in exchanging data with subprocesses.

   Emacs assigns a name to each coding system.  Most coding systems are
used for one language, and the name of the coding system starts with the
language name.  Some coding systems are used for several languages;
their names usually start with `iso'.  There are also special coding
systems `no-conversion', `raw-text' and `emacs-mule' which do not
convert printing characters at all.

   A special class of coding systems, collectively known as
"codepages", is designed to support text encoded by MS-Windows and
MS-DOS software.  The names of these coding systems are `cpNNNN', where
NNNN is a 3- or 4-digit number of the codepage.  You can use these
encodings just like any other coding system; for example, to visit a
file encoded in codepage 850, type `C-x <RET> c cp850 <RET> C-x C-f
FILENAME <RET>'(1).

   In addition to converting various representations of non-ASCII
characters, a coding system can perform end-of-line conversion.  Emacs
handles three different conventions for how to separate lines in a file:
newline, carriage-return linefeed, and just carriage-return.

`C-h C CODING <RET>'
     Describe coding system CODING.

`C-h C <RET>'
     Describe the coding systems currently in use.

`M-x list-coding-systems'
     Display a list of all the supported coding systems.

   The command `C-h C' (`describe-coding-system') displays information
about particular coding systems, including the end-of-line conversion
specified by those coding systems.  You can specify a coding system
name as the argument; alternatively, with an empty argument, it
describes the coding systems currently selected for various purposes,
both in the current buffer and as the defaults, and the priority list
for recognizing coding systems (*note Recognize Coding::).

   To display a list of all the supported coding systems, type `M-x
list-coding-systems'.  The list gives information about each coding
system, including the letter that stands for it in the mode line (*note
Mode Line::).

   Each of the coding systems that appear in this list--except for
`no-conversion', which means no conversion of any kind--specifies how
and whether to convert printing characters, but leaves the choice of
end-of-line conversion to be decided based on the contents of each file.
For example, if the file appears to use the sequence carriage-return
linefeed to separate lines, DOS end-of-line conversion will be used.

   Each of the listed coding systems has three variants which specify
exactly what to do for end-of-line conversion:

`...-unix'
     Don't do any end-of-line conversion; assume the file uses newline
     to separate lines.  (This is the convention normally used on Unix
     and GNU systems.)

`...-dos'
     Assume the file uses carriage-return linefeed to separate lines,
     and do the appropriate conversion.  (This is the convention
     normally used on Microsoft systems.(2))

`...-mac'
     Assume the file uses carriage-return to separate lines, and do the
     appropriate conversion.  (This is the convention normally used on
     the Macintosh system.)

   These variant coding systems are omitted from the
`list-coding-systems' display for brevity, since they are entirely
predictable.  For example, the coding system `iso-latin-1' has variants
`iso-latin-1-unix', `iso-latin-1-dos' and `iso-latin-1-mac'.

   The coding systems `unix', `dos', and `mac' are aliases for
`undecided-unix', `undecided-dos', and `undecided-mac', respectively.
These coding systems specify only the end-of-line conversion, and leave
the character code conversion to be deduced from the text itself.

   The coding system `raw-text' is good for a file which is mainly
ASCII text, but may contain byte values above 127 which are not meant
to encode non-ASCII characters.  With `raw-text', Emacs copies those
byte values unchanged, and sets `enable-multibyte-characters' to `nil'
in the current buffer so that they will be interpreted properly.
`raw-text' handles end-of-line conversion in the usual way, based on
the data encountered, and has the usual three variants to specify the
kind of end-of-line conversion to use.

   In contrast, the coding system `no-conversion' specifies no
character code conversion at all--none for non-ASCII byte values and
none for end of line.  This is useful for reading or writing binary
files, tar files, and other files that must be examined verbatim.  It,
too, sets `enable-multibyte-characters' to `nil'.

   The easiest way to edit a file with no conversion of any kind is with
the `M-x find-file-literally' command.  This uses `no-conversion', and
also suppresses other Emacs features that might convert the file
contents before you see them.  *Note Visiting::.

   The coding system `emacs-mule' means that the file contains
non-ASCII characters stored with the internal Emacs encoding.  It
handles end-of-line conversion based on the data encountered, and has
the usual three variants to specify the kind of end-of-line conversion.

   The "character translation" feature can modify the effect of various
coding systems, by changing the internal Emacs codes that decoding
produces.  For instance, the command `unify-8859-on-decoding-mode'
enables a mode that "unifies" the Latin alphabets when decoding text.
This works by converting all non-ASCII Latin-N characters to either
Latin-1 or Unicode characters.  This way it is easier to use various
Latin-N alphabets together.  (In a future Emacs version we hope to move
towards full Unicode support and complete unification of character
sets.)

   If you set the variable `enable-character-translation' to `nil',
that disables all character translation (including
`unify-8859-on-decoding-mode').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In the MS-DOS port of Emacs, you need to create a `cpNNN' coding
system with `M-x codepage-setup', before you can use it.  *Note MS-DOS
and MULE::.

   (2) It is also specified for MIME `text/*' bodies and in other
network transport contexts.  It is different from the SGML reference
syntax record-start/record-end format which Emacs doesn't support
directly.


File: emacs,  Node: Recognize Coding,  Next: Specify Coding,  Prev: Coding Systems,  Up: International

27.8 Recognizing Coding Systems
===============================

Emacs tries to recognize which coding system to use for a given text as
an integral part of reading that text.  (This applies to files being
read, output from subprocesses, text from X selections, etc.)  Emacs
can select the right coding system automatically most of the time--once
you have specified your preferences.

   Some coding systems can be recognized or distinguished by which byte
sequences appear in the data.  However, there are coding systems that
cannot be distinguished, not even potentially.  For example, there is no
way to distinguish between Latin-1 and Latin-2; they use the same byte
values with different meanings.

   Emacs handles this situation by means of a priority list of coding
systems.  Whenever Emacs reads a file, if you do not specify the coding
system to use, Emacs checks the data against each coding system,
starting with the first in priority and working down the list, until it
finds a coding system that fits the data.  Then it converts the file
contents assuming that they are represented in this coding system.

   The priority list of coding systems depends on the selected language
environment (*note Language Environments::).  For example, if you use
French, you probably want Emacs to prefer Latin-1 to Latin-2; if you use
Czech, you probably want Latin-2 to be preferred.  This is one of the
reasons to specify a language environment.

   However, you can alter the coding system priority list in detail
with the command `M-x prefer-coding-system'.  This command reads the
name of a coding system from the minibuffer, and adds it to the front
of the priority list, so that it is preferred to all others.  If you
use this command several times, each use adds one element to the front
of the priority list.

   If you use a coding system that specifies the end-of-line conversion
type, such as `iso-8859-1-dos', what this means is that Emacs should
attempt to recognize `iso-8859-1' with priority, and should use DOS
end-of-line conversion when it does recognize `iso-8859-1'.

   Sometimes a file name indicates which coding system to use for the
file.  The variable `file-coding-system-alist' specifies this
correspondence.  There is a special function
`modify-coding-system-alist' for adding elements to this list.  For
example, to read and write all `.txt' files using the coding system
`chinese-iso-8bit', you can execute this Lisp expression:

     (modify-coding-system-alist 'file "\\.txt\\'" 'chinese-iso-8bit)

The first argument should be `file', the second argument should be a
regular expression that determines which files this applies to, and the
third argument says which coding system to use for these files.

   Emacs recognizes which kind of end-of-line conversion to use based on
the contents of the file: if it sees only carriage-returns, or only
carriage-return linefeed sequences, then it chooses the end-of-line
conversion accordingly.  You can inhibit the automatic use of
end-of-line conversion by setting the variable `inhibit-eol-conversion'
to non-`nil'.  If you do that, DOS-style files will be displayed with
the `^M' characters visible in the buffer; some people prefer this to
the more subtle `(DOS)' end-of-line type indication near the left edge
of the mode line (*note eol-mnemonic: Mode Line.).

   By default, the automatic detection of coding system is sensitive to
escape sequences.  If Emacs sees a sequence of characters that begin
with an escape character, and the sequence is valid as an ISO-2022
code, that tells Emacs to use one of the ISO-2022 encodings to decode
the file.

   However, there may be cases that you want to read escape sequences
in a file as is.  In such a case, you can set the variable
`inhibit-iso-escape-detection' to non-`nil'.  Then the code detection
ignores any escape sequences, and never uses an ISO-2022 encoding.  The
result is that all escape sequences become visible in the buffer.

   The default value of `inhibit-iso-escape-detection' is `nil'.  We
recommend that you not change it permanently, only for one specific
operation.  That's because many Emacs Lisp source files in the Emacs
distribution contain non-ASCII characters encoded in the coding system
`iso-2022-7bit', and they won't be decoded correctly when you visit
those files if you suppress the escape sequence detection.

   The variables `auto-coding-alist', `auto-coding-regexp-alist' and
`auto-coding-functions' are the strongest way to specify the coding
system for certain patterns of file names, or for files containing
certain patterns; these variables even override `-*-coding:-*-' tags in
the file itself.  Emacs uses `auto-coding-alist' for tar and archive
files, to prevent it from being confused by a `-*-coding:-*-' tag in a
member of the archive and thinking it applies to the archive file as a
whole.  Likewise, Emacs uses `auto-coding-regexp-alist' to ensure that
RMAIL files, whose names in general don't match any particular pattern,
are decoded correctly.  One of the builtin `auto-coding-functions'
detects the encoding for XML files.

   When you get new mail in Rmail, each message is translated
automatically from the coding system it is written in, as if it were a
separate file.  This uses the priority list of coding systems that you
have specified.  If a MIME message specifies a character set, Rmail
obeys that specification, unless `rmail-decode-mime-charset' is `nil'.

   For reading and saving Rmail files themselves, Emacs uses the coding
system specified by the variable `rmail-file-coding-system'.  The
default value is `nil', which means that Rmail files are not translated
(they are read and written in the Emacs internal character code).


File: emacs,  Node: Specify Coding,  Next: Output Coding,  Prev: Recognize Coding,  Up: International

27.9 Specifying a File's Coding System
======================================

If Emacs recognizes the encoding of a file incorrectly, you can reread
the file using the correct coding system by typing `C-x <RET> r
CODING-SYSTEM <RET>'.  To see what coding system Emacs actually used to
decode the file, look at the coding system mnemonic letter near the
left edge of the mode line (*note Mode Line::), or type `C-h C <RET>'.

   You can specify the coding system for a particular file in the file
itself, using the `-*-...-*-' construct at the beginning, or a local
variables list at the end (*note File Variables::).  You do this by
defining a value for the "variable" named `coding'.  Emacs does not
really have a variable `coding'; instead of setting a variable, this
uses the specified coding system for the file.  For example, `-*-mode:
C; coding: latin-1;-*-' specifies use of the Latin-1 coding system, as
well as C mode.  When you specify the coding explicitly in the file,
that overrides `file-coding-system-alist'.

   If you add the character `!' at the end of the coding system name in
`coding', it disables any character translation (*note Character
Translation::) while decoding the file.  This is useful when you need
to make sure that the character codes in the Emacs buffer will not vary
due to changes in user settings; for instance, for the sake of strings
in Emacs Lisp source files.


File: emacs,  Node: Output Coding,  Next: Text Coding,  Prev: Specify Coding,  Up: International

27.10 Choosing Coding Systems for Output
========================================

Once Emacs has chosen a coding system for a buffer, it stores that
coding system in `buffer-file-coding-system'.  That makes it the
default for operations that write from this buffer into a file, such as
`save-buffer' and `write-region'.  You can specify a different coding
system for further file output from the buffer using
`set-buffer-file-coding-system' (*note Text Coding::).

   You can insert any character Emacs supports into any Emacs buffer,
but most coding systems can only handle a subset of these characters.
Therefore, you can insert characters that cannot be encoded with the
coding system that will be used to save the buffer.  For example, you
could start with an ASCII file and insert a few Latin-1 characters into
it, or you could edit a text file in Polish encoded in `iso-8859-2' and
add some Russian words to it.  When you save that buffer, Emacs cannot
use the current value of `buffer-file-coding-system', because the
characters you added cannot be encoded by that coding system.

   When that happens, Emacs tries the most-preferred coding system (set
by `M-x prefer-coding-system' or `M-x set-language-environment'), and
if that coding system can safely encode all of the characters in the
buffer, Emacs uses it, and stores its value in
`buffer-file-coding-system'.  Otherwise, Emacs displays a list of
coding systems suitable for encoding the buffer's contents, and asks
you to choose one of those coding systems.

   If you insert the unsuitable characters in a mail message, Emacs
behaves a bit differently.  It additionally checks whether the
most-preferred coding system is recommended for use in MIME messages;
if not, Emacs tells you that the most-preferred coding system is not
recommended and prompts you for another coding system.  This is so you
won't inadvertently send a message encoded in a way that your
recipient's mail software will have difficulty decoding.  (You can
still use an unsuitable coding system if you type its name in response
to the question.)

   When you send a message with Mail mode (*note Sending Mail::), Emacs
has four different ways to determine the coding system to use for
encoding the message text.  It tries the buffer's own value of
`buffer-file-coding-system', if that is non-`nil'.  Otherwise, it uses
the value of `sendmail-coding-system', if that is non-`nil'.  The third
way is to use the default coding system for new files, which is
controlled by your choice of language environment, if that is
non-`nil'.  If all of these three values are `nil', Emacs encodes
outgoing mail using the Latin-1 coding system.


File: emacs,  Node: Text Coding,  Next: Communication Coding,  Prev: Output Coding,  Up: International

27.11 Specifying a Coding System for File Text
==============================================

In cases where Emacs does not automatically choose the right coding
system for a file's contents, you can use these commands to specify one:

`C-x <RET> f CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for saving or revisiting the visited file
     in the current buffer.

`C-x <RET> c CODING <RET>'
     Specify coding system CODING for the immediately following command.

`C-x <RET> r CODING <RET>'
     Revisit the current file using the coding system CODING.

`M-x recode-region <RET> RIGHT <RET> WRONG <RET>'
     Convert a region that was decoded using coding system WRONG,
     decoding it using coding system RIGHT instead.

   The command `C-x <RET> f' (`set-buffer-file-coding-system') sets the
file coding system for the current buffer--in other words, it says
which coding system to use when saving or reverting the visited file.
You specify which coding system using the minibuffer.  If you specify a
coding system that cannot handle all of the characters in the buffer,
Emacs warns you about the troublesome characters when you actually save
the buffer.

   You can also use this command to specify the end-of-line conversion
(*note end-of-line conversion: Coding Systems.) for encoding the
current buffer.  For example, `C-x <RET> f dos <RET>' will cause Emacs
to save the current buffer's text with DOS-style CRLF line endings.

   Another way to specify the coding system for a file is when you visit
the file.  First use the command `C-x <RET> c'
(`universal-coding-system-argument'); this command uses the minibuffer
to read a coding system name.  After you exit the minibuffer, the
specified coding system is used for _the immediately following command_.

   So if the immediately following command is `C-x C-f', for example,
it reads the file using that coding system (and records the coding
system for when you later save the file).  Or if the immediately
following command is `C-x C-w', it writes the file using that coding
system.  When you specify the coding system for saving in this way,
instead of with `C-x <RET> f', there is no warning if the buffer
contains characters that the coding system cannot handle.

   Other file commands affected by a specified coding system include
`C-x i' and `C-x C-v', as well as the other-window variants of `C-x
C-f'.  `C-x <RET> c' also affects commands that start subprocesses,
including `M-x shell' (*note Shell::).  If the immediately following
command does not use the coding system, then `C-x <RET> c' ultimately
has no effect.

   An easy way to visit a file with no conversion is with the `M-x
find-file-literally' command.  *Note Visiting::.

   The variable `default-buffer-file-coding-system' specifies the
choice of coding system to use when you create a new file.  It applies
when you find a new file, and when you create a buffer and then save it
in a file.  Selecting a language environment typically sets this
variable to a good choice of default coding system for that language
environment.

   If you visit a file with a wrong coding system, you can correct this
with `C-x <RET> r' (`revert-buffer-with-coding-system').  This visits
the current file again, using a coding system you specify.

   If a piece of text has already been inserted into a buffer using the
wrong coding system, you can redo the decoding of it using `M-x
recode-region'.  This prompts you for the proper coding system, then
for the wrong coding system that was actually used, and does the
conversion.  It first encodes the region using the wrong coding system,
then decodes it again using the proper coding system.


File: emacs,  Node: Communication Coding,  Next: File Name Coding,  Prev: Text Coding,  Up: International

27.12 Coding Systems for Interprocess Communication
===================================================

This section explains how to specify coding systems for use in
communication with other processes.

`C-x <RET> x CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for transferring selections to and from
     other window-based applications.

`C-x <RET> X CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for transferring _one_ selection--the
     next one--to or from another window-based application.

`C-x <RET> p INPUT-CODING <RET> OUTPUT-CODING <RET>'
     Use coding systems INPUT-CODING and OUTPUT-CODING for subprocess
     input and output in the current buffer.

`C-x <RET> c CODING <RET>'
     Specify coding system CODING for the immediately following command.

   The command `C-x <RET> x' (`set-selection-coding-system') specifies
the coding system for sending selected text to other windowing
applications, and for receiving the text of selections made in other
applications.  This command applies to all subsequent selections, until
you override it by using the command again.  The command `C-x <RET> X'
(`set-next-selection-coding-system') specifies the coding system for
the next selection made in Emacs or read by Emacs.

   The command `C-x <RET> p' (`set-buffer-process-coding-system')
specifies the coding system for input and output to a subprocess.  This
command applies to the current buffer; normally, each subprocess has its
own buffer, and thus you can use this command to specify translation to
and from a particular subprocess by giving the command in the
corresponding buffer.

   You can also use `C-x <RET> c' just before the command that runs or
starts a subprocess, to specify the coding system to use for
communication with that subprocess.

   The default for translation of process input and output depends on
the current language environment.

   The variable `locale-coding-system' specifies a coding system to use
when encoding and decoding system strings such as system error messages
and `format-time-string' formats and time stamps.  That coding system
is also used for decoding non-ASCII keyboard input on X Window systems.
You should choose a coding system that is compatible with the
underlying system's text representation, which is normally specified by
one of the environment variables `LC_ALL', `LC_CTYPE', and `LANG'.
(The first one, in the order specified above, whose value is nonempty
is the one that determines the text representation.)


File: emacs,  Node: File Name Coding,  Next: Terminal Coding,  Prev: Communication Coding,  Up: International

27.13 Coding Systems for File Names
===================================

`C-x <RET> F CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for encoding and decoding file _names_.

   The variable `file-name-coding-system' specifies a coding system to
use for encoding file names.  It has no effect on reading and writing
the _contents_ of files.

   If you set the variable to a coding system name (as a Lisp symbol or
a string), Emacs encodes file names using that coding system for all
file operations.  This makes it possible to use non-ASCII characters in
file names--or, at least, those non-ASCII characters which the
specified coding system can encode.  Use `C-x <RET> F'
(`set-file-name-coding-system') to specify this interactively.

   If `file-name-coding-system' is `nil', Emacs uses a default coding
system determined by the selected language environment.  In the default
language environment, any non-ASCII characters in file names are not
encoded specially; they appear in the file system using the internal
Emacs representation.

   *Warning:* if you change `file-name-coding-system' (or the language
environment) in the middle of an Emacs session, problems can result if
you have already visited files whose names were encoded using the
earlier coding system and cannot be encoded (or are encoded
differently) under the new coding system.  If you try to save one of
these buffers under the visited file name, saving may use the wrong file
name, or it may get an error.  If such a problem happens, use `C-x C-w'
to specify a new file name for that buffer.

   If a mistake occurs when encoding a file name, use the command `M-x
recode-file-name' to change the file name's coding system.  This
prompts for an existing file name, its old coding system, and the
coding system to which you wish to convert.


File: emacs,  Node: Terminal Coding,  Next: Fontsets,  Prev: File Name Coding,  Up: International

27.14 Coding Systems for Terminal I/O
=====================================

`C-x <RET> k CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for keyboard input.

`C-x <RET> t CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for terminal output.

   The command `C-x <RET> t' (`set-terminal-coding-system') specifies
the coding system for terminal output.  If you specify a character code
for terminal output, all characters output to the terminal are
translated into that coding system.

   This feature is useful for certain character-only terminals built to
support specific languages or character sets--for example, European
terminals that support one of the ISO Latin character sets.  You need to
specify the terminal coding system when using multibyte text, so that
Emacs knows which characters the terminal can actually handle.

   By default, output to the terminal is not translated at all, unless
Emacs can deduce the proper coding system from your terminal type or
your locale specification (*note Language Environments::).

   The command `C-x <RET> k' (`set-keyboard-coding-system') or the
variable `keyboard-coding-system' specifies the coding system for
keyboard input.  Character-code translation of keyboard input is useful
for terminals with keys that send non-ASCII graphic characters--for
example, some terminals designed for ISO Latin-1 or subsets of it.

   By default, keyboard input is translated based on your system locale
setting.  If your terminal does not really support the encoding implied
by your locale (for example, if you find it inserts a non-ASCII
character if you type `M-i'), you will need to set
`keyboard-coding-system' to `nil' to turn off encoding.  You can do
this by putting

     (set-keyboard-coding-system nil)

in your `~/.emacs' file.

   There is a similarity between using a coding system translation for
keyboard input, and using an input method: both define sequences of
keyboard input that translate into single characters.  However, input
methods are designed to be convenient for interactive use by humans, and
the sequences that are translated are typically sequences of ASCII
printing characters.  Coding systems typically translate sequences of
non-graphic characters.


File: emacs,  Node: Fontsets,  Next: Defining Fontsets,  Prev: Terminal Coding,  Up: International

27.15 Fontsets
==============

A font typically defines shapes for a single alphabet or script.
Therefore, displaying the entire range of scripts that Emacs supports
requires a collection of many fonts.  In Emacs, such a collection is
called a "fontset".  A fontset is defined by a list of fonts, each
assigned to handle a range of character codes.

   Each fontset has a name, like a font.  However, while fonts are
stored in the system and the available font names are defined by the
system, fontsets are defined within Emacs itself.  Once you have
defined a fontset, you can use it within Emacs by specifying its name,
anywhere that you could use a single font.  Of course, Emacs fontsets
can use only the fonts that the system supports; if certain characters
appear on the screen as hollow boxes, this means that the fontset in
use for them has no font for those characters.(1)

   Emacs creates two fontsets automatically: the "standard fontset" and
the "startup fontset".  The standard fontset is most likely to have
fonts for a wide variety of non-ASCII characters; however, this is not
the default for Emacs to use.  (By default, Emacs tries to find a font
that has bold and italic variants.)  You can specify use of the
standard fontset with the `-fn' option.  For example,

     emacs -fn fontset-standard

You can also specify a fontset with the `Font' resource (*note X
Resources::).

   A fontset does not necessarily specify a font for every character
code.  If a fontset specifies no font for a certain character, or if it
specifies a font that does not exist on your system, then it cannot
display that character properly.  It will display that character as an
empty box instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The Emacs installation instructions have information on
additional font support.


File: emacs,  Node: Defining Fontsets,  Next: Undisplayable Characters,  Prev: Fontsets,  Up: International

27.16 Defining fontsets
=======================

Emacs creates a standard fontset automatically according to the value
of `standard-fontset-spec'.  This fontset's name is

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-16-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-standard

or just `fontset-standard' for short.

   Bold, italic, and bold-italic variants of the standard fontset are
created automatically.  Their names have `bold' instead of `medium', or
`i' instead of `r', or both.

   If you specify a default ASCII font with the `Font' resource or the
`-fn' argument, Emacs generates a fontset from it automatically.  This
is the "startup fontset" and its name is `fontset-startup'.  It does
this by replacing the FOUNDRY, FAMILY, ADD_STYLE, and AVERAGE_WIDTH
fields of the font name with `*', replacing CHARSET_REGISTRY field with
`fontset', and replacing CHARSET_ENCODING field with `startup', then
using the resulting string to specify a fontset.

   For instance, if you start Emacs this way,

     emacs -fn "*courier-medium-r-normal--14-140-*-iso8859-1"

Emacs generates the following fontset and uses it for the initial X
window frame:

     -*-*-medium-r-normal-*-14-140-*-*-*-*-fontset-startup

   With the X resource `Emacs.Font', you can specify a fontset name
just like an actual font name.  But be careful not to specify a fontset
name in a wildcard resource like `Emacs*Font'--that wildcard
specification matches various other resources, such as for menus, and
menus cannot handle fontsets.

   You can specify additional fontsets using X resources named
`Fontset-N', where N is an integer starting from 0.  The resource value
should have this form:

     FONTPATTERN, [CHARSET:FONT]...

FONTPATTERN should have the form of a standard X font name, except for
the last two fields.  They should have the form `fontset-ALIAS'.

   The fontset has two names, one long and one short.  The long name is
FONTPATTERN.  The short name is `fontset-ALIAS'.  You can refer to the
fontset by either name.

   The construct `CHARSET:FONT' specifies which font to use (in this
fontset) for one particular character set.  Here, CHARSET is the name
of a character set, and FONT is the font to use for that character set.
You can use this construct any number of times in defining one fontset.

   For the other character sets, Emacs chooses a font based on
FONTPATTERN.  It replaces `fontset-ALIAS' with values that describe the
character set.  For the ASCII character font, `fontset-ALIAS' is
replaced with `ISO8859-1'.

   In addition, when several consecutive fields are wildcards, Emacs
collapses them into a single wildcard.  This is to prevent use of
auto-scaled fonts.  Fonts made by scaling larger fonts are not usable
for editing, and scaling a smaller font is not useful because it is
better to use the smaller font in its own size, which is what Emacs
does.

   Thus if FONTPATTERN is this,

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-24

the font specification for ASCII characters would be this:

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-ISO8859-1

and the font specification for Chinese GB2312 characters would be this:

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-gb2312*-*

   You may not have any Chinese font matching the above font
specification.  Most X distributions include only Chinese fonts that
have `song ti' or `fangsong ti' in FAMILY field.  In such a case,
`Fontset-N' can be specified as below:

     Emacs.Fontset-0: -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-24,\
             chinese-gb2312:-*-*-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-gb2312*-*

Then, the font specifications for all but Chinese GB2312 characters have
`fixed' in the FAMILY field, and the font specification for Chinese
GB2312 characters has a wild card `*' in the FAMILY field.

   The function that processes the fontset resource value to create the
fontset is called `create-fontset-from-fontset-spec'.  You can also
call this function explicitly to create a fontset.

   *Note Font X::, for more information about font naming in X.


File: emacs,  Node: Undisplayable Characters,  Next: Unibyte Mode,  Prev: Defining Fontsets,  Up: International

27.17 Undisplayable Characters
==============================

There may be a some non-ASCII characters that your terminal cannot
display.  Most text-only terminals support just a single character set
(use the variable `default-terminal-coding-system' (*note Terminal
Coding::) to tell Emacs which one); characters which can't be encoded
in that coding system are displayed as `?' by default.

   Graphical displays can display a broader range of characters, but
you may not have fonts installed for all of them; characters that have
no font appear as a hollow box.

   If you use Latin-1 characters but your terminal can't display
Latin-1, you can arrange to display mnemonic ASCII sequences instead,
e.g. `"o' for o-umlaut.  Load the library `iso-ascii' to do this.

   If your terminal can display Latin-1, you can display characters
from other European character sets using a mixture of equivalent
Latin-1 characters and ASCII mnemonics.  Customize the variable
`latin1-display' to enable this.  The mnemonic ASCII sequences mostly
correspond to those of the prefix input methods.


File: emacs,  Node: Unibyte Mode,  Next: Charsets,  Prev: Undisplayable Characters,  Up: International

27.18 Unibyte Editing Mode
==========================

The ISO 8859 Latin-N character sets define character codes in the range
0240 to 0377 octal (160 to 255 decimal) to handle the accented letters
and punctuation needed by various European languages (and some
non-European ones).  If you disable multibyte characters, Emacs can
still handle _one_ of these character codes at a time.  To specify
_which_ of these codes to use, invoke `M-x set-language-environment'
and specify a suitable language environment such as `Latin-N'.

   For more information about unibyte operation, see *Note Enabling
Multibyte::.  Note particularly that you probably want to ensure that
your initialization files are read as unibyte if they contain non-ASCII
characters.

   Emacs can also display those characters, provided the terminal or
font in use supports them.  This works automatically.  Alternatively,
on a graphical display, Emacs can also display single-byte characters
through fontsets, in effect by displaying the equivalent multibyte
characters according to the current language environment.  To request
this, set the variable `unibyte-display-via-language-environment' to a
non-`nil' value.

   If your terminal does not support display of the Latin-1 character
set, Emacs can display these characters as ASCII sequences which at
least give you a clear idea of what the characters are.  To do this,
load the library `iso-ascii'.  Similar libraries for other Latin-N
character sets could be implemented, but we don't have them yet.

   Normally non-ISO-8859 characters (decimal codes between 128 and 159
inclusive) are displayed as octal escapes.  You can change this for
non-standard "extended" versions of ISO-8859 character sets by using the
function `standard-display-8bit' in the `disp-table' library.

   There are two ways to input single-byte non-ASCII characters:

   * You can use an input method for the selected language environment.
     *Note Input Methods::.  When you use an input method in a unibyte
     buffer, the non-ASCII character you specify with it is converted
     to unibyte.

   * If your keyboard can generate character codes 128 (decimal) and up,
     representing non-ASCII characters, you can type those character
     codes directly.

     On a graphical display, you should not need to do anything special
     to use these keys; they should simply work.  On a text-only
     terminal, you should use the command `M-x
     set-keyboard-coding-system' or the variable
     `keyboard-coding-system' to specify which coding system your
     keyboard uses (*note Terminal Coding::).  Enabling this feature
     will probably require you to use `ESC' to type Meta characters;
     however, on a console terminal or in `xterm', you can arrange for
     Meta to be converted to `ESC' and still be able type 8-bit
     characters present directly on the keyboard or using `Compose' or
     `AltGr' keys.  *Note User Input::.

   * For Latin-1 only, you can use the key `C-x 8' as a "compose
     character" prefix for entry of non-ASCII Latin-1 printing
     characters.  `C-x 8' is good for insertion (in the minibuffer as
     well as other buffers), for searching, and in any other context
     where a key sequence is allowed.

     `C-x 8' works by loading the `iso-transl' library.  Once that
     library is loaded, the <ALT> modifier key, if the keyboard has
     one, serves the same purpose as `C-x 8': use <ALT> together with
     an accent character to modify the following letter.  In addition,
     if the keyboard has keys for the Latin-1 "dead accent characters,"
     they too are defined to compose with the following character, once
     `iso-transl' is loaded.

     Use `C-x 8 C-h' to list all the available `C-x 8' translations.


File: emacs,  Node: Charsets,  Prev: Unibyte Mode,  Up: International

27.19 Charsets
==============

Emacs groups all supported characters into disjoint "charsets".  Each
character code belongs to one and only one charset.  For historical
reasons, Emacs typically divides an 8-bit character code for an
extended version of ASCII into two charsets: ASCII, which covers the
codes 0 through 127, plus another charset which covers the "right-hand
part" (the codes 128 and up).  For instance, the characters of Latin-1
include the Emacs charset `ascii' plus the Emacs charset
`latin-iso8859-1'.

   Emacs characters belonging to different charsets may look the same,
but they are still different characters.  For example, the letter `o'
with acute accent in charset `latin-iso8859-1', used for Latin-1, is
different from the letter `o' with acute accent in charset
`latin-iso8859-2', used for Latin-2.

   There are two commands for obtaining information about Emacs
charsets.  The command `M-x list-charset-chars' prompts for a name of a
character set, and displays all the characters in that character set.
The command `M-x describe-character-set' prompts for a charset name and
displays information about that charset, including its internal
representation within Emacs.

   To find out which charset a character in the buffer belongs to, put
point before it and type `C-u C-x ='.


File: emacs,  Node: Major Modes,  Next: Indentation,  Prev: International,  Up: Top

28 Major Modes
**************

Emacs provides many alternative "major modes", each of which customizes
Emacs for editing text of a particular sort.  The major modes are
mutually exclusive, and each buffer has one major mode at any time.
The mode line normally shows the name of the current major mode, in
parentheses (*note Mode Line::).

   The least specialized major mode is called "Fundamental mode".  This
mode has no mode-specific redefinitions or variable settings, so that
each Emacs command behaves in its most general manner, and each user
option variable is in its default state.  For editing text of a
specific type that Emacs knows about, such as Lisp code or English
text, you should switch to the appropriate major mode, such as Lisp
mode or Text mode.

   Selecting a major mode changes the meanings of a few keys to become
more specifically adapted to the language being edited.  The ones that
are changed frequently are <TAB>, <DEL>, and `C-j'.  The prefix key
`C-c' normally contains mode-specific commands.  In addition, the
commands which handle comments use the mode to determine how comments
are to be delimited.  Many major modes redefine the syntactical
properties of characters appearing in the buffer.  *Note Syntax::.

   The major modes fall into three major groups.  The first group
contains modes for normal text, either plain or with mark-up.  It
includes Text mode, HTML mode, SGML mode, TeX mode and Outline mode.
The second group contains modes for specific programming languages.
These include Lisp mode (which has several variants), C mode, Fortran
mode, and others.  The remaining major modes are not intended for use
on users' files; they are used in buffers created for specific purposes
by Emacs, such as Dired mode for buffers made by Dired (*note Dired::),
Mail mode for buffers made by `C-x m' (*note Sending Mail::), and Shell
mode for buffers used for communicating with an inferior shell process
(*note Interactive Shell::).

   Most programming-language major modes specify that only blank lines
separate paragraphs.  This is to make the paragraph commands useful.
(*Note Paragraphs::.)  They also cause Auto Fill mode to use the
definition of <TAB> to indent the new lines it creates.  This is
because most lines in a program are usually indented (*note
Indentation::).

* Menu:

* Choosing Modes::     How major modes are specified or chosen.


File: emacs,  Node: Choosing Modes,  Prev: Major Modes,  Up: Major Modes

28.1 How Major Modes are Chosen
===============================

You can select a major mode explicitly for the current buffer, but most
of the time Emacs determines which mode to use based on the file name
or on special text in the file.

   To explicitly select a new major, you use an `M-x' command.  Take
the name of a major mode and add `-mode' to get the name of the command
to select that mode.  Thus, you can enter Lisp mode by executing `M-x
lisp-mode'.

   When you visit a file, Emacs usually chooses the right major mode
based on the file's name.  For example, files whose names end in `.c'
are edited in C mode.  The correspondence between file names and major
modes is controlled by the variable `auto-mode-alist'.  Its value is a
list in which each element has this form,

     (REGEXP . MODE-FUNCTION)

or this form,

     (REGEXP MODE-FUNCTION FLAG)

For example, one element normally found in the list has the form
`("\\.c\\'" . c-mode)', and it is responsible for selecting C mode for
files whose names end in `.c'.  (Note that `\\' is needed in Lisp
syntax to include a `\' in the string, which must be used to suppress
the special meaning of `.' in regexps.)  If the element has the form
`(REGEXP MODE-FUNCTION FLAG)' and FLAG is non-`nil', then after calling
MODE-FUNCTION, Emacs discards the suffix that matched REGEXP and
searches the list again for another match.

   Sometimes the major mode is determined from the way the file's text
begins.  The variable `magic-mode-alist' controls this.  Its value is a
list of elements of these forms:

     (REGEXP . MODE-FUNCTION)
     (MATCH-FUNCTION . MODE-FUNCTION)

The first form looks like an element of `auto-mode-alist', but it
doesn't work the same: this REGEXP is matched against the text at the
start of the buffer, not against the file name.  Likewise, the second
form calls MATCH-FUNCTION at the beginning of the buffer, and if the
function returns non-`nil', the MODE-FUNCTION is called.
`magic-mode-alist' takes priority over `auto-mode-alist'.

   You can specify the major mode to use for editing a certain file by
special text in the first nonblank line of the file.  The mode name
should appear in this line both preceded and followed by `-*-'.  Other
text may appear on the line as well.  For example,

     ;-*-Lisp-*-

tells Emacs to use Lisp mode.  Such an explicit specification overrides
any defaults based on the file name.  Note how the semicolon is used to
make Lisp treat this line as a comment.

   Another format of mode specification is

     -*- mode: MODENAME;-*-

which allows you to specify local variables as well, like this:

     -*- mode: MODENAME; VAR: VALUE; ... -*-

*Note File Variables::, for more information about this.

   On systems with case-insensitive file names, only a single
case-insensitive search through the `auto-mode-alist' is made.  On
other systems, Emacs normally performs a single case-sensitive search
through the alist, but if you set this variable to a non-`nil' value,
Emacs will perform a second case-insensitive search if the first search
fails.

   When a file's contents begin with `#!', it can serve as an
executable shell command, which works by running an interpreter named on
the file's first line.  The rest of the file is used as input to the
interpreter.

   When you visit such a file in Emacs, if the file's name does not
specify a major mode, Emacs uses the interpreter name on the first line
to choose a mode.  If the first line is the name of a recognized
interpreter program, such as `perl' or `tcl', Emacs uses a mode
appropriate for programs for that interpreter.  The variable
`interpreter-mode-alist' specifies the correspondence between
interpreter program names and major modes.

   When the first line starts with `#!', you cannot (on many systems)
use the `-*-' feature on the first line, because the system would get
confused when running the interpreter.  So Emacs looks for `-*-' on the
second line in such files as well as on the first line.

   When you visit a file that does not specify a major mode to use, or
when you create a new buffer with `C-x b', the variable
`default-major-mode' specifies which major mode to use.  Normally its
value is the symbol `fundamental-mode', which specifies Fundamental
mode.  If `default-major-mode' is `nil', the major mode is taken from
the previously current buffer.

   If you change the major mode of a buffer, you can go back to the
major mode Emacs would choose automatically: use the command `M-x
normal-mode' to do this.  This is the same function that `find-file'
calls to choose the major mode.  It also processes the file's `-*-'
line or local variables list (if any).  *Note File Variables::.

   The commands `C-x C-w' and `set-visited-file-name' change to a new
major mode if the new file name implies a mode (*note Saving::).  (`C-x
C-s' does this too, if the buffer wasn't visiting a file.)  However,
this does not happen if the buffer contents specify a major mode, and
certain "special" major modes do not allow the mode to change.  You can
turn off this mode-changing feature by setting
`change-major-mode-with-file-name' to `nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: Indentation,  Next: Text,  Prev: Major Modes,  Up: Top

29 Indentation
**************

This chapter describes the Emacs commands that add, remove, or adjust
indentation.

`<TAB>'
     Indent the current line "appropriately" in a mode-dependent
     fashion.

`C-j'
     Perform <RET> followed by <TAB> (`newline-and-indent').

`M-^'
     Merge the previous and the current line (`delete-indentation').
     This would cancel the effect of a preceding `C-j'.

`C-M-o'
     Split the current line at point; text on the line after point
     becomes a new line indented to the same column where point is
     located (`split-line').

`M-m'
     Move (forward or back) to the first nonblank character on the
     current line (`back-to-indentation').

`C-M-\'
     Indent lines in the region to the same column (`indent-region').

`C-x <TAB>'
     Shift lines in the region rigidly right or left (`indent-rigidly').

`M-i'
     Indent from point to the next prespecified tab stop column
     (`tab-to-tab-stop').

`M-x indent-relative'
     Indent from point to under an indentation point in the previous
     line.

   Emacs supports four general categories of operations that could all
be called `indentation':

  1. Insert a tab character.  You can type `C-q <TAB>' to do this.

     A tab character is displayed as a stretch of whitespace which
     extends to the next display tab stop position, and the default
     width of a tab stop is eight.  *Note Text Display::, for more
     details.

  2. Insert whitespace up to the next tab stop.  You can set tab stops
     at your choice of column positions, then type `M-i' to advance to
     the next tab stop.  The default tab stop settings have a tab stop
     every eight columns, which means by default `M-i' inserts a tab
     character.  To set the tab stops, use `M-x edit-tab-stops'.

  3. Align a line with the previous line.  More precisely, the command
     `M-x indent-relative' indents the current line under the beginning
     of some word in the previous line.  In Fundamental mode and in Text
     mode, <TAB> runs the command `indent-relative'.

  4. The most sophisticated method is "syntax-driven indentation".
     Most programming languages have an indentation convention.  For
     Lisp code, lines are indented according to their nesting in
     parentheses.  C code uses the same general idea, but many details
     are different.

     Type <TAB> to do syntax-driven indentation, in a mode that
     supports it.  It realigns the current line according with the
     syntax of the preceding lines.  No matter where in the line you
     are when you type <TAB>, it aligns the line as a whole.

   Normally, most of the above methods insert an optimal mix of tabs and
spaces to align to the desired column.  *Note Just Spaces::, for how to
disable use of tabs.  However, `C-q <TAB>' always inserts a tab, even
when tabs are disabled for the indentation commands.

* Menu:

* Indentation Commands::  Various commands and techniques for indentation.
* Tab Stops::             You can set arbitrary "tab stops" and then
                            indent to the next tab stop when you want to.
* Just Spaces::           You can request indentation using just spaces.


File: emacs,  Node: Indentation Commands,  Next: Tab Stops,  Prev: Indentation,  Up: Indentation

29.1 Indentation Commands and Techniques
========================================

To move over the indentation on a line, do `M-m'
(`back-to-indentation').  This command, given anywhere on a line,
positions point at the first nonblank character on the line, if any, or
else at the end of the line.

   To insert an indented line before the current line, do `C-a C-o
<TAB>'.  To make an indented line after the current line, use `C-e C-j'.

   If you just want to insert a tab character in the buffer, you can
type `C-q <TAB>'.

   `C-M-o' (`split-line') moves the text from point to the end of the
line vertically down, so that the current line becomes two lines.
`C-M-o' first moves point forward over any spaces and tabs.  Then it
inserts after point a newline and enough indentation to reach the same
column point is on.  Point remains before the inserted newline; in this
regard, `C-M-o' resembles `C-o'.

   To join two lines cleanly, use the `M-^' (`delete-indentation')
command.  It deletes the indentation at the front of the current line,
and the line boundary as well, replacing them with a single space.  As
a special case (useful for Lisp code) the single space is omitted if
the characters to be joined are consecutive open parentheses or closing
parentheses, or if the junction follows another newline.  To delete
just the indentation of a line, go to the beginning of the line and use
`M-\' (`delete-horizontal-space'), which deletes all spaces and tabs
around the cursor.

   If you have a fill prefix, `M-^' deletes the fill prefix if it
appears after the newline that is deleted.  *Note Fill Prefix::.

   There are also commands for changing the indentation of several lines
at once.  They apply to all the lines that begin in the region.
`C-M-\' (`indent-region') indents each line in the "usual" way, as if
you had typed <TAB> at the beginning of the line.  A numeric argument
specifies the column to indent to, and each line is shifted left or
right so that its first nonblank character appears in that column.
`C-x <TAB>' (`indent-rigidly') moves all of the lines in the region
right by its argument (left, for negative arguments).  The whole group
of lines moves rigidly sideways, which is how the command gets its name.

   To remove all indentation from all of the lines in the region,
invoke `C-x <TAB>' with a large negative argument, such as -1000.

   `M-x indent-relative' indents at point based on the previous line
(actually, the last nonempty line).  It inserts whitespace at point,
moving point, until it is underneath the next indentation point in the
previous line.  An indentation point is the end of a sequence of
whitespace or the end of the line.  If point is farther right than any
indentation point in the previous line, `indent-relative' runs
`tab-to-tab-stop' (*note Tab Stops::), unless it is called with a
numeric argument, in which case it does nothing.

   *Note Format Indentation::, for another way of specifying the
indentation for part of your text.


File: emacs,  Node: Tab Stops,  Next: Just Spaces,  Prev: Indentation Commands,  Up: Indentation

29.2 Tab Stops
==============

For typing in tables, you can use `M-i' (`tab-to-tab-stop').  This
command inserts indentation before point, enough to reach the next tab
stop column.

   You can specify the tab stops used by `M-i'.  They are stored in a
variable called `tab-stop-list', as a list of column-numbers in
increasing order.

   The convenient way to set the tab stops is with `M-x
edit-tab-stops', which creates and selects a buffer containing a
description of the tab stop settings.  You can edit this buffer to
specify different tab stops, and then type `C-c C-c' to make those new
tab stops take effect.  The buffer uses Overwrite mode (*note Minor
Modes::).  `edit-tab-stops' records which buffer was current when you
invoked it, and stores the tab stops back in that buffer; normally all
buffers share the same tab stops and changing them in one buffer
affects all, but if you happen to make `tab-stop-list' local in one
buffer then `edit-tab-stops' in that buffer will edit the local
settings.

   Here is what the text representing the tab stops looks like for
ordinary tab stops every eight columns.

             :       :       :       :       :       :
     0         1         2         3         4
     0123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
     To install changes, type C-c C-c

   The first line contains a colon at each tab stop.  The remaining
lines are present just to help you see where the colons are and know
what to do.

   Note that the tab stops that control `tab-to-tab-stop' have nothing
to do with displaying tab characters in the buffer.  *Note Text
Display::, for more information on that.


File: emacs,  Node: Just Spaces,  Prev: Tab Stops,  Up: Indentation

29.3 Tabs vs. Spaces
====================

Emacs normally uses both tabs and spaces to indent lines.  If you
prefer, all indentation can be made from spaces only.  To request this,
set `indent-tabs-mode' to `nil'.  This is a per-buffer variable, so
altering the variable affects only the current buffer, but there is a
default value which you can change as well.  *Note Locals::.

   A tab is not always displayed in the same way.  By default, tabs are
eight columns wide, but some people like to customize their tools to
use a different tab width.  So by using spaces only, you can make sure
that your file looks the same regardless of the tab width setting.

   There are also commands to convert tabs to spaces or vice versa,
always preserving the columns of all nonblank text.  `M-x tabify' scans
the region for sequences of spaces, and converts sequences of at least
two spaces to tabs if that can be done without changing indentation.
`M-x untabify' changes all tabs in the region to appropriate numbers of
spaces.


File: emacs,  Node: Text,  Next: Programs,  Prev: Indentation,  Up: Top

30 Commands for Human Languages
*******************************

The term "text" has two widespread meanings in our area of the computer
field.  One is data that is a sequence of characters.  Any file that
you edit with Emacs is text, in this sense of the word.  The other
meaning is more restrictive: a sequence of characters in a human
language for humans to read (possibly after processing by a text
formatter), as opposed to a program or binary data.  This chapter is
concerned with editing text in the narrower sense.

   Human languages have syntactic/stylistic conventions that can be
supported or used to advantage by editor commands: conventions involving
words, sentences, paragraphs, and capital letters.  This chapter
describes Emacs commands for all of these things.  There are also
commands for "filling", which means rearranging the lines of a
paragraph to be approximately equal in length.  The commands for moving
over and killing words, sentences and paragraphs, while intended
primarily for editing text, are also often useful for editing programs.

   Emacs has several major modes for editing human-language text.  If
the file contains text pure and simple, use Text mode, which customizes
Emacs in small ways for the syntactic conventions of text.  Outline mode
provides special commands for operating on text with an outline
structure.

   For text which contains embedded commands for text formatters, Emacs
has other major modes, each for a particular formatter.  Thus, for
input to TeX, you would use TeX mode.  For input to groff or nroff, use
Nroff mode.

   Instead of using a text formatter, you can edit formatted text in
WYSIWYG style ("what you see is what you get"), with Enriched mode.
Then the formatting appears on the screen in Emacs while you edit.

   If you need to edit pictures made out of text characters (commonly
referred to as "ASCII art"), use `M-x edit-picture' to enter Picture
mode, a special major mode for editing such pictures.  *Note Picture
Mode::.

   The "automatic typing" features may be useful when writing text.
*note (autotype)Top::.

* Menu:

* Words::	        Moving over and killing words.
* Sentences::	        Moving over and killing sentences.
* Paragraphs::	        Moving over paragraphs.
* Pages::	        Moving over pages.
* Filling::	        Filling or justifying text.
* Case::	        Changing the case of text.
* Text Mode::	        The major modes for editing text files.
* Outline Mode::        Editing outlines.
* TeX Mode::	        Editing input to the formatter TeX.
* HTML Mode::           Editing HTML, SGML, and XML files.
* Nroff Mode::	        Editing input to the formatter nroff.
* Formatted Text::      Editing formatted text directly in WYSIWYG fashion.
* Text Based Tables::   Editing text-based tables in WYSIWYG fashion.


File: emacs,  Node: Words,  Next: Sentences,  Up: Text

30.1 Words
==========

Emacs has commands for moving over or operating on words.  By
convention, the keys for them are all Meta characters.

`M-f'
     Move forward over a word (`forward-word').

`M-b'
     Move backward over a word (`backward-word').

`M-d'
     Kill up to the end of a word (`kill-word').

`M-<DEL>'
     Kill back to the beginning of a word (`backward-kill-word').

`M-@'
     Mark the end of the next word (`mark-word').

`M-t'
     Transpose two words or drag a word across others
     (`transpose-words').

   Notice how these keys form a series that parallels the
character-based `C-f', `C-b', `C-d', <DEL> and `C-t'.  `M-@' is cognate
to `C-@', which is an alias for `C-<SPC>'.

   The commands `M-f' (`forward-word') and `M-b' (`backward-word') move
forward and backward over words.  These Meta characters are thus
analogous to the corresponding control characters, `C-f' and `C-b',
which move over single characters in the text.  The analogy extends to
numeric arguments, which serve as repeat counts.  `M-f' with a negative
argument moves backward, and `M-b' with a negative argument moves
forward.  Forward motion stops right after the last letter of the word,
while backward motion stops right before the first letter.

   `M-d' (`kill-word') kills the word after point.  To be precise, it
kills everything from point to the place `M-f' would move to.  Thus, if
point is in the middle of a word, `M-d' kills just the part after
point.  If some punctuation comes between point and the next word, it
is killed along with the word.  (If you wish to kill only the next word
but not the punctuation before it, simply do `M-f' to get the end, and
kill the word backwards with `M-<DEL>'.)  `M-d' takes arguments just
like `M-f'.

   `M-<DEL>' (`backward-kill-word') kills the word before point.  It
kills everything from point back to where `M-b' would move to.  For
instance, if point is after the space in `FOO, BAR', it kills `FOO, '.
If you wish to kill just `FOO', and not the comma and the space, use
`M-b M-d' instead of `M-<DEL>'.

   `M-t' (`transpose-words') exchanges the word before or containing
point with the following word.  The delimiter characters between the
words do not move.  For example, `FOO, BAR' transposes into `BAR, FOO'
rather than `BAR FOO,'.  *Note Transpose::, for more on transposition.

   To operate on the next N words with an operation which applies
between point and mark, you can either set the mark at point and then
move over the words, or you can use the command `M-@' (`mark-word')
which does not move point, but sets the mark where `M-f' would move to.
`M-@' accepts a numeric argument that says how many words to scan for
the place to put the mark.  In Transient Mark mode, this command
activates the mark.

   The word commands' understanding of word boundaries is controlled by
the syntax table.  Any character can, for example, be declared to be a
word delimiter.  *Note Syntax::.


File: emacs,  Node: Sentences,  Next: Paragraphs,  Prev: Words,  Up: Text

30.2 Sentences
==============

The Emacs commands for manipulating sentences and paragraphs are mostly
on Meta keys, so as to be like the word-handling commands.

`M-a'
     Move back to the beginning of the sentence (`backward-sentence').

`M-e'
     Move forward to the end of the sentence (`forward-sentence').

`M-k'
     Kill forward to the end of the sentence (`kill-sentence').

`C-x <DEL>'
     Kill back to the beginning of the sentence
     (`backward-kill-sentence').

   The commands `M-a' and `M-e' (`backward-sentence' and
`forward-sentence') move to the beginning and end of the current
sentence, respectively.  They were chosen to resemble `C-a' and `C-e',
which move to the beginning and end of a line.  Unlike them, `M-a' and
`M-e' move over successive sentences if repeated.

   Moving backward over a sentence places point just before the first
character of the sentence; moving forward places point right after the
punctuation that ends the sentence.  Neither one moves over the
whitespace at the sentence boundary.

   Just as `C-a' and `C-e' have a kill command, `C-k', to go with them,
so `M-a' and `M-e' have a corresponding kill command `M-k'
(`kill-sentence') which kills from point to the end of the sentence.
With minus one as an argument it kills back to the beginning of the
sentence.  Larger arguments serve as a repeat count.  There is also a
command, `C-x <DEL>' (`backward-kill-sentence'), for killing back to
the beginning of a sentence.  This command is useful when you change
your mind in the middle of composing text.

   The sentence commands assume that you follow the American typist's
convention of putting two spaces at the end of a sentence; they consider
a sentence to end wherever there is a `.', `?' or `!' followed by the
end of a line or two spaces, with any number of `)', `]', `'', or `"'
characters allowed in between.  A sentence also begins or ends wherever
a paragraph begins or ends.  It is useful to follow this convention,
because it makes a distinction between periods that end a sentence and
periods that indicate abbreviations; that enables the Emacs sentence
commands to distinguish, too.  These commands do not stop for periods
that indicate abbreviations.

   If you want to use just one space between sentences, you can set the
variable `sentence-end-double-space' to `nil' to make the sentence
commands stop for single spaces.  However, this mode has a drawback:
there is no way to distinguish between periods that end sentences and
those that indicate abbreviations.  For convenient and reliable
editing, we therefore recommend you follow the two-space convention.
The variable `sentence-end-double-space' also affects filling (*note
Fill Commands::) in related ways.

   The variable `sentence-end' controls how to recognize the end of a
sentence.  If non-`nil', it is a regexp that matches the last few
characters of a sentence, together with the whitespace following the
sentence.  If the value is `nil', the default, then Emacs computes the
regexp according to various criteria such as the value of
`sentence-end-double-space'.  *Note Regexp Example::, for a detailed
explanation of one of the regular expressions Emacs uses for this
purpose.

   Some languages do not use periods to indicate the end of a sentence.
For example, sentences in Thai end with a double space but without a
period.  Set the variable `sentence-end-without-period' to `t' in such
cases.


File: emacs,  Node: Paragraphs,  Next: Pages,  Prev: Sentences,  Up: Text

30.3 Paragraphs
===============

The Emacs commands for manipulating paragraphs are also on Meta keys.

`M-{'
     Move back to previous paragraph beginning (`backward-paragraph').

`M-}'
     Move forward to next paragraph end (`forward-paragraph').

`M-h'
     Put point and mark around this or next paragraph
     (`mark-paragraph').

   `M-{' moves to the beginning of the current or previous paragraph,
while `M-}' moves to the end of the current or next paragraph.  Blank
lines and text-formatter command lines separate paragraphs and are not
considered part of any paragraph.  If there is a blank line before the
paragraph, `M-{' moves to the blank line, because that is convenient in
practice.

   In Text mode, an indented line is not a paragraph break.  If you
want indented lines to have this effect, use Paragraph-Indent Text mode
instead.  *Note Text Mode::.

   In major modes for programs, paragraphs begin and end only at blank
lines.  This makes the paragraph commands useful, even though there are
no paragraphs as such in a program.

   When you have set a fill prefix, then paragraphs are delimited by
all lines which don't start with the fill prefix.  *Note Filling::.

   When you wish to operate on a paragraph, you can use the command
`M-h' (`mark-paragraph') to set the region around it.  Thus, for
example, `M-h C-w' kills the paragraph around or after point.  The
`M-h' command puts point at the beginning and mark at the end of the
paragraph point was in.  In Transient Mark mode, it activates the mark.
If point is between paragraphs (in a run of blank lines, or at a
boundary), the paragraph following point is surrounded by point and
mark.  If there are blank lines preceding the first line of the
paragraph, one of these blank lines is included in the region.

   The precise definition of a paragraph boundary is controlled by the
variables `paragraph-separate' and `paragraph-start'.  The value of
`paragraph-start' is a regexp that should match any line that either
starts or separates paragraphs.  The value of `paragraph-separate' is
another regexp that should match only lines that separate paragraphs
without being part of any paragraph (for example, blank lines).  Lines
that start a new paragraph and are contained in it must match only
`paragraph-start', not `paragraph-separate'.  Each regular expression
must match at the left margin.  For example, in Fundamental mode,
`paragraph-start' is `"\f\\|[ \t]*$"', and `paragraph-separate' is
`"[ \t\f]*$"'.

   Normally it is desirable for page boundaries to separate paragraphs.
The default values of these variables recognize the usual separator for
pages.


File: emacs,  Node: Pages,  Next: Filling,  Prev: Paragraphs,  Up: Text

30.4 Pages
==========

Files are often thought of as divided into "pages" by the "formfeed"
character (ASCII control-L, octal code 014).  When you print hardcopy
for a file, this character forces a page break; thus, each page of the
file goes on a separate page on paper.  Most Emacs commands treat the
page-separator character just like any other character: you can insert
it with `C-q C-l', and delete it with <DEL>.  Thus, you are free to
paginate your file or not.  However, since pages are often meaningful
divisions of the file, Emacs provides commands to move over them and
operate on them.

`C-x ['
     Move point to previous page boundary (`backward-page').

`C-x ]'
     Move point to next page boundary (`forward-page').

`C-x C-p'
     Put point and mark around this page (or another page)
     (`mark-page').

`C-x l'
     Count the lines in this page (`count-lines-page').

   The `C-x [' (`backward-page') command moves point to immediately
after the previous page delimiter.  If point is already right after a
page delimiter, it skips that one and stops at the previous one.  A
numeric argument serves as a repeat count.  The `C-x ]' (`forward-page')
command moves forward past the next page delimiter.

   The `C-x C-p' command (`mark-page') puts point at the beginning of
the current page and the mark at the end.  The page delimiter at the
end is included (the mark follows it).  The page delimiter at the front
is excluded (point follows it).  In Transient Mark mode, this command
activates the mark.

   `C-x C-p C-w' is a handy way to kill a page to move it elsewhere.
If you move to another page delimiter with `C-x [' and `C-x ]', then
yank the killed page, all the pages will be properly delimited once
again.  The reason `C-x C-p' includes only the following page delimiter
in the region is to ensure that.

   A numeric argument to `C-x C-p' is used to specify which page to go
to, relative to the current one.  Zero means the current page.  One
means the next page, and -1 means the previous one.

   The `C-x l' command (`count-lines-page') is good for deciding where
to break a page in two.  It displays in the echo area the total number
of lines in the current page, and then divides it up into those
preceding the current line and those following, as in

     Page has 96 (72+25) lines

Notice that the sum is off by one; this is correct if point is not at
the beginning of a line.

   The variable `page-delimiter' controls where pages begin.  Its value
is a regexp that matches the beginning of a line that separates pages.
The normal value of this variable is `"^\f"', which matches a formfeed
character at the beginning of a line.


File: emacs,  Node: Filling,  Next: Case,  Prev: Pages,  Up: Text

30.5 Filling Text
=================

"Filling" text means breaking it up into lines that fit a specified
width.  Emacs does filling in two ways.  In Auto Fill mode, inserting
text with self-inserting characters also automatically fills it.  There
are also explicit fill commands that you can use when editing text
leaves it unfilled.  When you edit formatted text, you can specify a
style of filling for each portion of the text (*note Formatted Text::).

* Menu:

* Auto Fill::	        Auto Fill mode breaks long lines automatically.
* Fill Commands::       Commands to refill paragraphs and center lines.
* Fill Prefix::	        Filling paragraphs that are indented
                          or in a comment, etc.
* Adaptive Fill::       How Emacs can determine the fill prefix automatically.
* Refill::              Keeping paragraphs filled.
* Longlines::           Editing text with very long lines.


File: emacs,  Node: Auto Fill,  Next: Fill Commands,  Up: Filling

30.5.1 Auto Fill Mode
---------------------

"Auto Fill" mode is a minor mode in which lines are broken
automatically when they become too wide.  Breaking happens only when
you type a <SPC> or <RET>.

`M-x auto-fill-mode'
     Enable or disable Auto Fill mode.

`<SPC>'
`<RET>'
     In Auto Fill mode, break lines when appropriate.

   `M-x auto-fill-mode' turns Auto Fill mode on if it was off, or off
if it was on.  With a positive numeric argument it always turns Auto
Fill mode on, and with a negative argument always turns it off.  You can
see when Auto Fill mode is in effect by the presence of the word `Fill'
in the mode line, inside the parentheses.  Auto Fill mode is a minor
mode which is enabled or disabled for each buffer individually.  *Note
Minor Modes::.

   In Auto Fill mode, lines are broken automatically at spaces when they
get longer than the desired width.  Line breaking and rearrangement
takes place only when you type <SPC> or <RET>.  If you wish to insert a
space or newline without permitting line-breaking, type `C-q <SPC>' or
`C-q C-j' (recall that a newline is really a control-J).  Also, `C-o'
inserts a newline without line breaking.

   Auto Fill mode works well with programming-language modes, because it
indents new lines with <TAB>.  If a line ending in a comment gets too
long, the text of the comment is split into two comment lines.
Optionally, new comment delimiters are inserted at the end of the first
line and the beginning of the second so that each line is a separate
comment; the variable `comment-multi-line' controls the choice (*note
Comments::).

   Adaptive filling (*note Adaptive Fill::) works for Auto Filling as
well as for explicit fill commands.  It takes a fill prefix
automatically from the second or first line of a paragraph.

   Auto Fill mode does not refill entire paragraphs; it can break lines
but cannot merge lines.  So editing in the middle of a paragraph can
result in a paragraph that is not correctly filled.  The easiest way to
make the paragraph properly filled again is usually with the explicit
fill commands.  *Note Fill Commands::.

   Many users like Auto Fill mode and want to use it in all text files.
The section on init files says how to arrange this permanently for
yourself.  *Note Init File::.


File: emacs,  Node: Fill Commands,  Next: Fill Prefix,  Prev: Auto Fill,  Up: Filling

30.5.2 Explicit Fill Commands
-----------------------------

`M-q'
     Fill current paragraph (`fill-paragraph').

`C-x f'
     Set the fill column (`set-fill-column').

`M-x fill-region'
     Fill each paragraph in the region (`fill-region').

`M-x fill-region-as-paragraph'
     Fill the region, considering it as one paragraph.

`M-s'
     Center a line.

   To refill a paragraph, use the command `M-q' (`fill-paragraph').
This operates on the paragraph that point is inside, or the one after
point if point is between paragraphs.  Refilling works by removing all
the line-breaks, then inserting new ones where necessary.

   To refill many paragraphs, use `M-x fill-region', which finds the
paragraphs in the region and fills each of them.

   `M-q' and `fill-region' use the same criteria as `M-h' for finding
paragraph boundaries (*note Paragraphs::).  For more control, you can
use `M-x fill-region-as-paragraph', which refills everything between
point and mark as a single paragraph.  This command deletes any blank
lines within the region, so separate blocks of text end up combined
into one block.

   A numeric argument to `M-q' tells it to "justify" the text as well
as filling it.  This means that extra spaces are inserted to make the
right margin line up exactly at the fill column.  To remove the extra
spaces, use `M-q' with no argument.  (Likewise for `fill-region'.)
Another way to control justification, and choose other styles of
filling, is with the `justification' text property; see *Note Format
Justification::.

   The command `M-s' (`center-line') centers the current line within
the current fill column.  With an argument N, it centers N lines
individually and moves past them.  This binding is made by Text mode
and is available only in that and related modes (*note Text Mode::).

   The maximum line width for filling is in the variable `fill-column'.
Altering the value of `fill-column' makes it local to the current
buffer; until that time, the default value is in effect.  The default
is initially 70.  *Note Locals::.  The easiest way to set `fill-column'
is to use the command `C-x f' (`set-fill-column').  With a numeric
argument, it uses that as the new fill column.  With just `C-u' as
argument, it sets `fill-column' to the current horizontal position of
point.

   Emacs commands normally consider a period followed by two spaces or
by a newline as the end of a sentence; a period followed by just one
space indicates an abbreviation and not the end of a sentence.  To
preserve the distinction between these two ways of using a period, the
fill commands do not break a line after a period followed by just one
space.

   If the variable `sentence-end-double-space' is `nil', the fill
commands expect and leave just one space at the end of a sentence.
Ordinarily this variable is `t', so the fill commands insist on two
spaces for the end of a sentence, as explained above.  *Note
Sentences::.

   If the variable `colon-double-space' is non-`nil', the fill commands
put two spaces after a colon.

   The variable `fill-nobreak-predicate' is a hook (an abnormal hook,
*note Hooks::) specifying additional conditions where line-breaking is
not allowed.  Each function is called with no arguments, with point at
a place where Emacs is considering breaking the line.  If a function
returns a non-`nil' value, then that's a bad place to break the line.
Two standard functions you can use are `fill-single-word-nobreak-p'
(don't break after the first word of a sentence or before the last) and
`fill-french-nobreak-p' (don't break after `(' or before `)', `:' or
`?').


File: emacs,  Node: Fill Prefix,  Next: Adaptive Fill,  Prev: Fill Commands,  Up: Filling

30.5.3 The Fill Prefix
----------------------

To fill a paragraph in which each line starts with a special marker
(which might be a few spaces, giving an indented paragraph), you can use
the "fill prefix" feature.  The fill prefix is a string that Emacs
expects every line to start with, and which is not included in filling.
You can specify a fill prefix explicitly; Emacs can also deduce the
fill prefix automatically (*note Adaptive Fill::).

`C-x .'
     Set the fill prefix (`set-fill-prefix').

`M-q'
     Fill a paragraph using current fill prefix (`fill-paragraph').

`M-x fill-individual-paragraphs'
     Fill the region, considering each change of indentation as
     starting a new paragraph.

`M-x fill-nonuniform-paragraphs'
     Fill the region, considering only paragraph-separator lines as
     starting a new paragraph.

   To specify a fill prefix for the current buffer, move to a line that
starts with the desired prefix, put point at the end of the prefix, and
type `C-x .' (`set-fill-prefix').  (That's a period after the `C-x'.)
To turn off the fill prefix, specify an empty prefix: type `C-x .' with
point at the beginning of a line.

   When a fill prefix is in effect, the fill commands remove the fill
prefix from each line of the paragraph before filling and insert it on
each line after filling.  (The beginning of the first line of the
paragraph is left unchanged, since often that is intentionally
different.)  Auto Fill mode also inserts the fill prefix automatically
when it makes a new line.  The `C-o' command inserts the fill prefix on
new lines it creates, when you use it at the beginning of a line (*note
Blank Lines::).  Conversely, the command `M-^' deletes the prefix (if
it occurs) after the newline that it deletes (*note Indentation::).

   For example, if `fill-column' is 40 and you set the fill prefix to
`;; ', then `M-q' in the following text

     ;; This is an
     ;; example of a paragraph
     ;; inside a Lisp-style comment.

produces this:

     ;; This is an example of a paragraph
     ;; inside a Lisp-style comment.

   Lines that do not start with the fill prefix are considered to start
paragraphs, both in `M-q' and the paragraph commands; this gives good
results for paragraphs with hanging indentation (every line indented
except the first one).  Lines which are blank or indented once the
prefix is removed also separate or start paragraphs; this is what you
want if you are writing multi-paragraph comments with a comment
delimiter on each line.

   You can use `M-x fill-individual-paragraphs' to set the fill prefix
for each paragraph automatically.  This command divides the region into
paragraphs, treating every change in the amount of indentation as the
start of a new paragraph, and fills each of these paragraphs.  Thus,
all the lines in one "paragraph" have the same amount of indentation.
That indentation serves as the fill prefix for that paragraph.

   `M-x fill-nonuniform-paragraphs' is a similar command that divides
the region into paragraphs in a different way.  It considers only
paragraph-separating lines (as defined by `paragraph-separate') as
starting a new paragraph.  Since this means that the lines of one
paragraph may have different amounts of indentation, the fill prefix
used is the smallest amount of indentation of any of the lines of the
paragraph.  This gives good results with styles that indent a
paragraph's first line more or less that the rest of the paragraph.

   The fill prefix is stored in the variable `fill-prefix'.  Its value
is a string, or `nil' when there is no fill prefix.  This is a
per-buffer variable; altering the variable affects only the current
buffer, but there is a default value which you can change as well.
*Note Locals::.

   The `indentation' text property provides another way to control the
amount of indentation paragraphs receive.  *Note Format Indentation::.


File: emacs,  Node: Adaptive Fill,  Next: Refill,  Prev: Fill Prefix,  Up: Filling

30.5.4 Adaptive Filling
-----------------------

The fill commands can deduce the proper fill prefix for a paragraph
automatically in certain cases: either whitespace or certain punctuation
characters at the beginning of a line are propagated to all lines of the
paragraph.

   If the paragraph has two or more lines, the fill prefix is taken from
the paragraph's second line, but only if it appears on the first line as
well.

   If a paragraph has just one line, fill commands _may_ take a prefix
from that line.  The decision is complicated because there are three
reasonable things to do in such a case:

   * Use the first line's prefix on all the lines of the paragraph.

   * Indent subsequent lines with whitespace, so that they line up
     under the text that follows the prefix on the first line, but
     don't actually copy the prefix from the first line.

   * Don't do anything special with the second and following lines.

   All three of these styles of formatting are commonly used.  So the
fill commands try to determine what you would like, based on the prefix
that appears and on the major mode.  Here is how.

   If the prefix found on the first line matches
`adaptive-fill-first-line-regexp', or if it appears to be a
comment-starting sequence (this depends on the major mode), then the
prefix found is used for filling the paragraph, provided it would not
act as a paragraph starter on subsequent lines.

   Otherwise, the prefix found is converted to an equivalent number of
spaces, and those spaces are used as the fill prefix for the rest of the
lines, provided they would not act as a paragraph starter on subsequent
lines.

   In Text mode, and other modes where only blank lines and page
delimiters separate paragraphs, the prefix chosen by adaptive filling
never acts as a paragraph starter, so it can always be used for filling.

   The variable `adaptive-fill-regexp' determines what kinds of line
beginnings can serve as a fill prefix: any characters at the start of
the line that match this regular expression are used.  If you set the
variable `adaptive-fill-mode' to `nil', the fill prefix is never chosen
automatically.

   You can specify more complex ways of choosing a fill prefix
automatically by setting the variable `adaptive-fill-function' to a
function.  This function is called with point after the left margin of a
line, and it should return the appropriate fill prefix based on that
line.  If it returns `nil', `adaptive-fill-regexp' gets a chance to
find a prefix.


File: emacs,  Node: Refill,  Next: Longlines,  Prev: Adaptive Fill,  Up: Filling

30.5.5 Refill Mode
------------------

Refill minor mode provides support for keeping paragraphs filled as you
type or modify them in other ways.  It provides an effect similar to
typical word processor behavior.  This works by running a
paragraph-filling command at suitable times.

   To toggle the use of Refill mode in the current buffer, type `M-x
refill-mode'.  When you are typing text, only characters which normally
trigger auto filling, like the space character, will trigger refilling.
This is to avoid making it too slow.  Apart from self-inserting
characters, other commands which modify the text cause refilling.

   The current implementation is preliminary and not robust.  You can
get better "line wrapping" behavior using Longlines mode.  *Note
Longlines::.  However, Longlines mode has an important side-effect: the
newlines that it inserts for you are not saved to disk, so the files
that you make with Longlines mode will appear to be completely unfilled
if you edit them without Longlines mode.


File: emacs,  Node: Longlines,  Prev: Refill,  Up: Filling

30.5.6 Long Lines Mode
----------------------

Long Lines mode is a minor mode for "word wrapping"; it lets you edit
"unfilled" text files, which Emacs would normally display as a bunch of
extremely long lines.  Many text editors, such as those built into many
web browsers, normally do word wrapping.

   To enable Long Lines mode, type `M-x longlines-mode'.  If the text
is full of long lines, this will "wrap" them immediately--i.e., break
up to fit in the window.  As you edit the text, Long Lines mode
automatically re-wraps lines by inserting or deleting "soft newlines"
as necessary (*note Hard and Soft Newlines::.)  These soft newlines
won't show up when you save the buffer into a file, or when you copy
the text into the kill ring, clipboard, or a register.

   Word wrapping is _not_ the same as ordinary filling (*note Fill
Commands::).  It does not contract multiple spaces into a single space,
recognize fill prefixes (*note Fill Prefix::), or perform adaptive
filling (*note Adaptive Fill::).  The reason for this is that a wrapped
line is still, conceptually, a single line.  Each soft newline is
equivalent to exactly one space in that long line, and vice versa.
However, you can still call filling functions such as `M-q', and these
will work as expected, inserting soft newlines that won't show up on
disk or when the text is copied.  You can even rely entirely on the
normal fill commands by turning off automatic line wrapping, with `C-u
M-x longlines-auto-wrap'.  To turn automatic line wrapping back on,
type `M-x longlines-auto-wrap'.

   Type `RET' to insert a hard newline, one which automatic refilling
will not remove.  If you want to see where all the hard newlines are,
type `M-x longlines-show-hard-newlines'.  This will mark each hard
newline with a special symbol.  The same command with a prefix argument
turns this display off.

   Long Lines mode does not change normal text files that are already
filled, since the existing newlines are considered hard newlines.
Before Long Lines can do anything, you need to transform each paragraph
into a long line.  One way is to set `fill-column' to a large number
(e.g., `C-u 9999 C-x f'), re-fill all the paragraphs, and then set
`fill-column' back to its original value.


File: emacs,  Node: Case,  Next: Text Mode,  Prev: Filling,  Up: Text

30.6 Case Conversion Commands
=============================

Emacs has commands for converting either a single word or any arbitrary
range of text to upper case or to lower case.

`M-l'
     Convert following word to lower case (`downcase-word').

`M-u'
     Convert following word to upper case (`upcase-word').

`M-c'
     Capitalize the following word (`capitalize-word').

`C-x C-l'
     Convert region to lower case (`downcase-region').

`C-x C-u'
     Convert region to upper case (`upcase-region').

   The word conversion commands are the most useful.  `M-l'
(`downcase-word') converts the word after point to lower case, moving
past it.  Thus, repeating `M-l' converts successive words.  `M-u'
(`upcase-word') converts to all capitals instead, while `M-c'
(`capitalize-word') puts the first letter of the word into upper case
and the rest into lower case.  All these commands convert several words
at once if given an argument.  They are especially convenient for
converting a large amount of text from all upper case to mixed case,
because you can move through the text using `M-l', `M-u' or `M-c' on
each word as appropriate, occasionally using `M-f' instead to skip a
word.

   When given a negative argument, the word case conversion commands
apply to the appropriate number of words before point, but do not move
point.  This is convenient when you have just typed a word in the wrong
case: you can give the case conversion command and continue typing.

   If a word case conversion command is given in the middle of a word,
it applies only to the part of the word which follows point.  (This is
comparable to what `M-d' (`kill-word') does.)  With a negative
argument, case conversion applies only to the part of the word before
point.

   The other case conversion commands are `C-x C-u' (`upcase-region')
and `C-x C-l' (`downcase-region'), which convert everything between
point and mark to the specified case.  Point and mark do not move.

   The region case conversion commands `upcase-region' and
`downcase-region' are normally disabled.  This means that they ask for
confirmation if you try to use them.  When you confirm, you may enable
the command, which means it will not ask for confirmation again.  *Note
Disabling::.


File: emacs,  Node: Text Mode,  Next: Outline Mode,  Prev: Case,  Up: Text

30.7 Text Mode
==============

When you edit files of text in a human language, it's more convenient
to use Text mode rather than Fundamental mode.  To enter Text mode, type
`M-x text-mode'.

   In Text mode, only blank lines and page delimiters separate
paragraphs.  As a result, paragraphs can be indented, and adaptive
filling determines what indentation to use when filling a paragraph.
*Note Adaptive Fill::.

   Text mode defines <TAB> to run `indent-relative' (*note
Indentation::), so that you can conveniently indent a line like the
previous line.

   Text mode turns off the features concerned with comments except when
you explicitly invoke them.  It changes the syntax table so that
single-quotes are considered part of words.  However, if a word starts
with single-quotes, these are treated as a prefix for purposes such as
capitalization.  That is, `M-c' will convert `'hello'' into `'Hello'',
as expected.

   If you indent the first lines of paragraphs, then you should use
Paragraph-Indent Text mode rather than Text mode.  In this mode, you do
not need to have blank lines between paragraphs, because the first-line
indentation is sufficient to start a paragraph; however paragraphs in
which every line is indented are not supported.  Use `M-x
paragraph-indent-text-mode' to enter this mode.  Use `M-x
paragraph-indent-minor-mode' to enable an equivalent minor mode in
situations where you can't change the major mode--in mail composition,
for instance.

   Text mode, and all the modes based on it, define `M-<TAB>' as the
command `ispell-complete-word', which performs completion of the
partial word in the buffer before point, using the spelling dictionary
as the space of possible words.  *Note Spelling::.  If your window
manager defines `M-<TAB>' to switch windows, you can type `<ESC> <TAB>'
or `C-M-i'.

   Entering Text mode runs the hook `text-mode-hook'.  Other major
modes related to Text mode also run this hook, followed by hooks of
their own; this includes Paragraph-Indent Text mode, Nroff mode, TeX
mode, Outline mode, and Mail mode.  Hook functions on `text-mode-hook'
can look at the value of `major-mode' to see which of these modes is
actually being entered.  *Note Hooks::.

   Emacs provides two other modes for editing text that is to be passed
through a text formatter to produce fancy formatted printed output.
*Note Nroff Mode::, for editing input to the formatter nroff.  *Note
TeX Mode: TeX Mode, for editing input to the formatter TeX.

   Another mode is used for editing outlines.  It allows you to view the
text at various levels of detail.  You can view either the outline
headings alone or both headings and text; you can also hide some of the
headings at lower levels from view to make the high level structure more
visible.  *Note Outline Mode::.


File: emacs,  Node: Outline Mode,  Next: TeX Mode,  Prev: Text Mode,  Up: Text

30.8 Outline Mode
=================

Outline mode is a major mode much like Text mode but intended for
editing outlines.  It allows you to make parts of the text temporarily
invisible so that you can see the outline structure.  Type `M-x
outline-mode' to switch to Outline mode as the major mode of the current
buffer.

   When Outline mode makes a line invisible, the line does not appear
on the screen.  The screen appears exactly as if the invisible line
were deleted, except that an ellipsis (three periods in a row) appears
at the end of the previous visible line.  (Multiple consecutive
invisible lines produce just one ellipsis.)

   Editing commands that operate on lines, such as `C-n' and `C-p',
treat the text of the invisible line as part of the previous visible
line.  Killing the ellipsis at the end of a visible line really kills
all the following invisible lines.

   Outline minor mode provides the same commands as the major mode,
Outline mode, but you can use it in conjunction with other major modes.
Type `M-x outline-minor-mode' to enable the Outline minor mode in the
current buffer.  You can also specify this in the text of a file, with
a file local variable of the form `mode: outline-minor' (*note File
Variables::).

   The major mode, Outline mode, provides special key bindings on the
`C-c' prefix.  Outline minor mode provides similar bindings with `C-c
@' as the prefix; this is to reduce the conflicts with the major mode's
special commands.  (The variable `outline-minor-mode-prefix' controls
the prefix used.)

   Entering Outline mode runs the hook `text-mode-hook' followed by the
hook `outline-mode-hook' (*note Hooks::).

* Menu:

* Format: Outline Format.	   What the text of an outline looks like.
* Motion: Outline Motion.	   Special commands for moving through
                                     outlines.
* Visibility: Outline Visibility.  Commands to control what is visible.
* Views: Outline Views.            Outlines and multiple views.
* Foldout::                        Folding means zooming in on outlines.


File: emacs,  Node: Outline Format,  Next: Outline Motion,  Up: Outline Mode

30.8.1 Format of Outlines
-------------------------

Outline mode assumes that the lines in the buffer are of two types:
"heading lines" and "body lines".  A heading line represents a topic in
the outline.  Heading lines start with one or more stars; the number of
stars determines the depth of the heading in the outline structure.
Thus, a heading line with one star is a major topic; all the heading
lines with two stars between it and the next one-star heading are its
subtopics; and so on.  Any line that is not a heading line is a body
line.  Body lines belong with the preceding heading line.  Here is an
example:

     * Food
     This is the body,
     which says something about the topic of food.

     ** Delicious Food
     This is the body of the second-level header.

     ** Distasteful Food
     This could have
     a body too, with
     several lines.

     *** Dormitory Food

     * Shelter
     Another first-level topic with its header line.

   A heading line together with all following body lines is called
collectively an "entry".  A heading line together with all following
deeper heading lines and their body lines is called a "subtree".

   You can customize the criterion for distinguishing heading lines by
setting the variable `outline-regexp'.  (The recommended ways to do
this are in a major mode function or with a file local variable.)  Any
line whose beginning has a match for this regexp is considered a
heading line.  Matches that start within a line (not at the left
margin) do not count.

   The length of the matching text determines the level of the heading;
longer matches make a more deeply nested level.  Thus, for example, if
a text formatter has commands `@chapter', `@section' and `@subsection'
to divide the document into chapters and sections, you could make those
lines count as heading lines by setting `outline-regexp' to
`"@chap\\|@\\(sub\\)*section"'.  Note the trick: the two words
`chapter' and `section' are equally long, but by defining the regexp to
match only `chap' we ensure that the length of the text matched on a
chapter heading is shorter, so that Outline mode will know that
sections are contained in chapters.  This works as long as no other
command starts with `@chap'.

   You can explicitly specify a rule for calculating the level of a
heading line by setting the variable `outline-level'.  The value of
`outline-level' should be a function that takes no arguments and
returns the level of the current heading.  The recommended ways to set
this variable are in a major mode command or with a file local variable.


File: emacs,  Node: Outline Motion,  Next: Outline Visibility,  Prev: Outline Format,  Up: Outline Mode

30.8.2 Outline Motion Commands
------------------------------

Outline mode provides special motion commands that move backward and
forward to heading lines.

`C-c C-n'
     Move point to the next visible heading line
     (`outline-next-visible-heading').

`C-c C-p'
     Move point to the previous visible heading line
     (`outline-previous-visible-heading').

`C-c C-f'
     Move point to the next visible heading line at the same level as
     the one point is on (`outline-forward-same-level').

`C-c C-b'
     Move point to the previous visible heading line at the same level
     (`outline-backward-same-level').

`C-c C-u'
     Move point up to a lower-level (more inclusive) visible heading
     line (`outline-up-heading').

   `C-c C-n' (`outline-next-visible-heading') moves down to the next
heading line.  `C-c C-p' (`outline-previous-visible-heading') moves
similarly backward.  Both accept numeric arguments as repeat counts.
The names emphasize that invisible headings are skipped, but this is
not really a special feature.  All editing commands that look for lines
ignore the invisible lines automatically.

   More powerful motion commands understand the level structure of
headings.  `C-c C-f' (`outline-forward-same-level') and `C-c C-b'
(`outline-backward-same-level') move from one heading line to another
visible heading at the same depth in the outline.  `C-c C-u'
(`outline-up-heading') moves backward to another heading that is less
deeply nested.


File: emacs,  Node: Outline Visibility,  Next: Outline Views,  Prev: Outline Motion,  Up: Outline Mode

30.8.3 Outline Visibility Commands
----------------------------------

The other special commands of outline mode are used to make lines
visible or invisible.  Their names all start with `hide' or `show'.
Most of them fall into pairs of opposites.  They are not undoable;
instead, you can undo right past them.  Making lines visible or
invisible is simply not recorded by the undo mechanism.

   Many of these commands act on the "current" heading line.  If point
is on a heading line, that is the current heading line; if point is on
a body line, the current heading line is the nearest preceding header
line.

`C-c C-c'
     Make the current heading line's body invisible (`hide-entry').

`C-c C-e'
     Make the current heading line's body visible (`show-entry').

`C-c C-d'
     Make everything under the current heading invisible, not including
     the heading itself (`hide-subtree').

`C-c C-s'
     Make everything under the current heading visible, including body,
     subheadings, and their bodies (`show-subtree').

`C-c C-l'
     Make the body of the current heading line, and of all its
     subheadings, invisible (`hide-leaves').

`C-c C-k'
     Make all subheadings of the current heading line, at all levels,
     visible (`show-branches').

`C-c C-i'
     Make immediate subheadings (one level down) of the current heading
     line visible (`show-children').

`C-c C-t'
     Make all body lines in the buffer invisible (`hide-body').

`C-c C-a'
     Make all lines in the buffer visible (`show-all').

`C-c C-q'
     Hide everything except the top N levels of heading lines
     (`hide-sublevels').

`C-c C-o'
     Hide everything except for the heading or body that point is in,
     plus the headings leading up from there to the top level of the
     outline (`hide-other').

   Two commands that are exact opposites are `C-c C-c' (`hide-entry')
and `C-c C-e' (`show-entry').  They apply to the body lines directly
following the current heading line.  Subheadings and their bodies are
not affected.

   Two more powerful opposites are `C-c C-d' (`hide-subtree') and `C-c
C-s' (`show-subtree').  Both apply to the current heading line's
"subtree": its body, all its subheadings, both direct and indirect, and
all of their bodies.  In other words, the subtree contains everything
following the current heading line, up to and not including the next
heading of the same or higher rank.

   Intermediate between a visible subtree and an invisible one is having
all the subheadings visible but none of the body.  There are two
commands for doing this, depending on whether you want to hide the
bodies or make the subheadings visible.  They are `C-c C-l'
(`hide-leaves') and `C-c C-k' (`show-branches').

   A little weaker than `show-branches' is `C-c C-i' (`show-children').
It makes just the direct subheadings visible--those one level down.
Deeper subheadings remain invisible, if they were invisible.

   Two commands have a blanket effect on the whole file.  `C-c C-t'
(`hide-body') makes all body lines invisible, so that you see just the
outline structure (as a special exception, it will not hide lines at
the top of the file, preceding the first header line, even though these
are technically body lines).  `C-c C-a' (`show-all') makes all lines
visible.  These commands can be thought of as a pair of opposites even
though `C-c C-a' applies to more than just body lines.

   The command `C-c C-q' (`hide-sublevels') hides all but the top level
headings.  With a numeric argument N, it hides everything except the
top N levels of heading lines.

   The command `C-c C-o' (`hide-other') hides everything except the
heading and body text that point is in, plus its parents (the headers
leading up from there to top level in the outline) and the top level
headings.

   When incremental search finds text that is hidden by Outline mode,
it makes that part of the buffer visible.  If you exit the search at
that position, the text remains visible.  You can also automatically
make text visible as you navigate in it by using `M-x reveal-mode'.


File: emacs,  Node: Outline Views,  Next: Foldout,  Prev: Outline Visibility,  Up: Outline Mode

30.8.4 Viewing One Outline in Multiple Views
--------------------------------------------

You can display two views of a single outline at the same time, in
different windows.  To do this, you must create an indirect buffer using
`M-x make-indirect-buffer'.  The first argument of this command is the
existing outline buffer name, and its second argument is the name to
use for the new indirect buffer.  *Note Indirect Buffers::.

   Once the indirect buffer exists, you can display it in a window in
the normal fashion, with `C-x 4 b' or other Emacs commands.  The Outline
mode commands to show and hide parts of the text operate on each buffer
independently; as a result, each buffer can have its own view.  If you
want more than two views on the same outline, create additional indirect
buffers.


File: emacs,  Node: Foldout,  Prev: Outline Views,  Up: Outline Mode

30.8.5 Folding Editing
----------------------

The Foldout package extends Outline mode and Outline minor mode with
"folding" commands.  The idea of folding is that you zoom in on a
nested portion of the outline, while hiding its relatives at higher
levels.

   Consider an Outline mode buffer with all the text and subheadings
under level-1 headings hidden.  To look at what is hidden under one of
these headings, you could use `C-c C-e' (`M-x show-entry') to expose
the body, or `C-c C-i' to expose the child (level-2) headings.

   With Foldout, you use `C-c C-z' (`M-x foldout-zoom-subtree').  This
exposes the body and child subheadings, and narrows the buffer so that
only the level-1 heading, the body and the level-2 headings are
visible.  Now to look under one of the level-2 headings, position the
cursor on it and use `C-c C-z' again.  This exposes the level-2 body
and its level-3 child subheadings and narrows the buffer again.  Zooming
in on successive subheadings can be done as much as you like.  A string
in the mode line shows how deep you've gone.

   When zooming in on a heading, to see only the child subheadings
specify a numeric argument: `C-u C-c C-z'.  The number of levels of
children can be specified too (compare `M-x show-children'), e.g. `M-2
C-c C-z' exposes two levels of child subheadings.  Alternatively, the
body can be specified with a negative argument: `M-- C-c C-z'.  The
whole subtree can be expanded, similarly to `C-c C-s' (`M-x
show-subtree'), by specifying a zero argument: `M-0 C-c C-z'.

   While you're zoomed in, you can still use Outline mode's exposure and
hiding functions without disturbing Foldout.  Also, since the buffer is
narrowed, "global" editing actions will only affect text under the
zoomed-in heading.  This is useful for restricting changes to a
particular chapter or section of your document.

   To unzoom (exit) a fold, use `C-c C-x' (`M-x foldout-exit-fold').
This hides all the text and subheadings under the top-level heading and
returns you to the previous view of the buffer.  Specifying a numeric
argument exits that many levels of folds.  Specifying a zero argument
exits all folds.

   To cancel the narrowing of a fold without hiding the text and
subheadings, specify a negative argument.  For example, `M--2 C-c C-x'
exits two folds and leaves the text and subheadings exposed.

   Foldout mode also provides mouse commands for entering and exiting
folds, and for showing and hiding text:

`C-M-Mouse-1' zooms in on the heading clicked on
          single click: expose body.

          double click: expose subheadings.

          triple click: expose body and subheadings.

          quad click: expose entire subtree.

`C-M-Mouse-2' exposes text under the heading clicked on
          single click: expose body.

          double click: expose subheadings.

          triple click: expose body and subheadings.

          quad click: expose entire subtree.

`C-M-Mouse-3' hides text under the heading clicked on or exits fold
          single click: hide subtree.

          double click: exit fold and hide text.

          triple click: exit fold without hiding text.

          quad click: exit all folds and hide text.

   You can specify different modifier keys (instead of `Control-Meta-')
by setting `foldout-mouse-modifiers'; but if you have already loaded
the `foldout.el' library, you must reload it in order for this to take
effect.

   To use the Foldout package, you can type `M-x load-library <RET>
foldout <RET>'; or you can arrange for to do that automatically by
putting this in your `.emacs' file:

     (eval-after-load "outline" '(require 'foldout))


File: emacs,  Node: TeX Mode,  Next: HTML Mode,  Prev: Outline Mode,  Up: Text

30.9 TeX Mode
=============

TeX is a powerful text formatter written by Donald Knuth; it is also
free software, like GNU Emacs.  LaTeX is a simplified input format for
TeX, implemented by TeX macros; it comes with TeX.  SliTeX is a special
form of LaTeX.(1)  DocTeX (`.dtx') is a special file format in which
the LaTeX sources are written, combining sources with documentation.

   Emacs has a special TeX mode for editing TeX input files.  It
provides facilities for checking the balance of delimiters and for
invoking TeX on all or part of the file.

   TeX mode has four variants: Plain TeX mode, LaTeX mode, SliTeX mode,
and DocTeX mode (these distinct major modes differ only slightly).
They are designed for editing the four different formats.  The command
`M-x tex-mode' looks at the contents of the buffer to determine whether
the contents appear to be either LaTeX input, SliTeX, or DocTeX input;
if so, it selects the appropriate mode.  If the file contents do not
appear to be LaTeX, SliTeX or DocTeX, it selects Plain TeX mode.  If
the contents are insufficient to determine this, the variable
`tex-default-mode' controls which mode is used.

   When `M-x tex-mode' does not guess right, you can use the commands
`M-x plain-tex-mode', `M-x latex-mode', `M-x slitex-mode', and
`doctex-mode' to select explicitly the particular variants of TeX mode.

* Menu:

* Editing: TeX Editing.   Special commands for editing in TeX mode.
* LaTeX: LaTeX Editing.   Additional commands for LaTeX input files.
* Printing: TeX Print.    Commands for printing part of a file with TeX.
* Misc: TeX Misc.         Customization of TeX mode, and related features.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) SliTeX is obsoleted by the `slides' document class and other
alternative packages in recent LaTeX versions.


File: emacs,  Node: TeX Editing,  Next: LaTeX Editing,  Up: TeX Mode

30.9.1 TeX Editing Commands
---------------------------

Here are the special commands provided in TeX mode for editing the text
of the file.

`"'
     Insert, according to context, either ```' or `"' or `'''
     (`tex-insert-quote').

`C-j'
     Insert a paragraph break (two newlines) and check the previous
     paragraph for unbalanced braces or dollar signs
     (`tex-terminate-paragraph').

`M-x tex-validate-region'
     Check each paragraph in the region for unbalanced braces or dollar
     signs.

`C-c {'
     Insert `{}' and position point between them (`tex-insert-braces').

`C-c }'
     Move forward past the next unmatched close brace (`up-list').

   In TeX, the character `"' is not normally used; we use ```' to start
a quotation and `''' to end one.  To make editing easier under this
formatting convention, TeX mode overrides the normal meaning of the key
`"' with a command that inserts a pair of single-quotes or backquotes
(`tex-insert-quote').  To be precise, this command inserts ```' after
whitespace or an open brace, `"' after a backslash, and `''' after any
other character.

   If you need the character `"' itself in unusual contexts, use `C-q'
to insert it.  Also, `"' with a numeric argument always inserts that
number of `"' characters.  You can turn off the feature of `"'
expansion by eliminating that binding in the local map (*note Key
Bindings::).

   In TeX mode, `$' has a special syntax code which attempts to
understand the way TeX math mode delimiters match.  When you insert a
`$' that is meant to exit math mode, the position of the matching `$'
that entered math mode is displayed for a second.  This is the same
feature that displays the open brace that matches a close brace that is
inserted.  However, there is no way to tell whether a `$' enters math
mode or leaves it; so when you insert a `$' that enters math mode, the
previous `$' position is shown as if it were a match, even though they
are actually unrelated.

   TeX uses braces as delimiters that must match.  Some users prefer to
keep braces balanced at all times, rather than inserting them singly.
Use `C-c {' (`tex-insert-braces') to insert a pair of braces.  It
leaves point between the two braces so you can insert the text that
belongs inside.  Afterward, use the command `C-c }' (`up-list') to move
forward past the close brace.

   There are two commands for checking the matching of braces.  `C-j'
(`tex-terminate-paragraph') checks the paragraph before point, and
inserts two newlines to start a new paragraph.  It outputs a message in
the echo area if any mismatch is found.  `M-x tex-validate-region'
checks a region, paragraph by paragraph.  The errors are listed in the
`*Occur*' buffer, and you can use `C-c C-c' or `Mouse-2' in that buffer
to go to a particular mismatch.

   Note that Emacs commands count square brackets and parentheses in
TeX mode, not just braces.  This is not strictly correct for the
purpose of checking TeX syntax.  However, parentheses and square
brackets are likely to be used in text as matching delimiters and it is
useful for the various motion commands and automatic match display to
work with them.


File: emacs,  Node: LaTeX Editing,  Next: TeX Print,  Prev: TeX Editing,  Up: TeX Mode

30.9.2 LaTeX Editing Commands
-----------------------------

LaTeX mode, and its variant, SliTeX mode, provide a few extra features
not applicable to plain TeX.

`C-c C-o'
     Insert `\begin' and `\end' for LaTeX block and position point on a
     line between them (`tex-latex-block').

`C-c C-e'
     Close the innermost LaTeX block not yet closed
     (`tex-close-latex-block').

   In LaTeX input, `\begin' and `\end' commands are used to group
blocks of text.  To insert a `\begin' and a matching `\end' (on a new
line following the `\begin'), use `C-c C-o' (`tex-latex-block').  A
blank line is inserted between the two, and point is left there.  You
can use completion when you enter the block type; to specify additional
block type names beyond the standard list, set the variable
`latex-block-names'.  For example, here's how to add `theorem',
`corollary', and `proof':

     (setq latex-block-names '("theorem" "corollary" "proof"))

   In LaTeX input, `\begin' and `\end' commands must balance.  You can
use `C-c C-e' (`tex-close-latex-block') to insert automatically a
matching `\end' to match the last unmatched `\begin'.  It indents the
`\end' to match the corresponding `\begin'.  It inserts a newline after
`\end' if point is at the beginning of a line.


File: emacs,  Node: TeX Print,  Next: TeX Misc,  Prev: LaTeX Editing,  Up: TeX Mode

30.9.3 TeX Printing Commands
----------------------------

You can invoke TeX as an inferior of Emacs on either the entire
contents of the buffer or just a region at a time.  Running TeX in this
way on just one chapter is a good way to see what your changes look
like without taking the time to format the entire file.

`C-c C-r'
     Invoke TeX on the current region, together with the buffer's header
     (`tex-region').

`C-c C-b'
     Invoke TeX on the entire current buffer (`tex-buffer').

`C-c <TAB>'
     Invoke BibTeX on the current file (`tex-bibtex-file').

`C-c C-f'
     Invoke TeX on the current file (`tex-file').

`C-c C-l'
     Recenter the window showing output from the inferior TeX so that
     the last line can be seen (`tex-recenter-output-buffer').

`C-c C-k'
     Kill the TeX subprocess (`tex-kill-job').

`C-c C-p'
     Print the output from the last `C-c C-r', `C-c C-b', or `C-c C-f'
     command (`tex-print').

`C-c C-v'
     Preview the output from the last `C-c C-r', `C-c C-b', or `C-c
     C-f' command (`tex-view').

`C-c C-q'
     Show the printer queue (`tex-show-print-queue').

`C-c C-c'
     Invoke some other compilation command on the entire current buffer
     (`tex-compile').

   You can pass the current buffer through an inferior TeX by means of
`C-c C-b' (`tex-buffer').  The formatted output appears in a temporary
file; to print it, type `C-c C-p' (`tex-print').  Afterward, you can
use `C-c C-q' (`tex-show-print-queue') to view the progress of your
output towards being printed.  If your terminal has the ability to
display TeX output files, you can preview the output on the terminal
with `C-c C-v' (`tex-view').

   You can specify the directory to use for running TeX by setting the
variable `tex-directory'.  `"."' is the default value.  If your
environment variable `TEXINPUTS' contains relative directory names, or
if your files contains `\input' commands with relative file names, then
`tex-directory' _must_ be `"."' or you will get the wrong results.
Otherwise, it is safe to specify some other directory, such as `"/tmp"'.

   If you want to specify which shell commands are used in the inferior
TeX, you can do so by setting the values of the variables
`tex-run-command', `latex-run-command', `slitex-run-command',
`tex-dvi-print-command', `tex-dvi-view-command', and
`tex-show-queue-command'.  The default values may (or may not) be
appropriate for your system.

   Normally, the file name given to these commands comes at the end of
the command string; for example, `latex FILENAME'.  In some cases,
however, the file name needs to be embedded in the command; an example
is when you need to provide the file name as an argument to one command
whose output is piped to another.  You can specify where to put the
file name with `*' in the command string.  For example,

     (setq tex-dvi-print-command "dvips -f * | lpr")

   The terminal output from TeX, including any error messages, appears
in a buffer called `*tex-shell*'.  If TeX gets an error, you can switch
to this buffer and feed it input (this works as in Shell mode; *note
Interactive Shell::).  Without switching to this buffer you can scroll
it so that its last line is visible by typing `C-c C-l'.

   Type `C-c C-k' (`tex-kill-job') to kill the TeX process if you see
that its output is no longer useful.  Using `C-c C-b' or `C-c C-r' also
kills any TeX process still running.

   You can also pass an arbitrary region through an inferior TeX by
typing `C-c C-r' (`tex-region').  This is tricky, however, because most
files of TeX input contain commands at the beginning to set parameters
and define macros, without which no later part of the file will format
correctly.  To solve this problem, `C-c C-r' allows you to designate a
part of the file as containing essential commands; it is included before
the specified region as part of the input to TeX.  The designated part
of the file is called the "header".

   To indicate the bounds of the header in Plain TeX mode, you insert
two special strings in the file.  Insert `%**start of header' before the
header, and `%**end of header' after it.  Each string must appear
entirely on one line, but there may be other text on the line before or
after.  The lines containing the two strings are included in the header.
If `%**start of header' does not appear within the first 100 lines of
the buffer, `C-c C-r' assumes that there is no header.

   In LaTeX mode, the header begins with `\documentclass' or
`\documentstyle' and ends with `\begin{document}'.  These are commands
that LaTeX requires you to use in any case, so nothing special needs to
be done to identify the header.

   The commands (`tex-buffer') and (`tex-region') do all of their work
in a temporary directory, and do not have available any of the auxiliary
files needed by TeX for cross-references; these commands are generally
not suitable for running the final copy in which all of the
cross-references need to be correct.

   When you want the auxiliary files for cross references, use `C-c
C-f' (`tex-file') which runs TeX on the current buffer's file, in that
file's directory.  Before running TeX, it offers to save any modified
buffers.  Generally, you need to use (`tex-file') twice to get the
cross-references right.

   The value of the variable `tex-start-options' specifies options for
the TeX run.

   The value of the variable `tex-start-commands' specifies TeX
commands for starting TeX.  The default value causes TeX to run in
nonstop mode.  To run TeX interactively, set the variable to `""'.

   Large TeX documents are often split into several files--one main
file, plus subfiles.  Running TeX on a subfile typically does not work;
you have to run it on the main file.  In order to make `tex-file'
useful when you are editing a subfile, you can set the variable
`tex-main-file' to the name of the main file.  Then `tex-file' runs TeX
on that file.

   The most convenient way to use `tex-main-file' is to specify it in a
local variable list in each of the subfiles.  *Note File Variables::.

   For LaTeX files, you can use BibTeX to process the auxiliary file
for the current buffer's file.  BibTeX looks up bibliographic citations
in a data base and prepares the cited references for the bibliography
section.  The command `C-c <TAB>' (`tex-bibtex-file') runs the shell
command (`tex-bibtex-command') to produce a `.bbl' file for the current
buffer's file.  Generally, you need to do `C-c C-f' (`tex-file') once
to generate the `.aux' file, then do `C-c <TAB>' (`tex-bibtex-file'),
and then repeat `C-c C-f' (`tex-file') twice more to get the
cross-references correct.

   To invoke some other compilation program on the current TeX buffer,
type `C-c C-c' (`tex-compile').  This command knows how to pass
arguments to many common programs, including `pdflatex', `yap', `xdvi',
and `dvips'.  You can select your desired compilation program using the
standard completion keys (*note Completion::).


File: emacs,  Node: TeX Misc,  Prev: TeX Print,  Up: TeX Mode

30.9.4 TeX Mode Miscellany
--------------------------

Entering any variant of TeX mode runs the hooks `text-mode-hook' and
`tex-mode-hook'.  Then it runs either `plain-tex-mode-hook',
`latex-mode-hook', or `slitex-mode-hook', whichever is appropriate.
Starting the TeX shell runs the hook `tex-shell-hook'.  *Note Hooks::.

   The commands `M-x iso-iso2tex', `M-x iso-tex2iso', `M-x
iso-iso2gtex' and `M-x iso-gtex2iso' can be used to convert between
Latin-1 encoded files and TeX-encoded equivalents.

   For managing all kinds of references for LaTeX, you can use RefTeX.
*note (reftex)Top::.


File: emacs,  Node: HTML Mode,  Next: Nroff Mode,  Prev: TeX Mode,  Up: Text

30.10 SGML, XML, and HTML Modes
===============================

The major modes for SGML and HTML include indentation support and
commands to operate on tags.  This section describes the special
commands of these modes.  (HTML mode is a slightly customized variant
of SGML mode.)

`C-c C-n'
     Interactively specify a special character and insert the SGML
     `&'-command for that character.

`C-c C-t'
     Interactively specify a tag and its attributes (`sgml-tag').  This
     command asks you for a tag name and for the attribute values, then
     inserts both the opening tag and the closing tag, leaving point
     between them.

     With a prefix argument N, the command puts the tag around the N
     words already present in the buffer after point.  With -1 as
     argument, it puts the tag around the region.  (In Transient Mark
     mode, it does this whenever a region is active.)

`C-c C-a'
     Interactively insert attribute values for the current tag
     (`sgml-attributes').

`C-c C-f'
     Skip across a balanced tag group (which extends from an opening tag
     through its corresponding closing tag) (`sgml-skip-tag-forward').
     A numeric argument acts as a repeat count.

`C-c C-b'
     Skip backward across a balanced tag group (which extends from an
     opening tag through its corresponding closing tag)
     (`sgml-skip-tag-forward').  A numeric argument acts as a repeat
     count.

`C-c C-d'
     Delete the tag at or after point, and delete the matching tag too
     (`sgml-delete-tag').  If the tag at or after point is an opening
     tag, delete the closing tag too; if it is a closing tag, delete the
     opening tag too.

`C-c ? TAG <RET>'
     Display a description of the meaning of tag TAG (`sgml-tag-help').
     If the argument TAG is empty, describe the tag at point.

`C-c /'
     Insert a close tag for the innermost unterminated tag
     (`sgml-close-tag').  If called from within a tag or a comment,
     close this element instead of inserting a close tag.

`C-c 8'
     Toggle a minor mode in which Latin-1 characters insert the
     corresponding SGML commands that stand for them, instead of the
     characters themselves (`sgml-name-8bit-mode').

`C-c C-v'
     Run a shell command (which you must specify) to validate the
     current buffer as SGML (`sgml-validate').

`C-c TAB'
     Toggle the visibility of existing tags in the buffer.  This can be
     used as a cheap preview.

   SGML mode and HTML mode support XML also.  In XML, every opening tag
must have an explicit closing tag.  When `sgml-xml-mode' is non-`nil',
SGML mode and HTML mode always insert explicit closing tags.  When you
visit a file, these modes determine from the file contents whether it
is XML or not, and set `sgml-xml-mode' accordingly, so that they do the
right thing for the file in either case.


File: emacs,  Node: Nroff Mode,  Next: Formatted Text,  Prev: HTML Mode,  Up: Text

30.11 Nroff Mode
================

Nroff mode is a mode like Text mode but modified to handle nroff
commands present in the text.  Invoke `M-x nroff-mode' to enter this
mode.  It differs from Text mode in only a few ways.  All nroff command
lines are considered paragraph separators, so that filling will never
garble the nroff commands.  Pages are separated by `.bp' commands.
Comments start with backslash-doublequote.  Also, three special
commands are provided that are not in Text mode:

`M-n'
     Move to the beginning of the next line that isn't an nroff command
     (`forward-text-line').  An argument is a repeat count.

`M-p'
     Like `M-n' but move up (`backward-text-line').

`M-?'
     Displays in the echo area the number of text lines (lines that are
     not nroff commands) in the region (`count-text-lines').

   The other feature of Nroff mode is that you can turn on Electric
Nroff mode.  This is a minor mode that you can turn on or off with `M-x
electric-nroff-mode' (*note Minor Modes::).  When the mode is on, each
time you use <RET> to end a line that contains an nroff command that
opens a kind of grouping, the matching nroff command to close that
grouping is automatically inserted on the following line.  For example,
if you are at the beginning of a line and type `. ( b <RET>', this
inserts the matching command `.)b' on a new line following point.

   If you use Outline minor mode with Nroff mode (*note Outline Mode::),
heading lines are lines of the form `.H' followed by a number (the
header level).

   Entering Nroff mode runs the hook `text-mode-hook', followed by the
hook `nroff-mode-hook' (*note Hooks::).


File: emacs,  Node: Formatted Text,  Next: Text Based Tables,  Prev: Nroff Mode,  Up: Text

30.12 Editing Formatted Text
============================

"Enriched mode" is a minor mode for editing files that contain
formatted text in WYSIWYG fashion, as in a word processor.  Currently,
formatted text in Enriched mode can specify fonts, colors, underlining,
margins, and types of filling and justification.  In the future, we plan
to implement other formatting features as well.

   Enriched mode is a minor mode (*note Minor Modes::).  It is
typically used in conjunction with Text mode (*note Text Mode::), but
you can also use it with other major modes such as Outline mode and
Paragraph-Indent Text mode.

   Potentially, Emacs can store formatted text files in various file
formats.  Currently, only one format is implemented: "text/enriched"
format, which is defined by the MIME protocol.  *Note Format
Conversion: (elisp)Format Conversion, for details of how Emacs
recognizes and converts file formats.

   The Emacs distribution contains a formatted text file that can serve
as an example.  Its name is `etc/enriched.doc'.  It contains samples
illustrating all the features described in this section.  It also
contains a list of ideas for future enhancements.

* Menu:

* Requesting Formatted Text::   Entering and exiting Enriched mode.
* Hard and Soft Newlines::      There are two different kinds of newlines.
* Editing Format Info::         How to edit text properties.
* Faces: Format Faces.          Bold, italic, underline, etc.
* Color: Format Colors.         Changing the color of text.
* Indent: Format Indentation.   Changing the left and right margins.
* Justification: Format Justification.
                                Centering, setting text flush with the
                                  left or right margin, etc.
* Other: Format Properties.     The "special" text properties submenu.
* Forcing Enriched Mode::       How to force use of Enriched mode.


File: emacs,  Node: Requesting Formatted Text,  Next: Hard and Soft Newlines,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.1 Requesting to Edit Formatted Text
-----------------------------------------

Whenever you visit a file that Emacs saved in the text/enriched format,
Emacs automatically converts the formatting information in the file
into Emacs's own internal format (known as "text properties"), and
turns on Enriched mode.

   To create a new file of formatted text, first visit the nonexistent
file, then type `M-x enriched-mode' before you start inserting text.
This command turns on Enriched mode.  Do this before you begin inserting
text, to ensure that the text you insert is handled properly.

   More generally, the command `enriched-mode' turns Enriched mode on
if it was off, and off if it was on.  With a prefix argument, this
command turns Enriched mode on if the argument is positive, and turns
the mode off otherwise.

   When you save a buffer while Enriched mode is enabled in it, Emacs
automatically converts the text to text/enriched format while writing it
into the file.  When you visit the file again, Emacs will automatically
recognize the format, reconvert the text, and turn on Enriched mode
again.

   You can add annotations for saving additional text properties, which
Emacs normally does not save, by adding to `enriched-translations'.
Note that the text/enriched standard requires any non-standard
annotations to have names starting with `x-', as in `x-read-only'.
This ensures that they will not conflict with standard annotations that
may be added later.

   *Note Text Properties: (elisp)Text Properties, for more information
about text properties.


File: emacs,  Node: Hard and Soft Newlines,  Next: Editing Format Info,  Prev: Requesting Formatted Text,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.2 Hard and Soft Newlines
------------------------------

In formatted text, Emacs distinguishes between two different kinds of
newlines, "hard" newlines and "soft" newlines.  (You can enable or
disable this feature separately in any  buffer with the command
`use-hard-newlines'.)

   Hard newlines are used to separate paragraphs, or items in a list, or
anywhere that there should always be a line break regardless of the
margins.  The <RET> command (`newline') and `C-o' (`open-line') insert
hard newlines.

   Soft newlines are used to make text fit between the margins.  All the
fill commands, including Auto Fill, insert soft newlines--and they
delete only soft newlines.

   Although hard and soft newlines look the same, it is important to
bear the difference in mind.  Do not use <RET> to break lines in the
middle of filled paragraphs, or else you will get hard newlines that are
barriers to further filling.  Instead, let Auto Fill mode break lines,
so that if the text or the margins change, Emacs can refill the lines
properly.  *Note Auto Fill::.

   On the other hand, in tables and lists, where the lines should always
remain as you type them, you can use <RET> to end lines.  For these
lines, you may also want to set the justification style to `unfilled'.
*Note Format Justification::.


File: emacs,  Node: Editing Format Info,  Next: Format Faces,  Prev: Hard and Soft Newlines,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.3 Editing Format Information
----------------------------------

There are two ways to alter the formatting information for a formatted
text file: with keyboard commands, and with the mouse.

   The easiest way to add properties to your document is with the Text
Properties menu.  You can get to this menu in two ways: from the Edit
menu in the menu bar (use `<F10> e t' if you have no mouse), or with
`C-Mouse-2' (hold the <CTRL> key and press the middle mouse button).
There are also keyboard commands described in the following section.

   Most of the items in the Text Properties menu lead to other submenus.
These are described in the sections that follow.  Some items run
commands directly:

`Remove Face Properties'
     Delete from the region all face and color text properties
     (`facemenu-remove-face-props').

`Remove Text Properties'
     Delete _all_ text properties from the region
     (`facemenu-remove-all').

`Describe Properties'
     List all the text properties, widgets, buttons, and overlays of the
     character following point (`describe-text-properties').

`Display Faces'
     Display a list of all the defined faces (`list-faces-display').

`Display Colors'
     Display a list of all the defined colors (`list-colors-display').


File: emacs,  Node: Format Faces,  Next: Format Colors,  Prev: Editing Format Info,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.4 Faces in Formatted Text
-------------------------------

The Faces submenu lists various Emacs faces including `bold', `italic',
and `underline' (*note Faces::).  These menu items operate on the
region if it is active and nonempty.  Otherwise, they specify to use
that face for an immediately following self-inserting character.
Instead of the menu, you can use these keyboard commands:

`M-o d'
     Remove all `face' properties from the region (which includes
     specified colors), or force the following inserted character to
     have no `face' property (`facemenu-set-default').  

`M-o b'
     Add the face `bold' to the region or to the following inserted
     character (`facemenu-set-bold').  

`M-o i'
     Add the face `italic' to the region or to the following inserted
     character (`facemenu-set-italic').  

`M-o l'
     Add the face `bold-italic' to the region or to the following
     inserted character (`facemenu-set-bold-italic').  

`M-o u'
     Add the face `underline' to the region or to the following inserted
     character (`facemenu-set-underline').  

`M-o o FACE <RET>'
     Add the face FACE to the region or to the following inserted
     character (`facemenu-set-face').

   With a prefix argument, all these commands apply to an immediately
following self-inserting character, disregarding the region.

   A self-inserting character normally inherits the `face' property
(and most other text properties) from the preceding character in the
buffer.  If you use the above commands to specify face for the next
self-inserting character, or the next section's commands to specify a
foreground or background color for it, then it does not inherit the
`face' property from the preceding character; instead it uses whatever
you specified.  It will still inherit other text properties, though.

   Strictly speaking, these commands apply only to the first following
self-inserting character that you type.  But if you insert additional
characters after it, they will inherit from the first one.  So it
appears that these commands apply to all of them.

   Enriched mode defines two additional faces: `excerpt' and `fixed'.
These correspond to codes used in the text/enriched file format.

   The `excerpt' face is intended for quotations.  This face is the
same as `italic' unless you customize it (*note Face Customization::).

   The `fixed' face means, "Use a fixed-width font for this part of the
text."  Applying the `fixed' face to a part of the text will cause that
part of the text to appear in a fixed-width font, even if the default
font is variable-width.  This applies to Emacs and to other systems
that display text/enriched format.  So if you specifically want a
certain part of the text to use a fixed-width font, you should specify
the `fixed' face for that part.

   By default, the `fixed' face looks the same as `bold'.  This is an
attempt to distinguish it from `default'.  You may wish to customize
`fixed' to some other fixed-width medium font.  *Note Face
Customization::.

   If your terminal cannot display different faces, you will not be
able to see them, but you can still edit documents containing faces,
and even add faces and colors to documents.  The faces you specify will
be visible when the file is viewed on a terminal that can display them.


File: emacs,  Node: Format Colors,  Next: Format Indentation,  Prev: Format Faces,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.5 Colors in Formatted Text
--------------------------------

You can specify foreground and background colors for portions of the
text.  There is a menu for specifying the foreground color and a menu
for specifying the background color.  Each color menu lists all the
colors that you have used in Enriched mode in the current Emacs session.

   If you specify a color with a prefix argument--or, in Transient Mark
mode, if the region is not active--then it applies to any immediately
following self-inserting input.  Otherwise, the command applies to the
region.

   Each color menu contains one additional item: `Other'.  You can use
this item to specify a color that is not listed in the menu; it reads
the color name with the minibuffer.  To display a list of available
colors and their names, use the `Display Colors' menu item in the Text
Properties menu (*note Editing Format Info::).

   Any color that you specify in this way, or that is mentioned in a
formatted text file that you read in, is added to the corresponding
color menu for the duration of the Emacs session.

   There are no predefined key bindings for specifying colors, but you
can do so with the extended commands `M-x facemenu-set-foreground' and
`M-x facemenu-set-background'.  Both of these commands read the name of
the color with the minibuffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Format Indentation,  Next: Format Justification,  Prev: Format Colors,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.6 Indentation in Formatted Text
-------------------------------------

When editing formatted text, you can specify different amounts of
indentation for the right or left margin of an entire paragraph or a
part of a paragraph.  The margins you specify automatically affect the
Emacs fill commands (*note Filling::) and line-breaking commands.

   The Indentation submenu provides a convenient interface for
specifying these properties.  The submenu contains four items:

`Indent More'
     Indent the region by 4 columns (`increase-left-margin').  In
     Enriched mode, this command is also available on `C-x <TAB>'; if
     you supply a numeric argument, that says how many columns to add
     to the margin (a negative argument reduces the number of columns).

`Indent Less'
     Remove 4 columns of indentation from the region.

`Indent Right More'
     Make the text narrower by indenting 4 columns at the right margin.

`Indent Right Less'
     Remove 4 columns of indentation from the right margin.

   You can use these commands repeatedly to increase or decrease the
indentation.

   The most common way to use them is to change the indentation of an
entire paragraph.  For other uses, the effects of refilling can be hard
to predict, except in some special cases like the one described next.

   The most common other use is to format paragraphs with "hanging
indents", which means that the first line is indented less than
subsequent lines.  To set up a hanging indent, increase the indentation
of the region starting after the first word of the paragraph and
running until the end of the paragraph.

   Indenting the first line of a paragraph is easier.  Set the margin
for the whole paragraph where you want it to be for the body of the
paragraph, then indent the first line by inserting extra spaces or tabs.

   The variable `standard-indent' specifies how many columns these
commands should add to or subtract from the indentation.  The default
value is 4.  The overall default right margin for Enriched mode is
controlled by the variable `fill-column', as usual.

   There are also two commands for setting the left or right margin of
the region absolutely: `set-left-margin' and `set-right-margin'.
Enriched mode binds these commands to `C-c [' and `C-c ]',
respectively.  You can specify the margin width either with a numeric
argument or in the minibuffer.

   Sometimes, as a result of editing, the filling of a paragraph becomes
messed up--parts of the paragraph may extend past the left or right
margins.  When this happens, use `M-q' (`fill-paragraph') to refill the
paragraph.

   The fill prefix, if any, works in addition to the specified paragraph
indentation: `C-x .' does not include the specified indentation's
whitespace in the new value for the fill prefix, and the fill commands
look for the fill prefix after the indentation on each line.  *Note
Fill Prefix::.


File: emacs,  Node: Format Justification,  Next: Format Properties,  Prev: Format Indentation,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.7 Justification in Formatted Text
---------------------------------------

When editing formatted text, you can specify various styles of
justification for a paragraph.  The style you specify automatically
affects the Emacs fill commands.

   The Justification submenu provides a convenient interface for
specifying the style.  The submenu contains five items:

`Left'
     This is the most common style of justification (at least for
     English).  Lines are aligned at the left margin but left uneven at
     the right.

`Right'
     This aligns each line with the right margin.  Spaces and tabs are
     added on the left, if necessary, to make lines line up on the
     right.

`Full'
     This justifies the text, aligning both edges of each line.
     Justified text looks very nice in a printed book, where the spaces
     can all be adjusted equally, but it does not look as nice with a
     fixed-width font on the screen.  Perhaps a future version of Emacs
     will be able to adjust the width of spaces in a line to achieve
     elegant justification.

`Center'
     This centers every line between the current margins.

`Unfilled'
     This turns off filling entirely.  Each line will remain as you
     wrote it; the fill and auto-fill functions will have no effect on
     text which has this setting.  You can, however, still indent the
     left margin.  In unfilled regions, all newlines are treated as
     hard newlines (*note Hard and Soft Newlines::) .

   In Enriched mode, you can also specify justification from the
keyboard using the `M-j' prefix character:

`M-j l'
     Make the region left-filled (`set-justification-left').  

`M-j r'
     Make the region right-filled (`set-justification-right').  

`M-j b'
     Make the region fully justified (`set-justification-full').  

`M-j c'
`M-S'
     Make the region centered (`set-justification-center').  

`M-j u'
     Make the region unfilled (`set-justification-none').

   Justification styles apply to entire paragraphs.  All the
justification-changing commands operate on the paragraph containing
point, or, if the region is active, on all paragraphs which overlap the
region.

   The default justification style is specified by the variable
`default-justification'.  Its value should be one of the symbols
`left', `right', `full', `center', or `none'.  This is a per-buffer
variable.  Setting the variable directly affects only the current
buffer.  However, customizing it in a Custom buffer sets (as always)
the default value for buffers that do not override it.  *Note Locals::,
and *Note Easy Customization::.


File: emacs,  Node: Format Properties,  Next: Forcing Enriched Mode,  Prev: Format Justification,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.8 Setting Other Text Properties
-------------------------------------

The Special Properties menu lets you add or remove three other useful
text properties: `read-only', `invisible' and `intangible'.  The
`intangible' property disallows moving point within the text, the
`invisible' text property hides text from display, and the `read-only'
property disallows alteration of the text.

   Each of these special properties has a menu item to add it to the
region.  The last menu item, `Remove Special', removes all of these
special properties from the text in the region.

   Currently, the `invisible' and `intangible' properties are _not_
saved in the text/enriched format.  The `read-only' property is saved,
but it is not a standard part of the text/enriched format, so other
editors may not respect it.


File: emacs,  Node: Forcing Enriched Mode,  Prev: Format Properties,  Up: Formatted Text

30.12.9 Forcing Enriched Mode
-----------------------------

Normally, Emacs knows when you are editing formatted text because it
recognizes the special annotations used in the file that you visited.
However, sometimes you must take special actions to convert file
contents or turn on Enriched mode:

   * When you visit a file that was created with some other editor,
     Emacs may not recognize the file as being in the text/enriched
     format.  In this case, when you visit the file you will see the
     formatting commands rather than the formatted text.  Type `M-x
     format-decode-buffer' to translate it.  This also automatically
     turns on Enriched mode.

   * When you _insert_ a file into a buffer, rather than visiting it,
     Emacs does the necessary conversions on the text which you insert,
     but it does not enable Enriched mode.  If you wish to do that,
     type `M-x enriched-mode'.

   The command `format-decode-buffer' translates text in various
formats into Emacs's internal format.  It asks you to specify the format
to translate from; however, normally you can type just <RET>, which
tells Emacs to guess the format.

   If you wish to look at a text/enriched file in its raw form, as a
sequence of characters rather than as formatted text, use the `M-x
find-file-literally' command.  This visits a file, like `find-file',
but does not do format conversion.  It also inhibits character code
conversion (*note Coding Systems::) and automatic uncompression (*note
Compressed Files::).  To disable format conversion but allow character
code conversion and/or automatic uncompression if appropriate, use
`format-find-file' with suitable arguments.


File: emacs,  Node: Text Based Tables,  Prev: Formatted Text,  Up: Text

30.13 Editing Text-based Tables
===============================

Table mode provides an easy and intuitive way to create and edit WYSIWYG
text-based tables.  Here is an example of such a table:

     +-----------------+--------------------------------+-----------------+
     |     Command     |          Description           |   Key Binding   |
     +-----------------+--------------------------------+-----------------+
     |  forward-char   |Move point right N characters   |       C-f       |
     |                 |(left if N is negative).        |                 |
     |                 |                                |                 |
     |                 |On reaching end of buffer, stop |                 |
     |                 |and signal error.               |                 |
     +-----------------+--------------------------------+-----------------+
     |  backward-char  |Move point left N characters    |       C-b       |
     |                 |(right if N is negative).       |                 |
     |                 |                                |                 |
     |                 |On attempt to pass beginning or |                 |
     |                 |end of buffer, stop and signal  |                 |
     |                 |error.                          |                 |
     +-----------------+--------------------------------+-----------------+

   Table mode allows the contents of the table such as this one to be
easily manipulated by inserting or deleting characters inside a cell.
A cell is effectively a localized rectangular edit region and edits to
a cell do not affect the contents of the surrounding cells.  If the
contents do not fit into a cell, then the cell is automatically
expanded in the vertical and/or horizontal directions and the rest of
the table is restructured and reformatted in accordance with the growth
of the cell.

* Menu:

* Table Definition::          What is a text based table.
* Table Creation::            How to create a table.
* Table Recognition::         How to activate and deactivate tables.
* Cell Commands::             Cell-oriented commands in a table.
* Cell Justification::        Justifying cell contents.
* Row Commands::              Manipulating rows of table cell.
* Column Commands::           Manipulating columns of table cell.
* Fixed Width Mode::          Fixing cell width.
* Table Conversion::          Converting between plain text and tables.
* Measuring Tables::          Analyzing table dimension.
* Table Misc::                Table miscellany.


File: emacs,  Node: Table Definition,  Next: Table Creation,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.1 What is a Text-based Table?
-----------------------------------

Keep the following examples of valid tables in mind as a reference
while you read this section:

                   +--+----+---+     +-+     +--+-----+
                   |  |    |   |     | |     |  |     |
                   +--+----+---+     +-+     |  +--+--+
                   |  |    |   |             |  |  |  |
                   +--+----+---+             +--+--+  |
                                             |     |  |
                                             +-----+--+

   A table consists of a rectangular frame whose inside is divided into
cells.  Each cell must be at least one character wide and one character
high, not counting its border lines.  A cell can be subdivided into
multiple rectangular cells, but cells cannot overlap.

   The table frame and cell border lines are made of three special
characters.  These variables specify those characters:

`table-cell-vertical-char'
     Holds the character used for vertical lines.  The default value is
     `|'.

`table-cell-horizontal-char'
     Holds the character used for horizontal lines.  The default value
     is `-'.

`table-cell-intersection-char'
     Holds the character used at where horizontal line and vertical line
     meet.  The default value is `+'.

Based on this definition, the following five tables are examples of
invalid tables:

        +-----+    +-----+       +--+    +-++--+    ++
        |     |    |     |       |  |    | ||  |    ++
        | +-+ |    |     |       |  |    | ||  |
        | | | |    +--+  |    +--+--+    +-++--+
        | +-+ |    |  |  |    |  |  |    +-++--+
        |     |    |  |  |    |  |  |    | ||  |
        +-----+    +--+--+    +--+--+    +-++--+
          a           b          c          d        e

   From left to right:

  a. Overlapped cells or non-rectangular cells are not allowed.

  b. Same as a.

  c. The border must be rectangular.

  d. Cells must have a minimum width/height of one character.

  e. Same as d.


File: emacs,  Node: Table Creation,  Next: Table Recognition,  Prev: Table Definition,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.2 How to Create a Table?
------------------------------

The command to create a table is `table-insert'.  When called
interactively, it asks for the number of columns, number of rows, cell
width and cell height.  The number of columns is the number of cells
horizontally side by side.  The number of rows is the number of cells
vertically within the table's height.  The cell width is a number of
characters that each cell holds, left to right.  The cell height is a
number of lines each cell holds.  The cell width and the cell height
can be either an integer (when the value is constant across the table)
or a series of integer, separated by spaces or commas, where each
number corresponds to the next cell within a row from left to right, or
the next cell within a column from top to bottom.


File: emacs,  Node: Table Recognition,  Next: Cell Commands,  Prev: Table Creation,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.3 Table Recognition
-------------------------

Table mode maintains special text properties in the buffer to allow
editing in a convenient fashion.  When a buffer with tables is saved to
its file, these text properties are lost, so when you visit this file
again later, Emacs does not see a table, but just formatted text.  To
resurrect the table text properties, issue the `M-x table-recognize'
command.  It scans the current buffer, recognizes valid table cells,
and attaches appropriate text properties to allow for table editing.
The converse command, `table-unrecognize', is used to remove the
special text properties and convert the buffer back to plain text.

   Special commands exist to enable or disable tables within a region,
enable or disable individual tables, and enable/disable individual
cells.  These commands are:

`M-x table-recognize-region'
     Recognize tables within the current region and activate them.  

`M-x table-unrecognize-region'
     Deactivate tables within the current region.  

`M-x table-recognize-table'
     Recognize the table under point and activate it.  

`M-x table-unrecognize-table'
     Deactivate the table under point.  

`M-x table-recognize-cell'
     Recognize the cell under point and activate it.  

`M-x table-unrecognize-cell'
     Deactivate the cell under point.

   For another way of converting text into tables, see *Note Table
Conversion::.


File: emacs,  Node: Cell Commands,  Next: Cell Justification,  Prev: Table Recognition,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.4 Commands for Table Cells
--------------------------------

The commands `table-forward-cell' and `table-backward-cell' move point
from the current cell to an adjacent cell forward and backward
respectively.  The order of the cells is cyclic: when point is in the
last cell of a table, typing `M-x table-forward-cell' moves to the
first cell in the table.  Likewise `M-x table-backward-cell' from the
first cell in a table moves to the last cell.

   The command `table-span-cell' merges the current cell with the
adjacent cell in a specified direction--right, left, above or below.
You specify the direction with the minibuffer.  It does not allow
merges which don't result in a legitimate cell layout.

   The command `table-split-cell' splits the current cell vertically or
horizontally.  This command is a wrapper to the direction specific
commands `table-split-cell-vertically' and
`table-split-cell-horizontally'.  You specify the direction with a
minibuffer argument.

   The command `table-split-cell-vertically' splits the current cell
vertically and creates a pair of cells above and below where point is
located.  The content in the original cell is split as well.

   The command `table-split-cell-horizontally' splits the current cell
horizontally and creates a pair of cells right and left of where point
is located.  If the cell being split is not empty, this asks you how to
handle the cell contents.  The three options are: `split', `left', or
`right'.  `split' splits the contents at point literally, while the
`left' and `right' options move the entire contents into the left or
right cell respectively.

   The next four commands enlarge or shrink a cell.  They use numeric
arguments (*note Arguments::) to specify how many columns or rows to
enlarge or shrink a particular table.

`M-x table-heighten-cell'
     Enlarge the current cell vertically.  

`M-x table-shorten-cell'
     Shrink the current cell vertically.  

`M-x table-widen-cell'
     Enlarge the current cell horizontally.  

`M-x table-narrow-cell'
     Shrink the current cell horizontally.


File: emacs,  Node: Cell Justification,  Next: Row Commands,  Prev: Cell Commands,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.5 Cell Justification
--------------------------

You can specify text justification for each cell.  The justification is
remembered independently for each cell and the subsequent editing of
cell contents is subject to the specified justification.

   The command `table-justify' ask you to specify what to justify: a
cell, a column, or a row.  If you select cell justification, this
command sets the justification only for the current cell.  Selecting
column or row justification sets the justification for all the cells
within a column or row respectively.  The command then ask you which
kind of justification to apply: `left', `center', `right', `top',
`middle', `bottom', or `none'.  Horizontal justification and vertical
justification are specified independently.  The options `left',
`center', and `right' specify horizontal justification while the options
`top', `middle', `bottom', and `none' specify vertical justification.
The vertical justification `none' effectively removes vertical
justification.  Horizontal justification must be one of `left',
`center', or `right'.

   Justification information is stored in the buffer as a part of text
property.  Therefore, this information is ephemeral and does not
survive through the loss of the buffer (closing the buffer and
revisiting the buffer erase any previous text properties).  To
countermand for this, the command `table-recognize' and other
recognition commands (*note Table Recognition::) are equipped with a
convenience feature (turned on by default).  During table recognition,
the contents of a cell are examined to determine which justification
was originally applied to the cell and then applies this justification
to the cell.  This is a speculative algorithm and is therefore not
perfect, however, the justification is deduced correctly most of the
time.  To disable this feature, customize the variable
`table-detect-cell-alignment' and set it to `nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: Row Commands,  Next: Column Commands,  Prev: Cell Justification,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.6 Commands for Table Rows
-------------------------------

The command `table-insert-row' inserts a row of cells before the
current row in a table.  The current row where point is located is
pushed down after the newly inserted row.  A numeric prefix argument
specifies the number of rows to insert.  Note that in order to insert
rows _after_ the last row at the bottom of a table, you must place
point below the table--that is, outside the table--prior to invoking
this command.

   The command `table-delete-row' deletes a row of cells at point.  A
numeric prefix argument specifies the number of rows to delete.


File: emacs,  Node: Column Commands,  Next: Fixed Width Mode,  Prev: Row Commands,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.7 Commands for Table Columns
----------------------------------

The command `table-insert-column' inserts a column of cells to the left
of the current row in a table.  This pushes the current column to the
right.  To insert a column to the right side of the rightmost column,
place point to the right of the rightmost column, which is outside of
the table, prior to invoking this command.  A numeric prefix argument
specifies the number of columns to insert.

   A command `table-delete-column' deletes a column of cells at point.
A numeric prefix argument specifies the number of columns to delete.


File: emacs,  Node: Fixed Width Mode,  Next: Table Conversion,  Prev: Column Commands,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.8 Fix Width of Cells
--------------------------

The command `table-fixed-width-mode' toggles fixed width mode on and
off.  When fixed width mode is turned on, editing inside a cell never
changes the cell width; when it is off, the cell width expands
automatically in order to prevent a word from being folded into
multiple lines.  By default, fixed width mode is disabled.


File: emacs,  Node: Table Conversion,  Next: Measuring Tables,  Prev: Fixed Width Mode,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.9 Conversion Between Plain Text and Tables
------------------------------------------------

The command `table-capture' captures plain text in a region and turns
it into a table.  Unlike `table-recognize' (*note Table Recognition::),
the original text does not have a table appearance but may hold a
logical table structure.  For example, some elements separated by known
patterns form a two dimensional structure which can be turned into a
table.

   Here's an example of data that `table-capture' can operate on.  The
numbers are horizontally separated by a comma and vertically separated
by a newline character.

     1, 2, 3, 4
     5, 6, 7, 8
     , 9, 10

Invoking `M-x table-capture' on that text produces this table:

     +-----+-----+-----+-----+
     |1    |2    |3    |4    |
     +-----+-----+-----+-----+
     |5    |6    |7    |8    |
     +-----+-----+-----+-----+
     |     |9    |10   |     |
     +-----+-----+-----+-----+

The conversion uses `,' for the column delimiter and newline for a row
delimiter, cells are left justified, and minimum cell width is 5.

   The command `table-release' does the opposite of `table-capture'.
It releases a table by removing the table frame and cell borders.  This
leaves the table contents as plain text.  One of the useful
applications of `table-capture' and `table-release' is to edit a text
in layout.  Look at the following three paragraphs (the latter two are
indented with header lines):

     `table-capture' is a powerful command, but mastering its
     power requires some practice.  Here are some things it can do:

     Parse Cell Items      By using column delimiter regular
                           expression and raw delimiter regular
                           expression, it parses the specified text
                           area and extracts cell items from
                           non-table text and then forms a table out
                           of them.

     Capture Text Area     When no delimiters are specified it
                           creates a single cell table.  The text in
                           the specified region is placed in that
                           cell.

Applying `table-capture' to a region containing the above three
paragraphs, with empty strings for column delimiter regexp and row
delimiter regexp, creates a table with a single cell like the following
one.

     +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
     |`table-capture' is a powerful command, but mastering its         |
     |power requires some practice.  Here are some things it can do:   |
     |                                                                 |
     |Parse Cell Items      By using column delimiter regular          |
     |                      expression and raw delimiter regular       |
     |                      expression, it parses the specified text   |
     |                      area and extracts cell items from          |
     |                      non-table text and then forms a table out  |
     |                      of them.                                   |
     |                                                                 |
     |Capture Text Area     When no delimiters are specified it        |
     |                      creates a single cell table.  The text in  |
     |                      the specified region is placed in that     |
     |                      cell.                                      |
     +-----------------------------------------------------------------+

By splitting the cell appropriately we now have a table consisting of
paragraphs occupying its own cell.  Each cell can now be edited
independently without affecting the layout of other cells.

     +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
     |`table-capture' is a powerful command, but mastering its         |
     |power requires some practice.  Here are some things it can do:   |
     +---------------------+-------------------------------------------+
     |Parse Cell Items     |By using column delimiter regular          |
     |                     |expression and raw delimiter regular       |
     |                     |expression, it parses the specified text   |
     |                     |area and extracts cell items from          |
     |                     |non-table text and then forms a table out  |
     |                     |of them.                                   |
     +---------------------+-------------------------------------------+
     |Capture Text Area    |When no delimiters are specified it        |
     |                     |creates a single cell table.  The text in  |
     |                     |the specified region is placed in that     |
     |                     |cell.                                      |
     +---------------------+-------------------------------------------+

By applying `table-release', which does the opposite process, the
contents become once again plain text.  `table-release' works as a
companion command to `table-capture'.


File: emacs,  Node: Measuring Tables,  Next: Table Misc,  Prev: Table Conversion,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.10 Analyzing Table Dimensions
-----------------------------------

The command `table-query-dimension' analyzes a table structure and
reports information regarding its dimensions.  In case of the above
example table, the `table-query-dimension' command displays in echo
area:

     Cell: (21w, 6h), Table: (67w, 16h), Dim: (2c, 3r), Total Cells: 5

This indicates that the current cell is 21 character wide and 6 lines
high, the entire table is 67 characters wide and 16 lines high.  The
table has 2 columns and 3 rows.  It has a total of 5 cells, since the
first row has a spanned cell.


File: emacs,  Node: Table Misc,  Prev: Measuring Tables,  Up: Text Based Tables

30.13.11 Table Miscellany
-------------------------

The command `table-insert-sequence' inserts a string into each cell.
Each string is a part of a sequence i.e. a series of increasing integer
numbers.

   The command `table-generate-source' generates a table formatted for
a specific markup language.  It asks for a language (which must be one
of `html', `latex', or `cals'), a destination buffer where to put the
result, and the table caption (a string), and then inserts the
generated table in the proper syntax into the destination buffer.  The
default destination buffer is `table.LANG', where LANG is the language
you specified.


File: emacs,  Node: Programs,  Next: Building,  Prev: Text,  Up: Top

31 Editing Programs
*******************

Emacs provides many features to facilitate editing programs.  Some of
these features can

   * Find or move over top-level definitions (*note Defuns::).

   * Apply the usual indentation conventions of the language (*note
     Program Indent::).

   * Balance parentheses (*note Parentheses::).

   * Insert, kill or align comments (*note Comments::).

   * Highlight program syntax (*note Font Lock::).

   This chapter describes these features and many more.

* Menu:

* Program Modes::       Major modes for editing programs.
* Defuns::              Commands to operate on major top-level parts
                          of a program.
* Program Indent::      Adjusting indentation to show the nesting.
* Parentheses::         Commands that operate on parentheses.
* Comments::	        Inserting, killing, and aligning comments.
* Documentation::       Getting documentation of functions you plan to call.
* Hideshow::            Displaying blocks selectively.
* Symbol Completion::   Completion on symbol names of your program or language.
* Glasses::             Making identifiersLikeThis more readable.
* Misc for Programs::   Other Emacs features useful for editing programs.
* C Modes::             Special commands of C, C++, Objective-C,
                          Java, and Pike modes.
* Asm Mode::            Asm mode and its special features.

* Fortran::             Fortran mode and its special features.


File: emacs,  Node: Program Modes,  Next: Defuns,  Up: Programs

31.1 Major Modes for Programming Languages
==========================================

Emacs has specialized major modes for various programming languages.
*Note Major Modes::.  A programming language major mode typically
specifies the syntax of expressions, the customary rules for
indentation, how to do syntax highlighting for the language, and how to
find the beginning of a function definition.  It often customizes or
provides facilities for compiling and debugging programs as well.

   Ideally, Emacs should provide a major mode for each programming
language that you might want to edit; if it doesn't have a mode for
your favorite language, you can contribute one.  But often the mode for
one language can serve for other syntactically similar languages.  The
major mode for language L is called `L-mode', and you can select it by
typing `M-x L-mode <RET>'.  *Note Choosing Modes::.

   The existing programming language major modes include Lisp, Scheme (a
variant of Lisp) and the Scheme-based DSSSL expression language, Ada,
ASM, AWK, C, C++, Delphi (Object Pascal), Fortran (free format and fixed
format), Icon, IDL (CORBA), IDLWAVE, Java, Metafont (TeX's companion
for font creation), Modula2, Objective-C, Octave, Pascal, Perl, Pike,
PostScript, Prolog, Simula, Tcl, and VHDL.  An alternative mode for
Perl is called CPerl mode.  Modes are available for the scripting
languages of the common GNU and Unix shells, VMS DCL, and
MS-DOS/MS-Windows `BAT' files.  There are also major modes for editing
makefiles, DNS master files, and various sorts of configuration files.

   In most programming languages, indentation should vary from line to
line to illustrate the structure of the program.  So the major modes
for programming languages arrange for <TAB> to update the indentation
of the current line.  They also rebind <DEL> to treat a tab as if it
were the equivalent number of spaces; this lets you delete one column
of indentation without worrying whether the whitespace consists of
spaces or tabs.  Use `C-b C-d' to delete a tab character before point,
in these modes.

   Separate manuals are available for the modes for Ada (*note Ada
Mode: (ada-mode)Top.), C/C++/Objective C/Java/Corba IDL/Pike/AWK (*note
CC Mode: (ccmode)Top.) and the IDLWAVE modes (*note IDLWAVE:
(idlwave)Top.).  For Fortran mode, see *Note Fortran::.

   Turning on a major mode runs a normal hook called the "mode hook",
which is the value of a Lisp variable.  Each major mode has a mode
hook, and the hook's name is always made from the mode command's name
by adding `-hook'.  For example, turning on C mode runs the hook
`c-mode-hook', while turning on Lisp mode runs the hook
`lisp-mode-hook'.  The purpose of the mode hook is to give you a place
to set up customizations for that major mode.  *Note Hooks::.


File: emacs,  Node: Defuns,  Next: Program Indent,  Prev: Program Modes,  Up: Programs

31.2 Top-Level Definitions, or Defuns
=====================================

In Emacs, a major definition at the top level in the buffer, something
like a function, is called a "defun".  The name comes from Lisp, but in
Emacs we use it for all languages.

* Menu:

* Left Margin Paren::   An open-paren or similar opening delimiter
                          starts a defun if it is at the left margin.
* Moving by Defuns::    Commands to move over or mark a major definition.
* Imenu::               Making buffer indexes as menus.
* Which Function::      Which Function mode shows which function you are in.


File: emacs,  Node: Left Margin Paren,  Next: Moving by Defuns,  Up: Defuns

31.2.1 Left Margin Convention
-----------------------------

Emacs assumes by default that any opening delimiter found at the left
margin is the start of a top-level definition, or defun.  Therefore,
*don't put an opening delimiter at the left margin unless it should
have that significance*.  For instance, never put an open-parenthesis
at the left margin in a Lisp file unless it is the start of a top-level
list.

   If you don't follow this convention, not only will you have trouble
when you explicitly use the commands for motion by defuns; other
features that use them will also give you trouble.  This includes the
indentation commands (*note Program Indent::) and Font Lock mode (*note
Font Lock::).

   The most likely problem case is when you want an opening delimiter
at the start of a line inside a string.  To avoid trouble, put an
escape character (`\', in C and Emacs Lisp, `/' in some other Lisp
dialects) before the opening delimiter.  This will not affect the
contents of the string, but will prevent that opening delimiter from
starting a defun.  Here's an example:

       (insert "Foo:
     \(bar)
     ")

   To help you catch violations of this convention, Font Lock mode
highlights confusing opening delimiters (those that ought to be quoted)
in bold red.

   If you need to override this convention, you can so by setting this
user option:

 -- Variable: open-paren-in-column-0-is-defun-start
     If this user option is set to `t' (the default), opening
     parentheses or braces at column zero always start defuns.  When
     it's `nil', defuns are found by searching for parens or braces at
     the outermost level.

   Usually, you shouldn't need to set
`open-paren-in-column-0-is-defun-start' to `nil'.  However, if your
buffer contains parentheses or braces in column zero which don't start
defuns and this confuses Emacs, it sometimes helps to set the option to
`nil'.  Be aware, though, that this will make scrolling and display in
large buffers quite sluggish, and that parentheses and braces must be
correctly matched throughout the buffer for it to work properly.

   In the earliest days, the original Emacs found defuns by moving
upward a level of parentheses or braces until there were no more levels
to go up.  This always required scanning all the way back to the
beginning of the buffer, even for a small function.  To speed up the
operation, we changed Emacs to assume that any opening delimiter at the
left margin is the start of a defun.  This heuristic is nearly always
right, and avoids the need to scan back to the beginning of the buffer.
However, now that modern computers are so powerful, this scanning is
rarely slow enough to annoy, so we've provided a way to disable the
heuristic.


File: emacs,  Node: Moving by Defuns,  Next: Imenu,  Prev: Left Margin Paren,  Up: Defuns

31.2.2 Moving by Defuns
-----------------------

These commands move point or set up the region based on top-level major
definitions, also called "defuns".

`C-M-a'
     Move to beginning of current or preceding defun
     (`beginning-of-defun').

`C-M-e'
     Move to end of current or following defun (`end-of-defun').

`C-M-h'
     Put region around whole current or following defun (`mark-defun').

   The commands to move to the beginning and end of the current defun
are `C-M-a' (`beginning-of-defun') and `C-M-e' (`end-of-defun').  If
you repeat one of these commands, or use a positive numeric argument,
each repetition moves to the next defun in the direction of motion.

   `C-M-a' with a negative argument -N moves forward N times to the
next beginning of a defun.  This is not exactly the same place that
`C-M-e' with argument N would move to; the end of this defun is not
usually exactly the same place as the beginning of the following defun.
(Whitespace, comments, and perhaps declarations can separate them.)
Likewise, `C-M-e' with a negative argument moves back to an end of a
defun, which is not quite the same as `C-M-a' with a positive argument.

   To operate on the current defun, use `C-M-h' (`mark-defun') which
puts point at the beginning and mark at the end of the current defun.
This is the easiest way to get ready to kill the defun in order to move
it to a different place in the file.  If you use the command while
point is between defuns, it uses the following defun.  Successive uses
of `C-M-h', or using it in Transient Mark mode when the mark is active,
extends the end of the region to include one more defun each time.

   In C mode, `C-M-h' runs the function `c-mark-function', which is
almost the same as `mark-defun'; the difference is that it backs up
over the argument declarations, function name and returned data type so
that the entire C function is inside the region.  This is an example of
how major modes adjust the standard key bindings so that they do their
standard jobs in a way better fitting a particular language.  Other
major modes may replace any or all of these key bindings for that
purpose.


File: emacs,  Node: Imenu,  Next: Which Function,  Prev: Moving by Defuns,  Up: Defuns

31.2.3 Imenu
------------

The Imenu facility offers a way to find the major definitions in a file
by name.  It is also useful in text formatter major modes, where it
treats each chapter, section, etc., as a definition.  (*Note Tags::,
for a more powerful feature that handles multiple files together.)

   If you type `M-x imenu', it reads the name of a definition using the
minibuffer, then moves point to that definition.  You can use
completion to specify the name; the command always displays the whole
list of valid names.

   Alternatively, you can bind the command `imenu' to a mouse click.
Then it displays mouse menus for you to select a definition name.  You
can also add the buffer's index to the menu bar by calling
`imenu-add-menubar-index'.  If you want to have this menu bar item
available for all buffers in a certain major mode, you can do this by
adding `imenu-add-menubar-index' to its mode hook.  But if you have
done that, you will have to wait a little while each time you visit a
file in that mode, while Emacs finds all the definitions in that buffer.

   When you change the contents of a buffer, if you add or delete
definitions, you can update the buffer's index based on the new
contents by invoking the `*Rescan*' item in the menu.  Rescanning
happens automatically if you set `imenu-auto-rescan' to a non-`nil'
value.  There is no need to rescan because of small changes in the text.

   You can customize the way the menus are sorted by setting the
variable `imenu-sort-function'.  By default, names are ordered as they
occur in the buffer; if you want alphabetic sorting, use the symbol
`imenu--sort-by-name' as the value.  You can also define your own
comparison function by writing Lisp code.

   Imenu provides the information to guide Which Function mode (*note
Which Function::).  The Speedbar can also use it (*note Speedbar::).


File: emacs,  Node: Which Function,  Prev: Imenu,  Up: Defuns

31.2.4 Which Function Mode
--------------------------

Which Function mode is a minor mode that displays the current function
name in the mode line, updating it as you move around in a buffer.

   To either enable or disable Which Function mode, use the command
`M-x which-function-mode'.  This command is global; it applies to all
buffers, both existing ones and those yet to be created.  However, it
takes effect only in certain major modes, those listed in the value of
`which-func-modes'.  If the value is `t', then Which Function mode
applies to all major modes that know how to support it--in other words,
all the major modes that support Imenu.


File: emacs,  Node: Program Indent,  Next: Parentheses,  Prev: Defuns,  Up: Programs

31.3 Indentation for Programs
=============================

The best way to keep a program properly indented is to use Emacs to
reindent it as you change it.  Emacs has commands to indent properly
either a single line, a specified number of lines, or all of the lines
inside a single parenthetical grouping.

* Menu:

* Basic Indent::	Indenting a single line.
* Multi-line Indent::   Commands to reindent many lines at once.
* Lisp Indent::		Specifying how each Lisp function should be indented.
* C Indent::		Extra features for indenting C and related modes.
* Custom C Indent::	Controlling indentation style for C and related modes.

   Emacs also provides a Lisp pretty-printer in the library `pp'.  This
program reformats a Lisp object with indentation chosen to look nice.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Indent,  Next: Multi-line Indent,  Up: Program Indent

31.3.1 Basic Program Indentation Commands
-----------------------------------------

The basic indentation commands indent a single line according to the
usual conventions of the language you are editing.

`<TAB>'
     Adjust indentation of current line.

`C-j'
     Insert a newline, then adjust indentation of following line
     (`newline-and-indent').

   The basic indentation command is <TAB>, which gives the current line
the correct indentation as determined from the previous lines.  The
function that <TAB> runs depends on the major mode; it is
`lisp-indent-line' in Lisp mode, `c-indent-command' in C mode, etc.
These functions understand the syntax and conventions of different
languages, but they all do conceptually the same job: <TAB> in any
programming-language major mode inserts or deletes whitespace at the
beginning of the current line, independent of where point is in the
line.  If point was inside the whitespace at the beginning of the line,
<TAB> puts it at the end of that whitespace; otherwise, <TAB> keeps
point fixed with respect to the characters around it.

   Use `C-q <TAB>' to insert a tab character at point.

   When entering lines of new code, use `C-j' (`newline-and-indent'),
which inserts a newline and then adjusts indentation after it.  (It
also deletes any trailing whitespace which remains before the new
newline.)  Thus, `C-j' at the end of a line creates a blank line with
appropriate indentation.  In programming language modes, it is
equivalent to <RET> <TAB>.

   <TAB> indents a line that starts within a parenthetical grouping
under the preceding line within the grouping, or the text after the
parenthesis.  Therefore, if you manually give one of these lines a
nonstandard indentation, the lines below will tend to follow it.  This
behavior is convenient in cases where you have overridden the standard
result of <TAB> because you find it unaesthetic for a particular line.

   In some modes, an open-parenthesis, open-brace or other opening
delimiter at the left margin is assumed by Emacs (including the
indentation routines) to be the start of a function.  This speeds up
indentation commands.  If you will be editing text which contains
opening delimiters in column zero that aren't the beginning of a
functions, even inside strings or comments, you must set
`open-paren-in-column-0-is-defun-start'.  *Note Left Margin Paren::,
for more information on this.

   Normally, lines are indented with tabs and spaces.  If you want Emacs
to use spaces only, set `indent-tabs-mode' (*note Just Spaces::).


File: emacs,  Node: Multi-line Indent,  Next: Lisp Indent,  Prev: Basic Indent,  Up: Program Indent

31.3.2 Indenting Several Lines
------------------------------

When you wish to reindent several lines of code which have been altered
or moved to a different level in the parenthesis structure, you have
several commands available.

`C-M-q'
     Reindent all the lines within one parenthetical grouping
     (`indent-pp-sexp').

`C-M-\'
     Reindent all lines in the region (`indent-region').

`C-u <TAB>'
     Shift an entire parenthetical grouping rigidly sideways so that its
     first line is properly indented.

`M-x indent-code-rigidly'
     Shift all the lines in the region rigidly sideways, but do not
     alter lines that start inside comments and strings.

   You can reindent the contents of a single parenthetical grouping by
positioning point before the beginning of it and typing `C-M-q'
(`indent-pp-sexp' in Lisp mode, `c-indent-exp' in C mode; also bound to
other suitable commands in other modes).  The indentation of the line
where the grouping starts is not changed; therefore this changes only
the relative indentation within the grouping, not its overall
indentation.  To correct that as well, type <TAB> first.

   Another way to specify the range to be reindented is with the
region.  The command `C-M-\' (`indent-region') applies <TAB> to every
line whose first character is between point and mark.

   If you like the relative indentation within a grouping, but not the
indentation of its first line, you can type `C-u <TAB>' to reindent the
whole grouping as a rigid unit.  (This works in Lisp modes and C and
related modes.)  <TAB> with a numeric argument reindents the current
line as usual, then reindents by the same amount all the lines in the
parenthetical grouping starting on the current line.  It is clever,
though, and does not alter lines that start inside strings.  Neither
does it alter C preprocessor lines when in C mode, but it does reindent
any continuation lines that may be attached to them.

   You can also perform this operation on the region, using the command
`M-x indent-code-rigidly'.  It rigidly shifts all the lines in the
region sideways, like `indent-rigidly' does (*note Indentation
Commands::).  It doesn't alter the indentation of lines that start
inside a string, unless the region also starts inside that string.  The
prefix arg specifies the number of columns to indent.


File: emacs,  Node: Lisp Indent,  Next: C Indent,  Prev: Multi-line Indent,  Up: Program Indent

31.3.3 Customizing Lisp Indentation
-----------------------------------

The indentation pattern for a Lisp expression can depend on the function
called by the expression.  For each Lisp function, you can choose among
several predefined patterns of indentation, or define an arbitrary one
with a Lisp program.

   The standard pattern of indentation is as follows: the second line
of the expression is indented under the first argument, if that is on
the same line as the beginning of the expression; otherwise, the second
line is indented underneath the function name.  Each following line is
indented under the previous line whose nesting depth is the same.

   If the variable `lisp-indent-offset' is non-`nil', it overrides the
usual indentation pattern for the second line of an expression, so that
such lines are always indented `lisp-indent-offset' more columns than
the containing list.

   Certain functions override the standard pattern.  Functions whose
names start with `def' treat the second lines as the start of a "body",
by indenting the second line `lisp-body-indent' additional columns
beyond the open-parenthesis that starts the expression.

   You can override the standard pattern in various ways for individual
functions, according to the `lisp-indent-function' property of the
function name.  Normally you would use this for macro definitions and
specify it using the `declare' construct (*note Defining Macros:
(elisp)Defining Macros.).


File: emacs,  Node: C Indent,  Next: Custom C Indent,  Prev: Lisp Indent,  Up: Program Indent

31.3.4 Commands for C Indentation
---------------------------------

Here are special features for indentation in C mode and related modes:

`C-c C-q'
     Reindent the current top-level function definition or aggregate
     type declaration (`c-indent-defun').

`C-M-q'
     Reindent each line in the balanced expression that follows point
     (`c-indent-exp').  A prefix argument inhibits warning messages
     about invalid syntax.

`<TAB>'
     Reindent the current line, and/or in some cases insert a tab
     character (`c-indent-command').

     If `c-tab-always-indent' is `t', this command always reindents the
     current line and does nothing else.  This is the default.

     If that variable is `nil', this command reindents the current line
     only if point is at the left margin or in the line's indentation;
     otherwise, it inserts a tab (or the equivalent number of spaces,
     if `indent-tabs-mode' is `nil').

     Any other value (not `nil' or `t') means always reindent the line,
     and also insert a tab if within a comment or a string.

   To reindent the whole current buffer, type `C-x h C-M-\'.  This
first selects the whole buffer as the region, then reindents that
region.

   To reindent the current block, use `C-M-u C-M-q'.  This moves to the
front of the block and then reindents it all.


File: emacs,  Node: Custom C Indent,  Prev: C Indent,  Up: Program Indent

31.3.5 Customizing C Indentation
--------------------------------

C mode and related modes use a flexible mechanism for customizing
indentation.  C mode indents a source line in two steps: first it
classifies the line syntactically according to its contents and
context; second, it determines the indentation offset associated by
your selected "style" with the syntactic construct and adds this onto
the indentation of the "anchor statement".

`C-c . <RET> STYLE <RET>'
     Select a predefined style STYLE (`c-set-style').

   A "style" is a named collection of customizations that can be used
in C mode and the related modes.  *Note Styles: (ccmode)Styles, for a
complete description.  Emacs comes with several predefined styles,
including `gnu', `k&r', `bsd', `stroustrup', `linux', `python', `java',
`whitesmith', `ellemtel', and `awk'.  Some of these styles are
primarily intended for one language, but any of them can be used with
any of the languages supported by these modes.  To find out what a
style looks like, select it and reindent some code, e.g., by typing
<C-M-q> at the start of a function definition.

   To choose a style for the current buffer, use the command `C-c .'.
Specify a style name as an argument (case is not significant).  This
command affects the current buffer only, and it affects only future
invocations of the indentation commands; it does not reindent the code
already in the buffer.  To reindent the whole buffer in the new style,
you can type `C-x h C-M-\'.

   You can also set the variable `c-default-style' to specify the
default style for various major modes.  Its value should be either the
style's name (a string) or an alist, in which each element specifies
one major mode and which indentation style to use for it.  For example,

     (setq c-default-style
           '((java-mode . "java") (awk-mode . "awk") (other . "gnu")))

specifies explicit choices for Java and AWK modes, and the default
`gnu' style for the other C-like modes.  (These settings are actually
the defaults.)  This variable takes effect when you select one of the
C-like major modes; thus, if you specify a new default style for Java
mode, you can make it take effect in an existing Java mode buffer by
typing `M-x java-mode' there.

   The `gnu' style specifies the formatting recommended by the GNU
Project for C; it is the default, so as to encourage use of our
recommended style.

   *Note Indentation Engine Basics: (ccmode)Indentation Engine Basics,
and *Note Customizing Indentation: (ccmode)Customizing Indentation, for
more information on customizing indentation for C and related modes,
including how to override parts of an existing style and how to define
your own styles.


File: emacs,  Node: Parentheses,  Next: Comments,  Prev: Program Indent,  Up: Programs

31.4 Commands for Editing with Parentheses
==========================================

This section describes the commands and features that take advantage of
the parenthesis structure in a program, or help you keep it balanced.

   When talking about these facilities, the term "parenthesis" also
includes braces, brackets, or whatever delimiters are defined to match
in pairs.  The major mode controls which delimiters are significant,
through the syntax table (*note Syntax::).  In Lisp, only parentheses
count; in C, these commands apply to braces and brackets too.

   You can use `M-x check-parens' to find any unbalanced parentheses
and unbalanced string quotes in the buffer.

* Menu:

* Expressions::         Expressions with balanced parentheses.
* Moving by Parens::    Commands for moving up, down and across
                          in the structure of parentheses.
* Matching::	        Insertion of a close-delimiter flashes matching open.


File: emacs,  Node: Expressions,  Next: Moving by Parens,  Up: Parentheses

31.4.1 Expressions with Balanced Parentheses
--------------------------------------------

These commands deal with balanced expressions, also called "sexps"(1).

`C-M-f'
     Move forward over a balanced expression (`forward-sexp').

`C-M-b'
     Move backward over a balanced expression (`backward-sexp').

`C-M-k'
     Kill balanced expression forward (`kill-sexp').

`C-M-t'
     Transpose expressions (`transpose-sexps').

`C-M-@'
`C-M-<SPC>'
     Put mark after following expression (`mark-sexp').

   Each programming language major mode customizes the definition of
balanced expressions to suit that language.  Balanced expressions
typically include symbols, numbers, and string constants, as well as
any pair of matching delimiters and their contents.  Some languages
have obscure forms of expression syntax that nobody has bothered to
implement in Emacs.

   By convention, the keys for these commands are all Control-Meta
characters.  They usually act on expressions just as the corresponding
Meta characters act on words.  For instance, the command `C-M-b' moves
backward over a balanced expression, just as `M-b' moves back over a
word.

   To move forward over a balanced expression, use `C-M-f'
(`forward-sexp').  If the first significant character after point is an
opening delimiter (`(' in Lisp; `(', `[' or `{' in C), `C-M-f' moves
past the matching closing delimiter.  If the character begins a symbol,
string, or number, `C-M-f' moves over that.

   The command `C-M-b' (`backward-sexp') moves backward over a balanced
expression.  The detailed rules are like those above for `C-M-f', but
with directions reversed.  If there are prefix characters
(single-quote, backquote and comma, in Lisp) preceding the expression,
`C-M-b' moves back over them as well.  The balanced expression commands
move across comments as if they were whitespace, in most modes.

   `C-M-f' or `C-M-b' with an argument repeats that operation the
specified number of times; with a negative argument, it moves in the
opposite direction.

   Killing a whole balanced expression can be done with `C-M-k'
(`kill-sexp').  `C-M-k' kills the characters that `C-M-f' would move
over.

   A somewhat random-sounding command which is nevertheless handy is
`C-M-t' (`transpose-sexps'), which drags the previous balanced
expression across the next one.  An argument serves as a repeat count,
moving the previous expression over that many following ones.  A
negative argument drags the previous balanced expression backwards
across those before it (thus canceling out the effect of `C-M-t' with a
positive argument).  An argument of zero, rather than doing nothing,
transposes the balanced expressions ending at or after point and the
mark.

   To set the region around the next balanced expression in the buffer,
use `C-M-@' (`mark-sexp'), which sets mark at the same place that
`C-M-f' would move to.  `C-M-@' takes arguments like `C-M-f'.  In
particular, a negative argument is useful for putting the mark at the
beginning of the previous balanced expression.  The alias `C-M-<SPC>'
is equivalent to `C-M-@'.  When you repeat this command, or use it in
Transient Mark mode when the mark is active, it extends the end of the
region by one sexp each time.

   In languages that use infix operators, such as C, it is not possible
to recognize all balanced expressions as such because there can be
multiple possibilities at a given position.  For example, C mode does
not treat `foo + bar' as a single expression, even though it _is_ one C
expression; instead, it recognizes `foo' as one expression and `bar' as
another, with the `+' as punctuation between them.  Both `foo + bar'
and `foo' are legitimate choices for "the expression following point"
when point is at the `f', so the expression commands must perforce
choose one or the other to operate on.  Note that `(foo + bar)' is
recognized as a single expression in C mode, because of the parentheses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The word "sexp" is used to refer to an expression in Lisp.


File: emacs,  Node: Moving by Parens,  Next: Matching,  Prev: Expressions,  Up: Parentheses

31.4.2 Moving in the Parenthesis Structure
------------------------------------------

The Emacs commands for handling parenthetical groupings see nothing
except parentheses (or whatever characters must balance in the language
you are working with), and the escape characters that might be used to
quote those.  They are mainly intended for editing programs, but can be
useful for editing any text that has parentheses.  They are sometimes
called "list" commands because in Lisp these groupings are lists.

`C-M-n'
     Move forward over a parenthetical group (`forward-list').

`C-M-p'
     Move backward over a parenthetical group (`backward-list').

`C-M-u'
     Move up in parenthesis structure (`backward-up-list').

`C-M-d'
     Move down in parenthesis structure (`down-list').

   The "list" commands `C-M-n' (`forward-list') and `C-M-p'
(`backward-list') move over one (or N) parenthetical groupings,
skipping blithely over any amount of text that doesn't include
meaningful parentheses (symbols, strings, etc.).

   `C-M-n' and `C-M-p' try to stay at the same level in the parenthesis
structure.  To move _up_ one (or N) levels, use `C-M-u'
(`backward-up-list').  `C-M-u' moves backward up past one unmatched
opening delimiter.  A positive argument serves as a repeat count; a
negative argument reverses the direction of motion, so that the command
moves forward and up one or more levels.

   To move _down_ in the parenthesis structure, use `C-M-d'
(`down-list').  In Lisp mode, where `(' is the only opening delimiter,
this is nearly the same as searching for a `('.  An argument specifies
the number of levels to go down.


File: emacs,  Node: Matching,  Prev: Moving by Parens,  Up: Parentheses

31.4.3 Automatic Display Of Matching Parentheses
------------------------------------------------

The Emacs parenthesis-matching feature is designed to show
automatically how parentheses (and other matching delimiters) match in
the text.  Whenever you type a self-inserting character that is a
closing delimiter, the cursor moves momentarily to the location of the
matching opening delimiter, provided that is on the screen.  If it is
not on the screen, Emacs displays some of the text near it in the echo
area.  Either way, you can tell which grouping you are closing off.

   If the opening delimiter and closing delimiter are mismatched--such
as in `[x)'--a warning message is displayed in the echo area.

   Three variables control parenthesis match display:

   `blink-matching-paren' turns the feature on or off: `nil' disables
it, but the default is `t' to enable match display.

   `blink-matching-delay' says how many seconds to leave the cursor on
the matching opening delimiter, before bringing it back to the real
location of point; the default is 1, but on some systems it is useful
to specify a fraction of a second.

   `blink-matching-paren-distance' specifies how many characters back
to search to find the matching opening delimiter.  If the match is not
found in that distance, scanning stops, and nothing is displayed.  This
is to prevent the scan for the matching delimiter from wasting lots of
time when there is no match.  The default is 25600.

   Show Paren mode provides a more powerful kind of automatic matching.
Whenever point is after a closing delimiter, that delimiter and its
matching opening delimiter are both highlighted; otherwise, if point is
before an opening delimiter, the matching closing delimiter is
highlighted.  (There is no need to highlight the opening delimiter in
that case, because the cursor appears on top of that character.)  Use
the command `M-x show-paren-mode' to enable or disable this mode.

   Show Paren mode uses the faces `show-paren-match' and
`show-paren-mismatch' to highlight parentheses; you can customize them
to control how highlighting looks.  *Note Face Customization::.


File: emacs,  Node: Comments,  Next: Documentation,  Prev: Parentheses,  Up: Programs

31.5 Manipulating Comments
==========================

Because comments are such an important part of programming, Emacs
provides special commands for editing and inserting comments.  It can
also do spell checking on comments with Flyspell Prog mode (*note
Spelling::).

* Menu:

* Comment Commands::    Inserting, killing, and aligning comments.
* Multi-Line Comments:: Commands for adding and editing multi-line comments.
* Options for Comments::Customizing the comment features.


File: emacs,  Node: Comment Commands,  Next: Multi-Line Comments,  Up: Comments

31.5.1 Comment Commands
-----------------------

The comment commands in this table insert, kill and align comments.
They are described in this section and following sections.

`M-;'
     Insert or realign comment on current line; alternatively, comment
     or uncomment the region (`comment-dwim').

`C-u M-;'
     Kill comment on current line (`comment-kill').

`C-x ;'
     Set comment column (`comment-set-column').

`C-M-j'
`M-j'
     Like <RET> followed by inserting and aligning a comment
     (`comment-indent-new-line').  *Note Multi-Line Comments::.

`M-x comment-region'
`C-c C-c' (in C-like modes)
     Add or remove comment delimiters on all the lines in the region.

   The command to create or align a comment is `M-;' (`comment-dwim').
The word "dwim" is an acronym for "Do What I Mean"; it indicates that
this command can be used for many different jobs relating to comments,
depending on the situation where you use it.

   If there is no comment already on the line, `M-;' inserts a new
comment, aligned at a specific column called the "comment column".  The
new comment begins with the string Emacs thinks comments should start
with (the value of `comment-start'; see below).  Point is after that
string, so you can insert the text of the comment right away.  If the
major mode has specified a string to terminate comments, `M-;' inserts
that after point, to keep the syntax valid.

   If the text of the line extends past the comment column, this
command aligns the comment start string to a suitable boundary
(usually, at least one space is inserted).

   You can also use `M-;' to align an existing comment.  If a line
already contains the comment-start string, `M-;' realigns it to the
conventional alignment and moves point after it.  (Exception: comments
starting in column 0 are not moved.)  Even when an existing comment is
properly aligned, `M-;' is still useful for moving directly to the
start of the text inside the comment.

   `C-u M-;' kills any comment on the current line, along with the
whitespace before it.  To reinsert the comment on another line, move to
the end of that line, do `C-y', and then do `M-;' to realign it.

   Note that `C-u M-;' is not a distinct key; it is `M-;'
(`comment-dwim') with a prefix argument.  That command is programmed so
that when it receives a prefix argument it calls `comment-kill'.
However, `comment-kill' is a valid command in its own right, and you
can bind it directly to a key if you wish.

   `M-;' does two other jobs when used with an active region in
Transient Mark mode (*note Transient Mark::).  Then it either adds or
removes comment delimiters on each line of the region.  (If every line
is a comment, it removes comment delimiters from each; otherwise, it
adds comment delimiters to each.)  If you are not using Transient Mark
mode, then you should use the commands `comment-region' and
`uncomment-region' to do these jobs (*note Multi-Line Comments::), or
else enable Transient Mark mode momentarily (*note Momentary Mark::).
A prefix argument used in these circumstances specifies how many
comment delimiters to add or how many to delete.

   Some major modes have special rules for aligning certain kinds of
comments in certain contexts.  For example, in Lisp code, comments which
start with two semicolons are indented as if they were lines of code,
instead of at the comment column.  Comments which start with three
semicolons are supposed to start at the left margin and are often used
for sectioning purposes.  Emacs understands these conventions by
indenting a double-semicolon comment using <TAB>, and by not changing
the indentation of a triple-semicolon comment at all.

     ;; This function is just an example.
     ;;; Here either two or three semicolons are appropriate.
     (defun foo (x)
     ;;;  And now, the first part of the function:
       ;; The following line adds one.
       (1+ x))           ; This line adds one.

   For C-like modes, you can configure the exact effect of `M-;' more
flexibly than for most buffers by setting the variables
`c-indent-comment-alist' and `c-indent-comments-syntactically-p'.  For
example, on a line ending in a closing brace, `M-;' puts the comment
one space after the brace rather than at `comment-column'.  For full
details see *Note Comment Commands: (ccmode)Comment Commands.


File: emacs,  Node: Multi-Line Comments,  Next: Options for Comments,  Prev: Comment Commands,  Up: Comments

31.5.2 Multiple Lines of Comments
---------------------------------

If you are typing a comment and wish to continue it on another line,
you can use the command `C-M-j' or `M-j' (`comment-indent-new-line').
If `comment-multi-line' (*note Options for Comments::) is non-`nil', it
moves to a new line within the comment.  Otherwise it closes the
comment and starts a new comment on a new line.  When Auto Fill mode is
on, going past the fill column while typing a comment causes the
comment to be continued in just this fashion.

   To turn existing lines into comment lines, use the `M-x
comment-region' command (or type `C-c C-c' in C-like modes).  It adds
comment delimiters to the lines that start in the region, thus
commenting them out.  With a negative argument, it does the
opposite--it deletes comment delimiters from the lines in the region.

   With a positive argument, `comment-region' duplicates the last
character of the comment start sequence it adds; the argument specifies
how many copies of the character to insert.  Thus, in Lisp mode, `C-u 2
M-x comment-region' adds `;;' to each line.  Duplicating the comment
delimiter is a way of calling attention to the comment.  It can also
affect how the comment is aligned or indented.  In Lisp, for proper
indentation, you should use an argument of two or three, if between
defuns; if within a defun, it must be three.

   You can configure C Mode such that when you type a `/' at the start
of a line in a multi-line block comment, this closes the comment.
Enable the `comment-close-slash' clean-up for this.  *Note Clean-ups:
(ccmode)Clean-ups.


File: emacs,  Node: Options for Comments,  Prev: Multi-Line Comments,  Up: Comments

31.5.3 Options Controlling Comments
-----------------------------------

The "comment column", the column at which Emacs tries to place
comments, is stored in the variable `comment-column'.  You can set it
to a number explicitly.  Alternatively, the command `C-x ;'
(`comment-set-column') sets the comment column to the column point is
at.  `C-u C-x ;' sets the comment column to match the last comment
before point in the buffer, and then does a `M-;' to align the current
line's comment under the previous one.

   The variable `comment-column' is per-buffer: setting the variable in
the normal fashion affects only the current buffer, but there is a
default value which you can change with `setq-default'.  *Note
Locals::.  Many major modes initialize this variable for the current
buffer.

   The comment commands recognize comments based on the regular
expression that is the value of the variable `comment-start-skip'.
Make sure this regexp does not match the null string.  It may match more
than the comment starting delimiter in the strictest sense of the word;
for example, in C mode the value of the variable is
`"/\\*+ *\\|//+ *"', which matches extra stars and spaces after the
`/*' itself, and accepts C++ style comments also.  (Note that `\\' is
needed in Lisp syntax to include a `\' in the string, which is needed
to deny the first star its special meaning in regexp syntax.  *Note
Regexp Backslash::.)

   When a comment command makes a new comment, it inserts the value of
`comment-start' to begin it.  The value of `comment-end' is inserted
after point, so that it will follow the text that you will insert into
the comment.  When `comment-end' is non-empty, it should start with a
space.  For example, in C mode, `comment-start' has the value `"/* "'
and `comment-end' has the value `" */"'.

   The variable `comment-padding' specifies how many spaces
`comment-region' should insert on each line between the comment
delimiter and the line's original text.  The default is 1, to insert
one space.  `nil' means 0.  Alternatively, `comment-padding' can hold
the actual string to insert.

   The variable `comment-multi-line' controls how `C-M-j'
(`indent-new-comment-line') behaves when used inside a comment.
Specifically, when `comment-multi-line' is `nil', the command inserts a
comment terminator, begins a new line, and finally inserts a comment
starter.  Otherwise it does not insert the terminator and starter, so
it effectively continues the current comment across multiple lines.  In
languages that allow multi-line comments, the choice of value for this
variable is a matter of taste.  The default for this variable depends
on the major mode.

   The variable `comment-indent-function' should contain a function
that will be called to compute the alignment for a newly inserted
comment or for aligning an existing comment.  It is set differently by
various major modes.  The function is called with no arguments, but with
point at the beginning of the comment, or at the end of a line if a new
comment is to be inserted.  It should return the column in which the
comment ought to start.  For example, in Lisp mode, the indent hook
function bases its decision on how many semicolons begin an existing
comment, and on the code in the preceding lines.


File: emacs,  Node: Documentation,  Next: Hideshow,  Prev: Comments,  Up: Programs

31.6 Documentation Lookup
=========================

Emacs provides several features you can use to look up the
documentation of functions, variables and commands that you plan to use
in your program.

* Menu:

* Info Lookup::         Looking up library functions and commands
                          in Info files.
* Man Page::            Looking up man pages of library functions and commands.
* Lisp Doc::            Looking up Emacs Lisp functions, etc.


File: emacs,  Node: Info Lookup,  Next: Man Page,  Up: Documentation

31.6.1 Info Documentation Lookup
--------------------------------

For many major modes, that apply to languages that have documentation
in Info, you can use `C-h S' (`info-lookup-symbol') to view the Info
documentation for a symbol used in the program.  You specify the symbol
with the minibuffer; the default is the symbol appearing in the buffer
at point.  For example, in C mode this looks for the symbol in the C
Library Manual.  The command only works if the appropriate manual's
Info files are installed.

   The major mode determines where to look for documentation for the
symbol--which Info files to look in, and which indices to search.  You
can also use `M-x info-lookup-file' to look for documentation for a
file name.

   If you use `C-h S' in a major mode that does not support it, it asks
you to specify the "symbol help mode."  You should enter a command such
as `c-mode' that would select a major mode which `C-h S' does support.


File: emacs,  Node: Man Page,  Next: Lisp Doc,  Prev: Info Lookup,  Up: Documentation

31.6.2 Man Page Lookup
----------------------

On Unix, the main form of on-line documentation was the "manual page"
or "man page".  In the GNU operating system, we aim to replace man
pages with better-organized manuals that you can browse with Info
(*note Misc Help::).  This process is not finished, so it is still
useful to read manual pages.

   You can read the man page for an operating system command, library
function, or system call, with the `M-x man' command.  It runs the
`man' program to format the man page; if the system permits, it runs
`man' asynchronously, so that you can keep on editing while the page is
being formatted.  (On MS-DOS and MS-Windows 3, you cannot edit while
Emacs waits for `man' to finish.)  The result goes in a buffer named
`*Man TOPIC*'.  These buffers use a special major mode, Man mode, that
facilitates scrolling and jumping to other manual pages.  For details,
type `C-h m' while in a man page buffer.

   Each man page belongs to one of ten or more "sections", each named
by a digit or by a digit and a letter.  Sometimes there are multiple
man pages with the same name in different sections.  To read a man page
from a specific section, type `TOPIC(SECTION)' or `SECTION TOPIC' when
`M-x manual-entry' prompts for the topic.  For example, to read the man
page for the C library function `chmod' (as opposed to a command of the
same name), type `M-x manual-entry <RET> chmod(2) <RET>'.  (`chmod' is
a system call, so it is in section `2'.)

   If you do not specify a section, the results depend on how the `man'
program works on your system.  Some of them display only the first man
page they find.  Others display all man pages that have the specified
name, so you can move between them with the `M-n' and `M-p' keys(1).
The mode line shows how many manual pages are present in the Man buffer.

   By default, Emacs highlights the text in man pages.  For a long man
page, highlighting can take substantial time.  You can turn off
highlighting of man pages by setting the variable
`Man-fontify-manpage-flag' to `nil'.

   If you insert the text of a man page into an Emacs buffer in some
other fashion, you can use the command `M-x Man-fontify-manpage' to
perform the same conversions that `M-x manual-entry' does.

   An alternative way of reading manual pages is the `M-x woman'
command(2).  Unlike `M-x man', it does not run any external programs to
format and display the man pages; instead it does the job in Emacs
Lisp, so it works on systems such as MS-Windows, where the `man'
program (and other programs it uses) are not generally available.

   `M-x woman' prompts for a name of a manual page, and provides
completion based on the list of manual pages that are installed on your
machine; the list of available manual pages is computed automatically
the first time you invoke `woman'.  The word at point in the current
buffer is used to suggest the default for the name the manual page.

   With a numeric argument, `M-x woman' recomputes the list of the
manual pages used for completion.  This is useful if you add or delete
manual pages.

   If you type a name of a manual page and `M-x woman' finds that
several manual pages by the same name exist in different sections, it
pops up a window with possible candidates asking you to choose one of
them.

   For more information about setting up and using `M-x woman', see
*Note WoMan: (woman)Top.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) On some systems, the `man' program accepts a `-a' command-line
option which tells it to display all the man pages for the specified
topic.  If you want this behavior, you can add this option to the value
of the variable `Man-switches'.

   (2) The name of the command, `woman', is an acronym for "w/o
(without) man," since it doesn't use the `man' program.


File: emacs,  Node: Lisp Doc,  Prev: Man Page,  Up: Documentation

31.6.3 Emacs Lisp Documentation Lookup
--------------------------------------

As you edit Lisp code to be run in Emacs, you can use the commands `C-h
f' (`describe-function') and `C-h v' (`describe-variable') to view
documentation of functions and variables that you want to use.  These
commands use the minibuffer to read the name of a function or variable
to document, and display the documentation in a window.  Their default
arguments are based on the code in the neighborhood of point.  For `C-h
f', the default is the function called in the innermost list containing
point.  `C-h v' uses the symbol name around or adjacent to point as its
default.

   A more automatic but less powerful method is Eldoc mode.  This minor
mode constantly displays in the echo area the argument list for the
function being called at point.  (In other words, it finds the function
call that point is contained in, and displays the argument list of that
function.)  If point is over a documented variable, it shows the first
line of the variable's docstring.  Eldoc mode applies in Emacs Lisp and
Lisp Interaction modes, and perhaps a few others that provide special
support for looking up doc strings.  Use the command `M-x eldoc-mode'
to enable or disable this feature.


File: emacs,  Node: Hideshow,  Next: Symbol Completion,  Prev: Documentation,  Up: Programs

31.7 Hideshow minor mode
========================

Hideshow minor mode provides selective display of portions of a
program, known as "blocks".  You can use `M-x hs-minor-mode' to enable
or disable this mode, or add `hs-minor-mode' to the mode hook for
certain major modes in order to enable it automatically for those modes.

   Just what constitutes a block depends on the major mode.  In C mode
or C++ mode, they are delimited by braces, while in Lisp mode and
similar modes they are delimited by parentheses.  Multi-line comments
also count as blocks.

`C-c @ C-h'
     Hide the current block (`hs-hide-block').

`C-c @ C-s'
     Show the current block (`hs-show-block').

`C-c @ C-c'
     Either hide or show the current block (`hs-toggle-hiding').

`S-Mouse-2'
     Either hide or show the block you click on
     (`hs-mouse-toggle-hiding').

`C-c @ C-M-h'
     Hide all top-level blocks (`hs-hide-all').

`C-c @ C-M-s'
     Show everything in the buffer (`hs-show-all').

`C-c @ C-l'
     Hide all blocks N levels below this block (`hs-hide-level').

   These variables exist for customizing Hideshow mode.

`hs-hide-comments-when-hiding-all'
     Non-`nil' says that `hs-hide-all' should hide comments too.

`hs-isearch-open'
     Specifies what kind of hidden blocks incremental search should make
     visible.  The value should be one of these four symbols:

    `code'
          Open only code blocks.

    `comment'
          Open only comments.

    `t'
          Open both code blocks and comments.

    `nil'
          Open neither code blocks nor comments.

`hs-special-modes-alist'
     A list of elements, each specifying how to initialize Hideshow
     variables for one major mode.  See the variable's documentation
     string for more information.


File: emacs,  Node: Symbol Completion,  Next: Glasses,  Prev: Hideshow,  Up: Programs

31.8 Completion for Symbol Names
================================

In Emacs, completion is something you normally do in the minibuffer.
But one kind of completion is available in all buffers: completion for
symbol names.

   The character `M-<TAB>' runs a command to complete the partial
symbol before point against the set of meaningful symbol names.  This
command inserts at point any additional characters that it can
determine from the partial name.

   If your window manager defines `M-<TAB>' to switch windows, you can
type `<ESC> <TAB>' or `C-M-i' instead.  However, most window managers
let you customize these shortcuts, and we recommend that you change any
that get in the way of use of Emacs.

   If the partial name in the buffer has multiple possible completions
that differ in the very next character, so that it is impossible to
complete even one more character, `M-<TAB>' displays a list of all
possible completions in another window.

   In most programming language major modes, `M-<TAB>' runs the command
`complete-symbol', which provides two kinds of completion.  Normally it
does completion based on a tags table (*note Tags::); with a numeric
argument (regardless of the value), it does completion based on the
names listed in the Info file indexes for your language.  Thus, to
complete the name of a symbol defined in your own program, use
`M-<TAB>' with no argument; to complete the name of a standard library
function, use `C-u M-<TAB>'.  Of course, Info-based completion works
only if there is an Info file for the standard library functions of
your language, and only if it is installed at your site.

   In Emacs-Lisp mode, the name space for completion normally consists
of nontrivial symbols present in Emacs--those that have function
definitions, values or properties.  However, if there is an
open-parenthesis immediately before the beginning of the partial symbol,
only symbols with function definitions are considered as completions.
The command which implements this is `lisp-complete-symbol'.

   In Text mode and related modes, `M-<TAB>' completes words based on
the spell-checker's dictionary.  *Note Spelling::.


File: emacs,  Node: Glasses,  Next: Misc for Programs,  Prev: Symbol Completion,  Up: Programs

31.9 Glasses minor mode
=======================

Glasses minor mode makes `unreadableIdentifiersLikeThis' readable by
altering the way they display.  It knows two different ways to do this:
by displaying underscores between a lower-case letter and the following
capital letter, and by emboldening the capital letters.  It does not
alter the buffer text, only the way they display, so you can use it
even on read-only buffers.  You can use the command `M-x glasses-mode'
to enable or disable the mode in the current buffer; you can also add
`glasses-mode' to the mode hook of the programming language major modes
in which you normally want to use Glasses mode.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc for Programs,  Next: C Modes,  Prev: Glasses,  Up: Programs

31.10 Other Features Useful for Editing Programs
================================================

A number of Emacs commands that aren't designed specifically for
editing programs are useful for that nonetheless.

   The Emacs commands that operate on words, sentences and paragraphs
are useful for editing code.  Most symbols names contain words (*note
Words::); sentences can be found in strings and comments (*note
Sentences::).  Paragraphs in the strict sense can be found in program
code (in long comments), but the paragraph commands are useful in other
places too, because programming language major modes define paragraphs
to begin and end at blank lines (*note Paragraphs::).  Judicious use of
blank lines to make the program clearer will also provide useful chunks
of text for the paragraph commands to work on.  Auto Fill mode, if
enabled in a programming language major mode, indents the new lines
which it creates.

   The selective display feature is useful for looking at the overall
structure of a function (*note Selective Display::).  This feature
hides the lines that are indented more than a specified amount.
Programming modes often support Outline minor mode (*note Outline
Mode::).  The Foldout package provides folding-editor features (*note
Foldout::).

   The "automatic typing" features may be useful for writing programs.
*Note Autotyping: (autotype)Top.


File: emacs,  Node: C Modes,  Next: Asm Mode,  Prev: Misc for Programs,  Up: Programs

31.11 C and Related Modes
=========================

This section gives a brief description of the special features
available in C, C++, Objective-C, Java, CORBA IDL, Pike and AWK modes.
(These are called "C mode and related modes.")  *Note CC Mode:
(ccmode)Top, for a more extensive description of these modes and their
special features.

* Menu:

* Motion in C::                 Commands to move by C statements, etc.
* Electric C::                  Colon and other chars can automatically reindent.
* Hungry Delete::               A more powerful DEL command.
* Other C Commands::            Filling comments, viewing expansion of macros,
                                and other neat features.


File: emacs,  Node: Motion in C,  Next: Electric C,  Up: C Modes

31.11.1 C Mode Motion Commands
------------------------------

This section describes commands for moving point, in C mode and related
modes.

`M-x c-beginning-of-defun'
`M-x c-end-of-defun'
     Move point to the beginning or end of the current function or
     top-level definition.  These are found by searching for the least
     enclosing braces.  (By contrast, `beginning-of-defun' and
     `end-of-defun' search for braces in column zero.)  If you are
     editing code where the opening brace of a function isn't placed in
     column zero, you may wish to bind `C-M-a' and `C-M-e' to these
     commands.  *Note Moving by Defuns::.

`C-c C-u'
     Move point back to the containing preprocessor conditional,
     leaving the mark behind.  A prefix argument acts as a repeat
     count.  With a negative argument, move point forward to the end of
     the containing preprocessor conditional.

     `#elif' is equivalent to `#else' followed by `#if', so the
     function will stop at a `#elif' when going backward, but not when
     going forward.

`C-c C-p'
     Move point back over a preprocessor conditional, leaving the mark
     behind.  A prefix argument acts as a repeat count.  With a negative
     argument, move forward.

`C-c C-n'
     Move point forward across a preprocessor conditional, leaving the
     mark behind.  A prefix argument acts as a repeat count.  With a
     negative argument, move backward.

`M-a'
     Move point to the beginning of the innermost C statement
     (`c-beginning-of-statement').  If point is already at the beginning
     of a statement, move to the beginning of the preceding statement.
     With prefix argument N, move back N - 1 statements.

     In comments or in strings which span more than one line, this
     command moves by sentences instead of statements.

`M-e'
     Move point to the end of the innermost C statement or sentence;
     like `M-a' except that it moves in the other direction
     (`c-end-of-statement').


File: emacs,  Node: Electric C,  Next: Hungry Delete,  Prev: Motion in C,  Up: C Modes

31.11.2 Electric C Characters
-----------------------------

In C mode and related modes, certain printing characters are
"electric"--in addition to inserting themselves, they also reindent the
current line, and optionally also insert newlines.  The "electric"
characters are `{', `}', `:', `#', `;', `,', `<', `>', `/', `*', `(',
and `)'.

   You might find electric indentation inconvenient if you are editing
chaotically indented code.  If you are new to CC Mode, you might find
it disconcerting.  You can toggle electric action with the command `C-c
C-l'; when it is enabled, `/l' appears in the mode line after the mode
name:

`C-c C-l'
     Toggle electric action (`c-toggle-electric-state').  With a prefix
     argument, this command enables electric action if the argument is
     positive, disables it if it is negative.

   Electric characters insert newlines only when, in addition to the
electric state, the "auto-newline" feature is enabled (indicated by
`/la' in the mode line after the mode name).  You can turn this feature
on or off with the command `C-c C-a':

`C-c C-a'
     Toggle the auto-newline feature (`c-toggle-auto-newline').  With a
     prefix argument, this command turns the auto-newline feature on if
     the argument is positive, and off if it is negative.

   Usually the CC Mode style configures the exact circumstances in
which Emacs inserts auto-newlines.  You can also configure this
directly.  *Note Custom Auto-newlines: (ccmode)Custom Auto-newlines.


File: emacs,  Node: Hungry Delete,  Next: Other C Commands,  Prev: Electric C,  Up: C Modes

31.11.3 Hungry Delete Feature in C
----------------------------------

If you want to delete an entire block of whitespace at point, you can
use "hungry deletion".  This deletes all the contiguous whitespace
either before point or after point in a single operation.  "Whitespace"
here includes tabs and newlines, but not comments or preprocessor
commands.

`C-c C-<DEL>'
`C-c <DEL>'
     `c-hungry-delete-backwards'--Delete the entire block of whitespace
     preceding point.

`C-c C-d'
`C-c C-<DELETE>'
`C-c <DELETE>'
     `c-hungry-delete-forward'--Delete the entire block of whitespace
     following point.

   As an alternative to the above commands, you can enable "hungry
delete mode".  When this feature is enabled (indicated by `/h' in the
mode line after the mode name), a single <DEL> deletes all preceding
whitespace, not just one space, and a single `C-c C-d' (but _not_ plain
<DELETE>) deletes all following whitespace.

`M-x c-toggle-hungry-state'
     Toggle the hungry-delete feature (`c-toggle-hungry-state')(1).
     With a prefix argument, this command turns the hungry-delete
     feature on if the argument is positive, and off if it is negative.

   The variable `c-hungry-delete-key' controls whether the
hungry-delete feature is enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This command had the binding `C-c C-d' in earlier versions of
Emacs.  `C-c C-d' is now bound to `c-hungry-delete-forward'.


File: emacs,  Node: Other C Commands,  Prev: Hungry Delete,  Up: C Modes

31.11.4 Other Commands for C Mode
---------------------------------

`C-c C-w'
`M-x c-subword-mode'
     Enable (or disable) "subword mode".  In subword mode, Emacs's word
     commands recognize upper case letters in `StudlyCapsIdentifiers'
     as word boundaries.  This is indicated by the flag `/w' on the
     mode line after the mode name (e.g. `C/law').  You can even use
     `M-x c-subword-mode' in non-CC Mode buffers.

     In the GNU project, we recommend using underscores to separate
     words within an identifier in C or C++, rather than using case
     distinctions.

`M-x c-context-line-break'
     This command inserts a line break and indents the new line in a
     manner appropriate to the context.  In normal code, it does the
     work of `C-j' (`newline-and-indent'), in a C preprocessor line it
     additionally inserts a `\' at the line break, and within comments
     it's like `M-j' (`c-indent-new-comment-line').

     `c-context-line-break' isn't bound to a key by default, but it
     needs a binding to be useful.  The following code will bind it to
     `C-j'.  We use `c-initialization-hook' here to make sure the
     keymap is loaded before we try to change it.

          (defun my-bind-clb ()
            (define-key c-mode-base-map "\C-j" 'c-context-line-break))
          (add-hook 'c-initialization-hook 'my-bind-clb)

`C-M-h'
     Put mark at the end of a function definition, and put point at the
     beginning (`c-mark-function').

`M-q'
     Fill a paragraph, handling C and C++ comments (`c-fill-paragraph').
     If any part of the current line is a comment or within a comment,
     this command fills the comment or the paragraph of it that point
     is in, preserving the comment indentation and comment delimiters.

`C-c C-e'
     Run the C preprocessor on the text in the region, and show the
     result, which includes the expansion of all the macro calls
     (`c-macro-expand').  The buffer text before the region is also
     included in preprocessing, for the sake of macros defined there,
     but the output from this part isn't shown.

     When you are debugging C code that uses macros, sometimes it is
     hard to figure out precisely how the macros expand.  With this
     command, you don't have to figure it out; you can see the
     expansions.

`C-c C-\'
     Insert or align `\' characters at the ends of the lines of the
     region (`c-backslash-region').  This is useful after writing or
     editing a C macro definition.

     If a line already ends in `\', this command adjusts the amount of
     whitespace before it.  Otherwise, it inserts a new `\'.  However,
     the last line in the region is treated specially; no `\' is
     inserted on that line, and any `\' there is deleted.

`M-x cpp-highlight-buffer'
     Highlight parts of the text according to its preprocessor
     conditionals.  This command displays another buffer named `*CPP
     Edit*', which serves as a graphic menu for selecting how to
     display particular kinds of conditionals and their contents.
     After changing various settings, click on `[A]pply these settings'
     (or go to that buffer and type `a') to rehighlight the C mode
     buffer accordingly.

`C-c C-s'
     Display the syntactic information about the current source line
     (`c-show-syntactic-information').  This information directs how
     the line is indented.

`M-x cwarn-mode'
`M-x global-cwarn-mode'
     CWarn minor mode highlights certain suspicious C and C++
     constructions:

        * Assignments inside expressions.

        * Semicolon following immediately after `if', `for', and `while'
          (except after a `do ... while' statement);

        * C++ functions with reference parameters.

     You can enable the mode for one buffer with the command `M-x
     cwarn-mode', or for all suitable buffers with the command `M-x
     global-cwarn-mode' or by customizing the variable
     `global-cwarn-mode'.  You must also enable Font Lock mode to make
     it work.

`M-x hide-ifdef-mode'
     Hide-ifdef minor mode hides selected code within `#if' and
     `#ifdef' preprocessor blocks.  See the documentation string of
     `hide-ifdef-mode' for more information.

`M-x ff-find-related-file'
     Find a file "related" in a special way to the file visited by the
     current buffer.  Typically this will be the header file
     corresponding to a C/C++ source file, or vice versa.  The variable
     `ff-related-file-alist' specifies how to compute related file
     names.


File: emacs,  Node: Asm Mode,  Next: Fortran,  Prev: C Modes,  Up: Programs

31.12 Asm Mode
==============

Asm mode is a major mode for editing files of assembler code.  It
defines these commands:

`<TAB>'
     `tab-to-tab-stop'.

`C-j'
     Insert a newline and then indent using `tab-to-tab-stop'.

`:'
     Insert a colon and then remove the indentation from before the
     label preceding colon.  Then do `tab-to-tab-stop'.

`;'
     Insert or align a comment.

   The variable `asm-comment-char' specifies which character starts
comments in assembler syntax.


File: emacs,  Node: Fortran,  Prev: Asm Mode,  Up: Programs

31.13 Fortran Mode
==================

Fortran mode provides special motion commands for Fortran statements
and subprograms, and indentation commands that understand Fortran
conventions of nesting, line numbers and continuation statements.
Fortran mode has support for Auto Fill mode that breaks long lines into
proper Fortran continuation lines.

   Special commands for comments are provided because Fortran comments
are unlike those of other languages.  Built-in abbrevs optionally save
typing when you insert Fortran keywords.

   Use `M-x fortran-mode' to switch to this major mode.  This command
runs the hook `fortran-mode-hook'.  *Note Hooks::.

   Fortran mode is meant for editing Fortran77 "fixed format" (and also
"tab format") source code.  For editing the modern Fortran90 or
Fortran95 "free format" source code, use F90 mode (`f90-mode').  Emacs
normally uses Fortran mode for files with extension `.f', `.F' or
`.for', and F90 mode for the extension `.f90' and `.f95'.  GNU Fortran
supports both kinds of format.

* Menu:

* Motion: Fortran Motion.	 Moving point by statements or subprograms.
* Indent: Fortran Indent.	 Indentation commands for Fortran.
* Comments: Fortran Comments.	 Inserting and aligning comments.
* Autofill: Fortran Autofill.	 Auto fill support for Fortran.
* Columns: Fortran Columns.	 Measuring columns for valid Fortran.
* Abbrev: Fortran Abbrev.	 Built-in abbrevs for Fortran keywords.


File: emacs,  Node: Fortran Motion,  Next: Fortran Indent,  Up: Fortran

31.13.1 Motion Commands
-----------------------

In addition to the normal commands for moving by and operating on
"defuns" (Fortran subprograms--functions and subroutines, as well as
modules for F90 mode), Fortran mode provides special commands to move by
statements and other program units.

`C-c C-n'
     Move to the beginning of the next statement
     (`fortran-next-statement'/`f90-next-statement').

`C-c C-p'
     Move to the beginning of the previous statement
     (`fortran-previous-statement'/`f90-previous-statement').  If there
     is no previous statement (i.e. if called from the first statement
     in the buffer), move to the start of the buffer.

`C-c C-e'
     Move point forward to the start of the next code block
     (`f90-next-block').  A code block is a subroutine, `if'-`endif'
     statement, and so forth.  This command exists for F90 mode only,
     not Fortran mode.  With a numeric argument, this moves forward
     that many blocks.

`C-c C-a'
     Move point backward to the previous code block
     (`f90-previous-block').  This is like `f90-next-block', but moves
     backwards.

`C-M-n'
     Move to the end of the current code block
     (`fortran-end-of-block'/`f90-end-of-block').  With a numeric
     argument, move forward that number of blocks.  The mark is set
     before moving point.  The F90 mode version of this command checks
     for consistency of block types and labels (if present), but it
     does not check the outermost block since that may be incomplete.

`C-M-p'
     Move to the start of the current code block
     (`fortran-beginning-of-block'/`f90-beginning-of-block'). This is
     like `fortran-end-of-block', but moves backwards.


File: emacs,  Node: Fortran Indent,  Next: Fortran Comments,  Prev: Fortran Motion,  Up: Fortran

31.13.2 Fortran Indentation
---------------------------

Special commands and features are needed for indenting Fortran code in
order to make sure various syntactic entities (line numbers, comment
line indicators and continuation line flags) appear in the columns that
are required for standard, fixed (or tab) format Fortran.

* Menu:

* Commands: ForIndent Commands.  Commands for indenting and filling Fortran.
* Contline: ForIndent Cont.      How continuation lines indent.
* Numbers:  ForIndent Num.       How line numbers auto-indent.
* Conv:     ForIndent Conv.      Conventions you must obey to avoid trouble.
* Vars:     ForIndent Vars.      Variables controlling Fortran indent style.


File: emacs,  Node: ForIndent Commands,  Next: ForIndent Cont,  Up: Fortran Indent

31.13.2.1 Fortran Indentation and Filling Commands
..................................................

`C-M-j'
     Break the current line at point and set up a continuation line
     (`fortran-split-line').

`M-^'
     Join this line to the previous line (`fortran-join-line').

`C-M-q'
     Indent all the lines of the subprogram point is in
     (`fortran-indent-subprogram').

`M-q'
     Fill a comment block or statement.

   The key `C-M-q' runs `fortran-indent-subprogram', a command to
reindent all the lines of the Fortran subprogram (function or
subroutine) containing point.

   The key `C-M-j' runs `fortran-split-line', which splits a line in
the appropriate fashion for Fortran.  In a non-comment line, the second
half becomes a continuation line and is indented accordingly.  In a
comment line, both halves become separate comment lines.

   `M-^' or `C-c C-d' runs the command `fortran-join-line', which joins
a continuation line back to the previous line, roughly as the inverse
of `fortran-split-line'.  The point must be on a continuation line when
this command is invoked.

   `M-q' in Fortran mode fills the comment block or statement that
point is in.  This removes any excess statement continuations.


File: emacs,  Node: ForIndent Cont,  Next: ForIndent Num,  Prev: ForIndent Commands,  Up: Fortran Indent

31.13.2.2 Continuation Lines
............................

Most Fortran77 compilers allow two ways of writing continuation lines.
If the first non-space character on a line is in column 5, then that
line is a continuation of the previous line.  We call this "fixed
format".  (In GNU Emacs we always count columns from 0; but note that
the Fortran standard counts from 1.)  The variable
`fortran-continuation-string' specifies what character to put in column
5.  A line that starts with a tab character followed by any digit
except `0' is also a continuation line.  We call this style of
continuation "tab format".  (Fortran90 introduced "free format," with
another style of continuation lines).

   Fortran mode can use either style of continuation line.  When you
enter Fortran mode, it tries to deduce the proper continuation style
automatically from the buffer contents.  It does this by scanning up to
`fortran-analyze-depth' (default 100) lines from the start of the
buffer.  The first line that begins with either a tab character or six
spaces determines the choice.  If the scan fails (for example, if the
buffer is new and therefore empty), the value of
`fortran-tab-mode-default' (`nil' for fixed format, and non-`nil' for
tab format) is used.  `/t' in the mode line indicates tab format is
selected.  Fortran mode sets the value of `indent-tabs-mode'
accordingly.

   If the text on a line starts with the Fortran continuation marker
`$', or if it begins with any non-whitespace character in column 5,
Fortran mode treats it as a continuation line.  When you indent a
continuation line with <TAB>, it converts the line to the current
continuation style.  When you split a Fortran statement with `C-M-j',
the continuation marker on the newline is created according to the
continuation style.

   The setting of continuation style affects several other aspects of
editing in Fortran mode.  In fixed format mode, the minimum column
number for the body of a statement is 6.  Lines inside of Fortran
blocks that are indented to larger column numbers always use only the
space character for whitespace.  In tab format mode, the minimum column
number for the statement body is 8, and the whitespace before column 8
must always consist of one tab character.


File: emacs,  Node: ForIndent Num,  Next: ForIndent Conv,  Prev: ForIndent Cont,  Up: Fortran Indent

31.13.2.3 Line Numbers
......................

If a number is the first non-whitespace in the line, Fortran
indentation assumes it is a line number and moves it to columns 0
through 4.  (Columns always count from 0 in GNU Emacs.)

   Line numbers of four digits or less are normally indented one space.
The variable `fortran-line-number-indent' controls this; it specifies
the maximum indentation a line number can have.  The default value of
the variable is 1.  Fortran mode tries to prevent line number digits
passing column 4, reducing the indentation below the specified maximum
if necessary.  If `fortran-line-number-indent' has the value 5, line
numbers are right-justified to end in column 4.

   Simply inserting a line number is enough to indent it according to
these rules.  As each digit is inserted, the indentation is recomputed.
To turn off this feature, set the variable
`fortran-electric-line-number' to `nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: ForIndent Conv,  Next: ForIndent Vars,  Prev: ForIndent Num,  Up: Fortran Indent

31.13.2.4 Syntactic Conventions
...............................

Fortran mode assumes that you follow certain conventions that simplify
the task of understanding a Fortran program well enough to indent it
properly:

   * Two nested `do' loops never share a `continue' statement.

   * Fortran keywords such as `if', `else', `then', `do' and others are
     written without embedded whitespace or line breaks.

     Fortran compilers generally ignore whitespace outside of string
     constants, but Fortran mode does not recognize these keywords if
     they are not contiguous.  Constructs such as `else if' or `end do'
     are acceptable, but the second word should be on the same line as
     the first and not on a continuation line.

If you fail to follow these conventions, the indentation commands may
indent some lines unaesthetically.  However, a correct Fortran program
retains its meaning when reindented even if the conventions are not
followed.


File: emacs,  Node: ForIndent Vars,  Prev: ForIndent Conv,  Up: Fortran Indent

31.13.2.5 Variables for Fortran Indentation
...........................................

Several additional variables control how Fortran indentation works:

`fortran-do-indent'
     Extra indentation within each level of `do' statement (default 3).

`fortran-if-indent'
     Extra indentation within each level of `if', `select case', or
     `where' statements (default 3).

`fortran-structure-indent'
     Extra indentation within each level of `structure', `union',
     `map', or `interface' statements (default 3).

`fortran-continuation-indent'
     Extra indentation for bodies of continuation lines (default 5).

`fortran-check-all-num-for-matching-do'
     In Fortran77, a numbered `do' statement is ended by any statement
     with a matching line number.  It is common (but not compulsory) to
     use a `continue' statement for this purpose.  If this variable has
     a non-`nil' value, indenting any numbered statement must check for
     a `do' that ends there.  If you always end `do' statements with a
     `continue' line (or if you use the more modern `enddo'), then you
     can speed up indentation by setting this variable to `nil'.  The
     default is `nil'.

`fortran-blink-matching-if'
     If this is `t', indenting an `endif' (or `enddo' statement moves
     the cursor momentarily to the matching `if' (or `do') statement to
     show where it is.  The default is `nil'.

`fortran-minimum-statement-indent-fixed'
     Minimum indentation for Fortran statements when using fixed format
     continuation line style.  Statement bodies are never indented less
     than this much.  The default is 6.

`fortran-minimum-statement-indent-tab'
     Minimum indentation for Fortran statements for tab format
     continuation line style.  Statement bodies are never indented less
     than this much.  The default is 8.

   The variables controlling the indentation of comments are described
in the following section.


File: emacs,  Node: Fortran Comments,  Next: Fortran Autofill,  Prev: Fortran Indent,  Up: Fortran

31.13.3 Fortran Comments
------------------------

The usual Emacs comment commands assume that a comment can follow a
line of code.  In Fortran77, the standard comment syntax requires an
entire line to be just a comment.  Therefore, Fortran mode replaces the
standard Emacs comment commands and defines some new variables.

   Fortran mode can also handle the Fortran90 comment syntax where
comments start with `!' and can follow other text.  Because only some
Fortran77 compilers accept this syntax, Fortran mode will not insert
such comments unless you have said in advance to do so.  To do this,
set the variable `fortran-comment-line-start' to `"!"'.

`M-;'
     Align comment or insert new comment (`fortran-indent-comment').

`C-x ;'
     Applies to nonstandard `!' comments only.

`C-c ;'
     Turn all lines of the region into comments, or (with argument)
     turn them back into real code (`fortran-comment-region').

   `M-;' in Fortran mode is redefined as the command
`fortran-indent-comment'.  Like the usual `M-;' command, this
recognizes any kind of existing comment and aligns its text
appropriately; if there is no existing comment, a comment is inserted
and aligned.  But inserting and aligning comments are not the same in
Fortran mode as in other modes.

   When a new comment must be inserted, if the current line is blank, a
full-line comment is inserted.  On a non-blank line, a nonstandard `!'
comment is inserted if you have said you want to use them.  Otherwise a
full-line comment is inserted on a new line before the current line.

   Nonstandard `!' comments are aligned like comments in other
languages, but full-line comments are different.  In a standard
full-line comment, the comment delimiter itself must always appear in
column zero.  What can be aligned is the text within the comment.  You
can choose from three styles of alignment by setting the variable
`fortran-comment-indent-style' to one of these values:

`fixed'
     Align the text at a fixed column, which is the sum of
     `fortran-comment-line-extra-indent' and the minimum statement
     indentation.  This is the default.

     The minimum statement indentation is
     `fortran-minimum-statement-indent-fixed' for fixed format
     continuation line style and `fortran-minimum-statement-indent-tab'
     for tab format style.

`relative'
     Align the text as if it were a line of code, but with an additional
     `fortran-comment-line-extra-indent' columns of indentation.

`nil'
     Don't move text in full-line comments automatically.

   In addition, you can specify the character to be used to indent
within full-line comments by setting the variable
`fortran-comment-indent-char' to the single-character string you want
to use.

   Compiler directive lines, or preprocessor lines, have much the same
appearance as comment lines.  It is important, though, that such lines
never be indented at all, no matter what the value of
`fortran-comment-indent-style'.  The variable `fortran-directive-re' is
a regular expression that specifies which lines are directives.
Matching lines are never indented, and receive distinctive font-locking.

   The normal Emacs comment command `C-x ;' has not been redefined.  If
you use `!' comments, this command can be used with them.  Otherwise it
is useless in Fortran mode.

   The command `C-c ;' (`fortran-comment-region') turns all the lines
of the region into comments by inserting the string `C$$$' at the front
of each one.  With a numeric argument, it turns the region back into
live code by deleting `C$$$' from the front of each line in it.  The
string used for these comments can be controlled by setting the
variable `fortran-comment-region'.  Note that here we have an example
of a command and a variable with the same name; these two uses of the
name never conflict because in Lisp and in Emacs it is always clear
from the context which one is meant.


File: emacs,  Node: Fortran Autofill,  Next: Fortran Columns,  Prev: Fortran Comments,  Up: Fortran

31.13.4 Auto Fill in Fortran Mode
---------------------------------

Fortran mode has specialized support for Auto Fill mode, which is a
minor mode that automatically splits statements as you insert them when
they become too wide.  Splitting a statement involves making
continuation lines using `fortran-continuation-string' (*note ForIndent
Cont::).  This splitting happens when you type <SPC>, <RET>, or <TAB>,
and also in the Fortran indentation commands.  You activate Auto Fill
in Fortran mode in the normal way.  *Note Auto Fill::.

   Auto Fill breaks lines at spaces or delimiters when the lines get
longer than the desired width (the value of `fill-column').  The
delimiters (besides whitespace) that Auto Fill can break at are `+',
`-', `/', `*', `=', `<', `>', and `,'.  The line break comes after the
delimiter if the variable `fortran-break-before-delimiters' is `nil'.
Otherwise (and by default), the break comes before the delimiter.

   To enable Auto Fill in all Fortran buffers, add `turn-on-auto-fill'
to `fortran-mode-hook'.  *Note Hooks::.


File: emacs,  Node: Fortran Columns,  Next: Fortran Abbrev,  Prev: Fortran Autofill,  Up: Fortran

31.13.5 Checking Columns in Fortran
-----------------------------------

`C-c C-r'
     Display a "column ruler" momentarily above the current line
     (`fortran-column-ruler').

`C-c C-w'
     Split the current window horizontally temporarily so that it is 72
     columns wide (`fortran-window-create-momentarily').  This may help
     you avoid making lines longer than the 72-character limit that
     some Fortran compilers impose.

`C-u C-c C-w'
     Split the current window horizontally so that it is 72 columns wide
     (`fortran-window-create').  You can then continue editing.

`M-x fortran-strip-sequence-nos'
     Delete all text in column 72 and beyond.

   The command `C-c C-r' (`fortran-column-ruler') shows a column ruler
momentarily above the current line.  The comment ruler is two lines of
text that show you the locations of columns with special significance in
Fortran programs.  Square brackets show the limits of the columns for
line numbers, and curly brackets show the limits of the columns for the
statement body.  Column numbers appear above them.

   Note that the column numbers count from zero, as always in GNU Emacs.
As a result, the numbers may be one less than those you are familiar
with; but the positions they indicate in the line are standard for
Fortran.

   The text used to display the column ruler depends on the value of the
variable `indent-tabs-mode'.  If `indent-tabs-mode' is `nil', then the
value of the variable `fortran-column-ruler-fixed' is used as the
column ruler.  Otherwise, the value of the variable
`fortran-column-ruler-tab' is displayed.  By changing these variables,
you can change the column ruler display.

   `C-c C-w' (`fortran-window-create-momentarily') temporarily splits
the current window horizontally, making a window 72 columns wide, so
you can see any lines that are too long.  Type a space to restore the
normal width.

   You can also split the window horizontally and continue editing with
the split in place.  To do this, use `C-u C-c C-w' (`M-x
fortran-window-create').  By editing in this window you can immediately
see when you make a line too wide to be correct Fortran.

   The command `M-x fortran-strip-sequence-nos' deletes all text in
column 72 and beyond, on all lines in the current buffer.  This is the
easiest way to get rid of old sequence numbers.


File: emacs,  Node: Fortran Abbrev,  Prev: Fortran Columns,  Up: Fortran

31.13.6 Fortran Keyword Abbrevs
-------------------------------

Fortran mode provides many built-in abbrevs for common keywords and
declarations.  These are the same sort of abbrev that you can define
yourself.  To use them, you must turn on Abbrev mode.  *Note Abbrevs::.

   The built-in abbrevs are unusual in one way: they all start with a
semicolon.  You cannot normally use semicolon in an abbrev, but Fortran
mode makes this possible by changing the syntax of semicolon to "word
constituent."

   For example, one built-in Fortran abbrev is `;c' for `continue'.  If
you insert `;c' and then insert a punctuation character such as a space
or a newline, the `;c' expands automatically to `continue', provided
Abbrev mode is enabled.

   Type `;?' or `;C-h' to display a list of all the built-in Fortran
abbrevs and what they stand for.


File: emacs,  Node: Building,  Next: Maintaining,  Prev: Programs,  Up: Top

32 Compiling and Testing Programs
*********************************

The previous chapter discusses the Emacs commands that are useful for
making changes in programs.  This chapter deals with commands that
assist in the larger process of compiling and testing programs.

* Menu:

* Compilation::         Compiling programs in languages other
                          than Lisp (C, Pascal, etc.).
* Compilation Mode::    The mode for visiting compiler errors.
* Compilation Shell::   Customizing your shell properly
                          for use in the compilation buffer.
* Grep Searching::      Searching with grep.
* Flymake::             Finding syntax errors on the fly.
* Debuggers::	        Running symbolic debuggers for non-Lisp programs.
* Executing Lisp::      Various modes for editing Lisp programs,
                          with different facilities for running
                          the Lisp programs.
* Libraries: Lisp Libraries.      Creating Lisp programs to run in Emacs.
* Eval: Lisp Eval.      Executing a single Lisp expression in Emacs.
* Interaction: Lisp Interaction.  Executing Lisp in an Emacs buffer.
* External Lisp::         Communicating through Emacs with a separate Lisp.


File: emacs,  Node: Compilation,  Next: Compilation Mode,  Up: Building

32.1 Running Compilations under Emacs
=====================================

Emacs can run compilers for noninteractive languages such as C and
Fortran as inferior processes, feeding the error log into an Emacs
buffer.  It can also parse the error messages and show you the source
lines where compilation errors occurred.

`M-x compile'
     Run a compiler asynchronously under Emacs, with error messages
     going to the `*compilation*' buffer.

`M-x recompile'
     Invoke a compiler with the same command as in the last invocation
     of `M-x compile'.

`M-x kill-compilation'
     Kill the running compilation subprocess.

   To run `make' or another compilation command, do `M-x compile'.
This command reads a shell command line using the minibuffer, and then
executes the command in an inferior shell, putting output in the buffer
named `*compilation*'.  The current buffer's default directory is used
as the working directory for the execution of the command; normally,
therefore, the compilation happens in this directory.

   The default for the compilation command is normally `make -k', which
is correct most of the time for nontrivial programs.  (*Note Make:
(make)Top.)  If you have done `M-x compile' before, the default each
time is the command you used the previous time.  `compile' stores this
command in the variable `compile-command', so setting that variable
specifies the default for the next use of `M-x compile'.  If a file
specifies a file local value for `compile-command', that provides the
default when you type `M-x compile' in that file's buffer.  *Note File
Variables::.

   Starting a compilation displays the buffer `*compilation*' in
another window but does not select it.  The buffer's mode line tells
you whether compilation is finished, with the word `run', `signal' or
`exit' inside the parentheses.  You do not have to keep this buffer
visible; compilation continues in any case.  While a compilation is
going on, the string `Compiling' appears in the mode lines of all
windows.  When this string disappears, the compilation is finished.

   If you want to watch the compilation transcript as it appears, switch
to the `*compilation*' buffer and move point to the end of the buffer.
When point is at the end, new compilation output is inserted above
point, which remains at the end.  If point is not at the end of the
buffer, it remains fixed while more compilation output is added at the
end of the buffer.

   If you set the variable `compilation-scroll-output' to a non-`nil'
value, then the compilation buffer always scrolls to follow output as
it comes in.

   To rerun the last compilation with the same command, type `M-x
recompile'.  This automatically reuses the compilation command from the
last invocation of `M-x compile'.  It also reuses the `*compilation*'
buffer and starts the compilation in its default directory, which is
the directory in which the previous compilation was started.

   When the compiler process terminates, for whatever reason, the mode
line of the `*compilation*' buffer changes to say `exit' (followed by
the exit code, `[0]' for a normal exit), or `signal' (if a signal
terminated the process), instead of `run'.

   Starting a new compilation also kills any compilation already
running in `*compilation*', as the buffer can only handle one
compilation at any time.  However, `M-x compile' asks for confirmation
before actually killing a compilation that is running.  You can also
kill the compilation process with `M-x kill-compilation'.

   If you want to run two compilations at once, you should start the
first one, then rename the `*compilation*' buffer (perhaps using
`rename-uniquely'; *note Misc Buffer::), and start the other
compilation.  That will create a new `*compilation*' buffer.

   Emacs does not expect a compiler process to launch asynchronous
subprocesses; if it does, and they keep running after the main compiler
process has terminated, Emacs may kill them or their output may not
arrive in Emacs.  To avoid this problem, make the main process wait for
its subprocesses to finish.  In a shell script, you can do this using
`$!' and `wait', like this:

     (sleep 10; echo 2nd)& pid=$!  # Record pid of subprocess
     echo first message
     wait $pid                     # Wait for subprocess

   If the background process does not output to the compilation buffer,
so you only need to prevent it from being killed when the main
compilation process terminates, this is sufficient:

     nohup COMMAND; sleep 1

   You can control the environment passed to the compilation command
with the variable `compilation-environment'.  Its value is a list of
environment variable settings; each element should be a string of the
form `"ENVVARNAME=VALUE"'.  These environment variable settings
override the usual ones.


File: emacs,  Node: Compilation Mode,  Next: Compilation Shell,  Prev: Compilation,  Up: Building

32.2 Compilation Mode
=====================

The `*compilation*' buffer uses a special major mode, Compilation mode,
whose main feature is to provide a convenient way to visit the source
line corresponding to an error message.  These commands are also
available in other special buffers that list locations in files,
including those made by `M-x grep' and `M-x occur'.

`M-g M-n'
`M-g n'
`C-x `'
     Visit the locus of the next error message or match.

`M-g M-p'
`M-g p'
     Visit the locus of the previous error message or match.

`<RET>'
     Visit the locus of the error message that point is on.  This
     command is used in the compilation buffer.

`Mouse-2'
     Visit the locus of the error message that you click on.

`M-n'
     Find and highlight the locus of the next error message, without
     selecting the source buffer.

`M-p'
     Find and highlight the locus of the previous error message, without
     selecting the source buffer.

`M-}'
     Move point to the next error for a different file than the current
     one.

`M-{'
     Move point to the previous error for a different file than the
     current one.

`C-c C-f'
     Toggle Next Error Follow minor mode, which makes cursor motion in
     the compilation buffer produce automatic source display.

   You can visit the source for any particular error message by moving
point in the `*compilation*' buffer to that error message and typing
<RET> (`compile-goto-error').  Alternatively, you can click `Mouse-2'
on the error message; you need not switch to the `*compilation*' buffer
first.

   To parse the compiler error messages sequentially, type `C-x `'
(`next-error').  The character following the `C-x' is the backquote or
"grave accent," not the single-quote.  This command is available in all
buffers, not just in `*compilation*'; it displays the next error
message at the top of one window and source location of the error in
another window.  It also temporarily highlights the relevant source
line, for a period controlled by the variable `next-error-highlight'.

   The first time `C-x `' is used after the start of a compilation, it
moves to the first error's location.  Subsequent uses of `C-x `'
advance down to subsequent errors.  If you visit a specific error
message with <RET> or `Mouse-2', subsequent `C-x `' commands advance
from there.  When `C-x `' gets to the end of the buffer and finds no
more error messages to visit, it fails and signals an Emacs error.
`C-u C-x `' starts scanning from the beginning of the compilation
buffer, and goes to the first error's location.

   By default, `C-x `' skips less important messages.  The variable
`compilation-skip-threshold' controls this.  If its value is 2, `C-x `'
skips anything less than error, 1 skips anything less than warning, and
0 doesn't skip any messages.  The default is 1.

   When the window has a left fringe, an arrow in the fringe points to
the current message in the compilation buffer. The variable
`compilation-context-lines' controls the number of lines of leading
context to display before the current message.  Going to an error
message location scrolls the `*compilation*' buffer to put the message
that far down from the top.  The value `nil' is special: if there's a
left fringe, the window doesn't scroll at all if the message is already
visible.  If there is no left fringe, `nil' means display the message
at the top of the window.

   If you're not in the compilation buffer when you run `next-error',
Emacs will look for a buffer that contains error messages.  First, it
looks for one displayed in the selected frame, then for one that
previously had `next-error' called on it, and then at the current
buffer.  Finally, Emacs looks at all the remaining buffers.
`next-error' signals an error if it can't find any such buffer.

   To parse messages from the compiler, Compilation mode uses the
variable `compilation-error-regexp-alist' which lists various formats
of error messages and tells Emacs how to extract the source file and
the line number from the text of a message.  If your compiler isn't
supported, you can tailor Compilation mode to it by adding elements to
that list.  A similar variable `grep-regexp-alist' tells Emacs how to
parse output of a `grep' command.

   Compilation mode also redefines the keys <SPC> and <DEL> to scroll
by screenfuls, and `M-n' (`compilation-next-error') and `M-p'
(`compilation-previous-error') to move to the next or previous error
message.  You can also use `M-{' (`compilation-next-file' and `M-}'
(`compilation-previous-file') to move up or down to an error message
for a different source file.

   You can type `C-c C-f' to toggle Next Error Follow mode.  In this
minor mode, ordinary cursor motion in the compilation buffer
automatically updates the source buffer.  For instance, moving the
cursor to the next error message causes the location of that error to
be displayed immediately.

   The features of Compilation mode are also available in a minor mode
called Compilation Minor mode.  This lets you parse error messages in
any buffer, not just a normal compilation output buffer.  Type `M-x
compilation-minor-mode' to enable the minor mode.  This defines the keys
<RET> and `Mouse-2', as in the Compilation major mode.

   Compilation minor mode works in any buffer, as long as the contents
are in a format that it understands.  In an Rlogin buffer (*note Remote
Host::), Compilation minor mode automatically accesses remote source
files by FTP (*note File Names::).


File: emacs,  Node: Compilation Shell,  Next: Grep Searching,  Prev: Compilation Mode,  Up: Building

32.3 Subshells for Compilation
==============================

Emacs uses a shell to run the compilation command, but specifies the
option for a noninteractive shell.  This means, in particular, that the
shell should start with no prompt.  If you find your usual shell prompt
making an unsightly appearance in the `*compilation*' buffer, it means
you have made a mistake in your shell's init file by setting the prompt
unconditionally.  (This init file's name may be `.bashrc', `.profile',
`.cshrc', `.shrc', or various other things, depending on the shell you
use.)  The shell init file should set the prompt only if there already
is a prompt.  Here's how to do it in bash:

     if [ "${PS1+set}" = set ]
     then PS1=...
     fi

And here's how to do it in csh:

     if ($?prompt) set prompt = ...

   There may well be other things that your shell's init file ought to
do only for an interactive shell.  You can use the same method to
conditionalize them.

   The MS-DOS "operating system" does not support asynchronous
subprocesses; to work around this lack, `M-x compile' runs the
compilation command synchronously on MS-DOS.  As a consequence, you must
wait until the command finishes before you can do anything else in
Emacs.  *Note MS-DOS::.


File: emacs,  Node: Grep Searching,  Next: Flymake,  Prev: Compilation Shell,  Up: Building

32.4 Searching with Grep under Emacs
====================================

Just as you can run a compiler from Emacs and then visit the lines with
compilation errors, you can also run `grep' and then visit the lines on
which matches were found.  This works by treating the matches reported
by `grep' as if they were "errors."  The buffer of matches uses Grep
mode, which is a variant of Compilation mode (*note Compilation Mode::).

`M-x grep'

`M-x lgrep'
     Run `grep' asynchronously under Emacs, with matching lines listed
     in the buffer named `*grep*'.

`M-x grep-find'
`M-x find-grep'
`M-x rgrep'
     Run `grep' via `find', with user-specified arguments, and collect
     output in the buffer named `*grep*'.

`M-x kill-grep'
     Kill the running `grep' subprocess.

   To run `grep', type `M-x grep', then enter a command line that
specifies how to run `grep'.  Use the same arguments you would give
`grep' when running it normally: a `grep'-style regexp (usually in
single-quotes to quote the shell's special characters) followed by file
names, which may use wildcards.  If you specify a prefix argument for
`M-x grep', it finds the tag (*note Tags::) in the buffer around point,
and puts that into the default `grep' command.

   Your command need not simply run `grep'; you can use any shell
command that produces output in the same format.  For instance, you can
chain `grep' commands, like this:

     grep -nH -e foo *.el | grep bar | grep toto

   The output from `grep' goes in the `*grep*' buffer.  You can find
the corresponding lines in the original files using `C-x `', <RET>, and
so forth, just like compilation errors.

   Some grep programs accept a `--color' option to output special
markers around matches for the purpose of highlighting.  You can make
use of this feature by setting `grep-highlight-matches' to `t'.  When
displaying a match in the source buffer, the exact match will be
highlighted, instead of the entire source line.

   The command `M-x grep-find' (also available as `M-x find-grep') is
similar to `M-x grep', but it supplies a different initial default for
the command--one that runs both `find' and `grep', so as to search
every file in a directory tree.  See also the `find-grep-dired'
command, in *Note Dired and Find::.

   The commands `M-x lgrep' (local grep) and `M-x rgrep' (recursive
grep) are more user-friendly versions of `grep' and `grep-find', which
prompt separately for the regular expression to match, the files to
search, and the base directory for the search.  Case sensitivity of the
search is controlled by the current value of `case-fold-search'.

   These commands build the shell commands based on the variables
`grep-template' (for `lgrep') and `grep-find-template' (for `rgrep').

   The files to search can use aliases defined in the variable
`grep-files-aliases'.

   Subdirectories listed in the variable
`grep-find-ignored-directories' such as those typically used by various
version control systems, like CVS and arch, are automatically skipped
by `rgrep'.


File: emacs,  Node: Flymake,  Next: Debuggers,  Prev: Grep Searching,  Up: Building

32.5 Finding Syntax Errors On The Fly
=====================================

Flymake mode is a minor mode that performs on-the-fly syntax checking
for many programming and markup languages, including C, C++, Perl,
HTML, and TeX/LaTeX.  It is somewhat analogous to Flyspell mode, which
performs spell checking for ordinary human languages in a similar
fashion (*note Spelling::).  As you edit a file, Flymake mode runs an
appropriate syntax checking tool in the background, using a temporary
copy of the buffer.  It then parses the error and warning messages, and
highlights the erroneous lines in the buffer.  The syntax checking tool
used depends on the language; for example, for C/C++ files this is
usually the C compiler.  Flymake can also use build tools such as
`make' for checking complicated projects.

   To activate Flymake mode, type `M-x flymake-mode'.  You can move to
the errors spotted by Flymake mode with `M-x flymake-goto-next-error'
and `M-x flymake-goto-prev-error'.  To display any error messages
associated with the current line, use `M-x
flymake-display-err-menu-for-current-line'.

   For more details about using Flymake, see *Note Flymake:
(flymake)Top.


File: emacs,  Node: Debuggers,  Next: Executing Lisp,  Prev: Flymake,  Up: Building

32.6 Running Debuggers Under Emacs
==================================

The GUD (Grand Unified Debugger) library provides an interface to
various symbolic debuggers from within Emacs.  We recommend the
debugger GDB, which is free software, but GUD can also run DBX, SDB or
XDB.  GUD can also serve as an interface to Perl's debugging mode, the
Python debugger PDB, and to JDB, the Java Debugger.  *Note The Lisp
Debugger: (elisp)Debugging, for information on debugging Emacs Lisp
programs.

* Menu:

* Starting GUD::	How to start a debugger subprocess.
* Debugger Operation::	Connection between the debugger and source buffers.
* Commands of GUD::	Key bindings for common commands.
* GUD Customization::	Defining your own commands for GUD.
* GDB Graphical Interface::  An enhanced mode that uses GDB features to
                        implement a graphical debugging environment through
                        Emacs.


File: emacs,  Node: Starting GUD,  Next: Debugger Operation,  Up: Debuggers

32.6.1 Starting GUD
-------------------

There are several commands for starting a debugger, each corresponding
to a particular debugger program.

`M-x gdb <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Run GDB as a subprocess of Emacs.  By default, this uses an
     IDE-like graphical interface; see *Note GDB Graphical Interface::.
     Only GDB works with the graphical interface.

`M-x dbx <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Run DBX as a subprocess of Emacs.  Since Emacs does not implement a
     graphical interface for DBX, communication with DBX works by typing
     commands in the GUD interaction buffer.  The same is true for all
     the other supported debuggers.

`M-x xdb <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Similar, but run XDB.  Use the variable `gud-xdb-directories' to
     specify directories to search for source files.

`M-x sdb <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Similar, but run SDB.

     Some versions of SDB do not mention source file names in their
     messages.  When you use them, you need to have a valid tags table
     (*note Tags::) in order for GUD to find functions in the source
     code.  If you have not visited a tags table or the tags table
     doesn't list one of the functions, you get a message saying `The
     sdb support requires a valid tags table to work'.  If this
     happens, generate a valid tags table in the working directory and
     try again.

`M-x perldb <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Run the Perl interpreter in debug mode to debug FILE, a Perl
     program.

`M-x jdb <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Run the Java debugger to debug FILE.

`M-x pdb <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Run the Python debugger to debug FILE.

   Each of these commands takes one argument: a command line to invoke
the debugger.  In the simplest case, specify just the name of the
executable file you want to debug.  You may also use options that the
debugger supports.  However, shell wildcards and variables are not
allowed.  GUD assumes that the first argument not starting with a `-'
is the executable file name.


File: emacs,  Node: Debugger Operation,  Next: Commands of GUD,  Prev: Starting GUD,  Up: Debuggers

32.6.2 Debugger Operation
-------------------------

Generally when you run a debugger with GUD, the debugger uses an Emacs
buffer for its ordinary input and output.  This is called the GUD
buffer.  Input and output from the program you are debugging also use
this buffer.  We call this "text command mode".  The GDB Graphical
Interface can use further buffers (*note GDB Graphical Interface::).

   The debugger displays the source files of the program by visiting
them in Emacs buffers.  An arrow in the left fringe indicates the
current execution line.(1)  Moving point in this buffer does not move
the arrow.  The arrow is not part of the file's text; it appears only
on the screen.

   You can start editing these source files at any time in the buffers
that display them.  If you do modify a source file, keep in mind that
inserting or deleting lines will throw off the arrow's positioning; GUD
has no way of figuring out which line corresponded before your changes
to the line number in a debugger message.  Also, you'll typically have
to recompile and restart the program for your changes to be reflected
in the debugger's tables.

   The Tooltip facility (*note Tooltips::) provides support for GUD.
You activate this feature by turning on the minor mode
`gud-tooltip-mode'.  Then you can display a variable's value in a
tooltip simply by pointing at it with the mouse.  This operates in the
GUD buffer and in source buffers with major modes in the list
`gud-tooltip-modes'.  If the variable `gud-tooltip-echo-area' is
non-`nil' then the variable's value is displayed in the echo area.
When debugging a C program using the GDB Graphical Interface, you can
also display macro definitions associated with an identifier when the
program is not executing.

   GUD tooltips are disabled when you use GDB in text command mode
(*note GDB Graphical Interface::), because displaying an expression's
value in GDB can sometimes expand a macro and result in a side effect
that interferes with the program's operation.  The GDB graphical
interface supports GUD tooltips and assures they will not cause side
effects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) On a text-only terminal, the arrow appears as `=>' and overlays
the first two text columns.


File: emacs,  Node: Commands of GUD,  Next: GUD Customization,  Prev: Debugger Operation,  Up: Debuggers

32.6.3 Commands of GUD
----------------------

The GUD interaction buffer uses a variant of Shell mode, so the Emacs
commands of Shell mode are available (*note Shell Mode::).  All the
usual commands for your debugger are available, and you can use the
Shell mode history commands to repeat them.  If you wish, you can
control your debugger process entirely through this buffer.

   GUD mode also provides commands for setting and clearing
breakpoints, for selecting stack frames, and for stepping through the
program.  These commands are available both in the GUD buffer and
globally, but with different key bindings.  It also has its own tool
bar from which you can invoke the more common commands by clicking on
the appropriate icon.  This is particularly useful for repetitive
commands like `gud-next' and `gud-step', and allows you to keep the GUD
buffer hidden.

   The breakpoint commands are normally used in source file buffers,
because that is the easiest way to specify where to set or clear the
breakpoint.  Here's the global command to set a breakpoint:

`C-x <SPC>'
     Set a breakpoint on the source line that point is on.

   Here are the other special commands provided by GUD.  The keys
starting with `C-c' are available only in the GUD interaction buffer.
The key bindings that start with `C-x C-a' are available in the GUD
interaction buffer and also in source files.  Some of these commands
are not available to all the supported debuggers.

`C-c C-l'
`C-x C-a C-l'
     Display in another window the last line referred to in the GUD
     buffer (that is, the line indicated in the last location message).
     This runs the command `gud-refresh'.

`C-c C-s'
`C-x C-a C-s'
     Execute a single line of code (`gud-step').  If the line contains
     a function call, execution stops after entering the called
     function.

`C-c C-n'
`C-x C-a C-n'
     Execute a single line of code, stepping across entire function
     calls at full speed (`gud-next').

`C-c C-i'
`C-x C-a C-i'
     Execute a single machine instruction (`gud-stepi').

`C-c C-p'
`C-x C-a C-p'
     Evaluate the expression at point (`gud-print').  If Emacs does not
     print the exact expression that you want, mark it as a region
     first.

`C-c C-r'
`C-x C-a C-r'
     Continue execution without specifying any stopping point.  The
     program will run until it hits a breakpoint, terminates, or gets a
     signal that the debugger is checking for (`gud-cont').

`C-c C-d'
`C-x C-a C-d'
     Delete the breakpoint(s) on the current source line, if any
     (`gud-remove').  If you use this command in the GUD interaction
     buffer, it applies to the line where the program last stopped.

`C-c C-t'
`C-x C-a C-t'
     Set a temporary breakpoint on the current source line, if any
     (`gud-tbreak').  If you use this command in the GUD interaction
     buffer, it applies to the line where the program last stopped.

`C-c <'
`C-x C-a <'
     Select the next enclosing stack frame (`gud-up').  This is
     equivalent to the GDB command `up'.

`C-c >'
`C-x C-a >'
     Select the next inner stack frame (`gud-down').  This is
     equivalent to the GDB command `down'.

`C-c C-u'
`C-x C-a C-u'
     Continue execution to the current line (`gud-until').  The program
     will run until it hits a breakpoint, terminates, gets a signal
     that the debugger is checking for, or reaches the line on which the
     cursor currently sits.

`C-c C-f'
`C-x C-a C-f'
     Run the program until the selected stack frame returns or stops
     for some other reason (`gud-finish').

   If you are using GDB, these additional key bindings are available:

`C-x C-a C-j'
     Only useful in a source buffer, `gud-jump' transfers the program's
     execution point to the current line.  In other words, the next
     line that the program executes will be the one where you gave the
     command.  If the new execution line is in a different function from
     the previously one, GDB prompts for confirmation since the results
     may be bizarre.  See the GDB manual entry regarding `jump' for
     details.

`<TAB>'
     With GDB, complete a symbol name (`gud-gdb-complete-command').
     This key is available only in the GUD interaction buffer.

   These commands interpret a numeric argument as a repeat count, when
that makes sense.

   Because <TAB> serves as a completion command, you can't use it to
enter a tab as input to the program you are debugging with GDB.
Instead, type `C-q <TAB>' to enter a tab.


File: emacs,  Node: GUD Customization,  Next: GDB Graphical Interface,  Prev: Commands of GUD,  Up: Debuggers

32.6.4 GUD Customization
------------------------

On startup, GUD runs one of the following hooks: `gdb-mode-hook', if
you are using GDB; `dbx-mode-hook', if you are using DBX;
`sdb-mode-hook', if you are using SDB; `xdb-mode-hook', if you are
using XDB; `perldb-mode-hook', for Perl debugging mode;
`pdb-mode-hook', for PDB; `jdb-mode-hook', for JDB.  You can use these
hooks to define custom key bindings for the debugger interaction
buffer.  *Note Hooks::.

   Here is a convenient way to define a command that sends a particular
command string to the debugger, and set up a key binding for it in the
debugger interaction buffer:

     (gud-def FUNCTION CMDSTRING BINDING DOCSTRING)

   This defines a command named FUNCTION which sends CMDSTRING to the
debugger process, and gives it the documentation string DOCSTRING.  You
can then use the command FUNCTION in any buffer.  If BINDING is
non-`nil', `gud-def' also binds the command to `C-c BINDING' in the GUD
buffer's mode and to `C-x C-a BINDING' generally.

   The command string CMDSTRING may contain certain `%'-sequences that
stand for data to be filled in at the time FUNCTION is called:

`%f'
     The name of the current source file.  If the current buffer is the
     GUD buffer, then the "current source file" is the file that the
     program stopped in.

`%l'
     The number of the current source line.  If the current buffer is
     the GUD buffer, then the "current source line" is the line that
     the program stopped in.

`%e'
     In transient-mark-mode the text in the region, if it is active.
     Otherwise the text of the C lvalue or function-call expression at
     or adjacent to point.

`%a'
     The text of the hexadecimal address at or adjacent to point.

`%p'
     The numeric argument of the called function, as a decimal number.
     If the command is used without a numeric argument, `%p' stands for
     the empty string.

     If you don't use `%p' in the command string, the command you define
     ignores any numeric argument.

`%d'
     The name of the directory of the current source file.

`%c'
     Fully qualified class name derived from the expression surrounding
     point (jdb only).


File: emacs,  Node: GDB Graphical Interface,  Prev: GUD Customization,  Up: Debuggers

32.6.5 GDB Graphical Interface
------------------------------

By default, the command `gdb' starts GDB using a graphical interface,
using Emacs windows for display program state information.  In effect,
this makes Emacs into an IDE (interactive development environment).
With it, you do not need to use textual GDB commands; you can control
the debugging session with the mouse.  For example, you can click in
the fringe of a source buffer to set a breakpoint there, or on a stack
frame in the stack buffer to select that frame.

   This mode requires telling GDB that its "screen size" is unlimited,
so it sets the height and width accordingly.  For correct operation you
must not change these values during the GDB session.

   You can also run GDB in text command mode, like other debuggers.  To
do this, replace the GDB `"--annotate=3"' option with `"--fullname"'
either in the minibuffer for the current Emacs session, or the custom
variable `gud-gdb-command-name' for all future sessions.  You need to
use text command mode to debug multiple programs within one Emacs
session.  If you have customized `gud-gdb-command-name' in this way,
you can use `M-x gdba' to invoke GDB in graphical mode.

* Menu:

* GDB-UI Layout::               Control the number of displayed buffers.
* Source Buffers::              Use the mouse in the fringe/margin to
                                control your program.
* Breakpoints Buffer::          A breakpoint control panel.
* Stack Buffer::                Select a frame from the call stack.
* Other GDB-UI Buffers::        Input/output, locals, registers,
                                assembler, threads and memory buffers.
* Watch Expressions::           Monitor variable values in the speedbar.


File: emacs,  Node: GDB-UI Layout,  Next: Source Buffers,  Up: GDB Graphical Interface

32.6.5.1 GDB User Interface Layout
..................................

If the variable `gdb-many-windows' is `nil' (the default value) then
`M-x gdb' normally displays only the GUD buffer.  However, if the
variable `gdb-show-main' is also non-`nil', it starts with two windows:
one displaying the GUD buffer, and the other showing the source for the
`main' function of the program you are debugging.

   If `gdb-many-windows' is non-`nil', then `M-x gdb' displays the
following frame layout:

     +--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
     |   GUD buffer (I/O of GDB)      |   Locals buffer                |
     |--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
     |   Primary Source buffer        |   I/O buffer for debugged pgm  |
     |--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
     |   Stack buffer                 |   Breakpoints buffer           |
     +--------------------------------+--------------------------------+

   However, if `gdb-use-separate-io-buffer' is `nil', the I/O buffer
does not appear and the primary source buffer occupies the full width
of the frame.

   If you change the window layout, for example, while editing and
re-compiling your program, then you can restore this standard window
layout with the command `gdb-restore-windows'.

   To switch between this standard layout and a simple layout
containing just the GUD buffer and a source file, type `M-x
gdb-many-windows'.

   You may also specify additional GDB-related buffers to display,
either in the same frame or a different one.  Select the buffers you
want with the `GUD->GDB-windows' and `GUD->GDB-Frames' sub-menus.  If
the menu-bar is unavailable, type `M-x gdb-display-BUFFERTYPE-buffer'
or `M-x gdb-frame-BUFFERTYPE-buffer' respectively, where BUFFERTYPE is
the relevant buffer type, such as `breakpoints'.  Most of these buffers
are read-only, and typing `q' in them kills them.

   When you finish debugging, kill the GUD buffer with `C-x k', which
will also kill all the buffers associated with the session.  However
you need not do this if, after editing and re-compiling your source
code within Emacs, you wish continue debugging.  When you restart
execution, GDB will automatically find your new executable.  Keeping
the GUD buffer has the advantage of keeping the shell history as well
as GDB's breakpoints.  You do need to check that the breakpoints in
recently edited source files are still in the right places.


File: emacs,  Node: Source Buffers,  Next: Breakpoints Buffer,  Prev: GDB-UI Layout,  Up: GDB Graphical Interface

32.6.5.2 Source Buffers
.......................

Many GDB commands can be entered using keybindings or the tool bar but
sometimes it is quicker to use the fringe.  These commands either
manipulate breakpoints or control program execution.  When there is no
fringe, you can use the margin but this is only present when the source
file already has a breakpoint.

   You can click `Mouse-1' in the fringe or display margin of a source
buffer to set a breakpoint there and, on a graphical display, a red
bullet will appear on that line.  If a breakpoint already exists on
that line, the same click will remove it.  You can also enable or
disable a breakpoint by clicking `C-Mouse-1' on the bullet.

   A solid arrow in the left fringe of a source buffer indicates the
line of the innermost frame where the debugged program has stopped. A
hollow arrow indicates the current execution line of higher level
frames.

   If you drag the arrow in the fringe with `Mouse-1'
(`gdb-mouse-until'), execution will continue to the line where you
release the button, provided it is still in the same frame.
Alternatively, you can click `Mouse-3' at some point in the fringe of
this buffer and execution will advance to there.  A similar command
(`gdb-mouse-jump') allows you to jump to a source line without
executing the intermediate lines by clicking `C-Mouse-3'.  This command
allows you to go backwards which can be useful for running through code
that has already executed, in order to examine its execution in more
detail.

`Mouse-1'
     Set or clear a breakpoint.

`C-Mouse-1'
     Enable or disable a breakpoint.

`Mouse-3'
     Continue execution to here.

`C-Mouse-3'
     Jump to here.

   If the variable `gdb-find-source-frame' is non-`nil' and execution
stops in a frame for which there is no source code e.g after an
interrupt, then Emacs finds and displays the first frame further up
stack for which there is source.  If it is `nil' then the source buffer
continues to display the last frame which maybe more useful, for
example, when re-setting a breakpoint.


File: emacs,  Node: Breakpoints Buffer,  Next: Stack Buffer,  Prev: Source Buffers,  Up: GDB Graphical Interface

32.6.5.3 Breakpoints Buffer
...........................

The breakpoints buffer shows the existing breakpoints, watchpoints and
catchpoints (*note Breakpoints: (gdb)Breakpoints.).  It has these
special commands, which mostly apply to the "current breakpoint", the
breakpoint which point is on.

`<SPC>'
     Enable/disable the current breakpoint (`gdb-toggle-breakpoint').
     On a graphical display, this changes the color of a bullet in the
     margin of a source buffer at the relevant line.  This is red when
     the breakpoint is enabled and grey when it is disabled.  Text-only
     terminals correspondingly display a `B' or `b'.

`D'
     Delete the current breakpoint (`gdb-delete-breakpoint').

`<RET>'
     Visit the source line for the current breakpoint
     (`gdb-goto-breakpoint').

`Mouse-2'
     Visit the source line for the breakpoint you click on.


File: emacs,  Node: Stack Buffer,  Next: Other GDB-UI Buffers,  Prev: Breakpoints Buffer,  Up: GDB Graphical Interface

32.6.5.4 Stack Buffer
.....................

The stack buffer displays a "call stack", with one line for each of the
nested subroutine calls ("stack frames") now active in the program.
*Note Backtraces: (gdb)Backtrace.

   An arrow in the fringe points to the selected frame or, if the
fringe is not present, the number of the selected frame is displayed in
reverse contrast.  To select a frame in GDB, move point in the stack
buffer to that stack frame and type <RET> (`gdb-frames-select'), or
click `Mouse-2' on a stack frame.  If the locals buffer is visible,
selecting a stack frame updates it to display the local variables of the
new frame.


File: emacs,  Node: Other GDB-UI Buffers,  Next: Watch Expressions,  Prev: Stack Buffer,  Up: GDB Graphical Interface

32.6.5.5 Other Buffers
......................

Input/Output Buffer
     If the variable `gdb-use-separate-io-buffer' is non-`nil', the
     program being debugged takes its input and displays its output
     here.  Otherwise it uses the GUD buffer for that.  To toggle
     whether GUD mode uses this buffer, do `M-x
     gdb-use-separate-io-buffer'.  This takes effect when you next
     restart the program you are debugging.

     The history and replay commands from Shell mode are available here,
     as are the commands to send signals to the debugged program.
     *Note Shell Mode::.

Locals Buffer
     The locals buffer displays the values of local variables of the
     current frame for simple data types (*note Frame Info: (gdb)Frame
     Info.). Press <RET> or click `Mouse-2' on the value if you want to
     edit it.

     Arrays and structures display their type only.  With GDB 6.4 or
     later, move point to their name and press <RET>, or alternatively
     click `Mouse-2' there, to examine their values.  With earlier
     versions of GDB, use `Mouse-2' or <RET> on the type description
     (`[struct/union]' or `[array]').  *Note Watch Expressions::.

Registers Buffer
     The registers buffer displays the values held by the registers
     (*note Registers: (gdb)Registers.).  Press <RET> or click
     `Mouse-2' on a register if you want to edit its value.  With GDB
     6.4 or later, recently changed register values display with
     `font-lock-warning-face'.  With earlier versions of GDB, you can
     press <SPC> to toggle the display of floating point registers
     (`toggle-gdb-all-registers').

Assembler Buffer
     The assembler buffer displays the current frame as machine code.
     An arrow points to the current instruction, and you can set and
     remove breakpoints as in a source buffer.  Breakpoint icons also
     appear in the fringe or margin.

Threads Buffer
     The threads buffer displays a summary of all threads currently in
     your program (*note Threads: (gdb)Threads.).  Move point to any
     thread in the list and press <RET> to select it
     (`gdb-threads-select') and display the associated source in the
     primary source buffer.  Alternatively, click `Mouse-2' on a thread
     to select it.  If the locals buffer is visible, its contents
     update to display the variables that are local in the new thread.

Memory Buffer
     The memory buffer lets you examine sections of program memory
     (*note Memory: (gdb)Memory.).  Click `Mouse-1' on the appropriate
     part of the header line to change the starting address or number
     of data items that the buffer displays.  Click `Mouse-3' on the
     header line to select the display format or unit size for these
     data items.


File: emacs,  Node: Watch Expressions,  Prev: Other GDB-UI Buffers,  Up: GDB Graphical Interface

32.6.5.6 Watch Expressions
..........................

If you want to see how a variable changes each time your program stops,
move point into the variable name and click on the watch icon in the
tool bar (`gud-watch') or type `C-x C-a C-w'.  If you specify a prefix
argument, you can enter the variable name in the minibuffer.

   Each watch expression is displayed in the speedbar.  Complex data
types, such as arrays, structures and unions are represented in a tree
format.  Leaves and simple data types show the name of the expression
and its value and, when the speedbar frame is selected, display the
type as a tooltip.  Higher levels show the name, type and address value
for pointers and just the name and type otherwise.  Root expressions
also display the frame address as a tooltip to help identify the frame
in which they were defined.

   To expand or contract a complex data type, click `Mouse-2' or press
<SPC> on the tag to the left of the expression.  Emacs asks for
confirmation before expanding the expression if its number of immediate
children exceeds the value of the variable `gdb-max-children'.

   To delete a complex watch expression, move point to the root
expression in the speedbar and type `D' (`gdb-var-delete').

   To edit a variable with a simple data type, or a simple element of a
complex data type, move point there in the speedbar and type <RET>
(`gdb-edit-value').  Or you can click `Mouse-2' on a value to edit it.
Either way, this reads the new value using the minibuffer.

   If you set the variable `gdb-show-changed-values' to non-`nil' (the
default value), Emacs uses `font-lock-warning-face' to highlight values
that have recently changed and `shadow' face to make variables which
have gone out of scope less noticeable.  When a variable goes out of
scope you can't edit its value.

   If the variable `gdb-use-colon-colon-notation' is non-`nil', Emacs
uses the `FUNCTION::VARIABLE' format.  This allows the user to display
watch expressions which share the same variable name.  The default
value is `nil'.

   To automatically raise the speedbar every time the display of watch
expressions updates, set `gdb-speedbar-auto-raise' to non-`nil'.  This
can be useful if you are debugging with a full screen Emacs frame.


File: emacs,  Node: Executing Lisp,  Next: Lisp Libraries,  Prev: Debuggers,  Up: Building

32.7 Executing Lisp Expressions
===============================

Emacs has several different major modes for Lisp and Scheme.  They are
the same in terms of editing commands, but differ in the commands for
executing Lisp expressions.  Each mode has its own purpose.

Emacs-Lisp mode
     The mode for editing source files of programs to run in Emacs Lisp.
     This mode defines `C-M-x' to evaluate the current defun.  *Note
     Lisp Libraries::.

Lisp Interaction mode
     The mode for an interactive session with Emacs Lisp.  It defines
     `C-j' to evaluate the sexp before point and insert its value in the
     buffer.  *Note Lisp Interaction::.

Lisp mode
     The mode for editing source files of programs that run in Lisps
     other than Emacs Lisp.  This mode defines `C-M-x' to send the
     current defun to an inferior Lisp process.  *Note External Lisp::.

Inferior Lisp mode
     The mode for an interactive session with an inferior Lisp process.
     This mode combines the special features of Lisp mode and Shell mode
     (*note Shell Mode::).

Scheme mode
     Like Lisp mode but for Scheme programs.

Inferior Scheme mode
     The mode for an interactive session with an inferior Scheme
     process.

   Most editing commands for working with Lisp programs are in fact
available globally.  *Note Programs::.


File: emacs,  Node: Lisp Libraries,  Next: Lisp Eval,  Prev: Executing Lisp,  Up: Building

32.8 Libraries of Lisp Code for Emacs
=====================================

Lisp code for Emacs editing commands is stored in files whose names
conventionally end in `.el'.  This ending tells Emacs to edit them in
Emacs-Lisp mode (*note Executing Lisp::).

   Emacs Lisp code can be compiled into byte-code, which loads faster,
takes up less space, and executes faster.  *Note Byte Compilation:
(elisp)Byte Compilation.  By convention, the compiled code for a
library goes in a separate file whose name ends in `.elc'.  Thus, the
compiled code for `foo.el' goes in `foo.elc'.

   To execute a file of Emacs Lisp code, use `M-x load-file'.  This
command reads a file name using the minibuffer and then executes the
contents of that file as Lisp code.  It is not necessary to visit the
file first; in any case, this command reads the file as found on disk,
not text in an Emacs buffer.

   Once a file of Lisp code is installed in the Emacs Lisp library
directories, users can load it using `M-x load-library'.  Programs can
load it by calling `load', a more primitive function that is similar
but accepts some additional arguments.

   `M-x load-library' differs from `M-x load-file' in that it searches
a sequence of directories and tries three file names in each directory.
Suppose your argument is LIB; the three names are `LIB.elc', `LIB.el',
and lastly just `LIB'.  If `LIB.elc' exists, it is by convention the
result of compiling `LIB.el'; it is better to load the compiled file,
since it will load and run faster.

   If `load-library' finds that `LIB.el' is newer than `LIB.elc' file,
it issues a warning, because it's likely that somebody made changes to
the `.el' file and forgot to recompile it.  Nonetheless, it loads
`LIB.elc'.  This is because people often leave unfinished edits the
source file, and don't recompile it until they think it is ready to use.

   Because the argument to `load-library' is usually not in itself a
valid file name, file name completion is not available.  Indeed, when
using this command, you usually do not know exactly what file name will
be used.

   The sequence of directories searched by `M-x load-library' is
specified by the variable `load-path', a list of strings that are
directory names.  The default value of the list contains the
directories where the Lisp code for Emacs itself is stored.  If you
have libraries of your own, put them in a single directory and add that
directory to `load-path'.  `nil' in this list stands for the current
default directory, but it is probably not a good idea to put `nil' in
the list.  If you find yourself wishing that `nil' were in the list,
most likely what you really want to do is use `M-x load-file' this once.

   Often you do not have to give any command to load a library, because
the commands defined in the library are set up to "autoload" that
library.  Trying to run any of those commands calls `load' to load the
library; this replaces the autoload definitions with the real ones from
the library.

   By default, Emacs refuses to load compiled Lisp files which were
compiled with XEmacs, a modified versions of Emacs--they can cause
Emacs to crash.  Set the variable `load-dangerous-libraries' to `t' if
you want to try loading them.


File: emacs,  Node: Lisp Eval,  Next: Lisp Interaction,  Prev: Lisp Libraries,  Up: Building

32.9 Evaluating Emacs Lisp Expressions
======================================

Lisp programs intended to be run in Emacs should be edited in
Emacs-Lisp mode; this happens automatically for file names ending in
`.el'.  By contrast, Lisp mode itself is used for editing Lisp programs
intended for other Lisp systems.  To switch to Emacs-Lisp mode
explicitly, use the command `M-x emacs-lisp-mode'.

   For testing of Lisp programs to run in Emacs, it is often useful to
evaluate part of the program as it is found in the Emacs buffer.  For
example, after changing the text of a Lisp function definition,
evaluating the definition installs the change for future calls to the
function.  Evaluation of Lisp expressions is also useful in any kind of
editing, for invoking noninteractive functions (functions that are not
commands).

`M-:'
     Read a single Lisp expression in the minibuffer, evaluate it, and
     print the value in the echo area (`eval-expression').

`C-x C-e'
     Evaluate the Lisp expression before point, and print the value in
     the echo area (`eval-last-sexp').

`C-M-x'
     Evaluate the defun containing or after point, and print the value
     in the echo area (`eval-defun').

`M-x eval-region'
     Evaluate all the Lisp expressions in the region.

`M-x eval-buffer'
     Evaluate all the Lisp expressions in the buffer.

   `M-:' (`eval-expression') is the most basic command for evaluating a
Lisp expression interactively.  It reads the expression using the
minibuffer, so you can execute any expression on a buffer regardless of
what the buffer contains.  When the expression is evaluated, the current
buffer is once again the buffer that was current when `M-:' was typed.

   In Emacs-Lisp mode, the key `C-M-x' is bound to the command
`eval-defun', which parses the defun containing or following point as a
Lisp expression and evaluates it.  The value is printed in the echo
area.  This command is convenient for installing in the Lisp environment
changes that you have just made in the text of a function definition.

   `C-M-x' treats `defvar' expressions specially.  Normally, evaluating
a `defvar' expression does nothing if the variable it defines already
has a value.  But `C-M-x' unconditionally resets the variable to the
initial value specified in the `defvar' expression.  `defcustom'
expressions are treated similarly.  This special feature is convenient
for debugging Lisp programs.  Typing `C-M-x' on a `defface' expression
reinitializes the face according to the `defface' specification.

   The command `C-x C-e' (`eval-last-sexp') evaluates the Lisp
expression preceding point in the buffer, and displays the value in the
echo area.  It is available in all major modes, not just Emacs-Lisp
mode.  It does not treat `defvar' specially.

   When the result of an evaluation is an integer, you can type `C-x
C-e' a second time to display the value of the integer result in
additional formats (octal, hexadecimal, and character).

   If `C-x C-e', or `M-:' is given a numeric argument, it inserts the
value into the current buffer at point, rather than displaying it in
the echo area.  The argument's value does not matter.  `C-M-x' with a
numeric argument instruments the function definition for Edebug (*note
Instrumenting for Edebug: (elisp)Instrumenting.).

   The most general command for evaluating Lisp expressions from a
buffer is `eval-region'.  `M-x eval-region' parses the text of the
region as one or more Lisp expressions, evaluating them one by one.
`M-x eval-buffer' is similar but evaluates the entire buffer.  This is
a reasonable way to install the contents of a file of Lisp code that
you are ready to test.  Later, as you find bugs and change individual
functions, use `C-M-x' on each function that you change.  This keeps
the Lisp world in step with the source file.

   The two customizable variables `eval-expression-print-level' and
`eval-expression-print-length' control the maximum depth and length of
lists to print in the result of the evaluation commands before
abbreviating them.  `eval-expression-debug-on-error' controls whether
evaluation errors invoke the debugger when these commands are used; its
default is `t'.


File: emacs,  Node: Lisp Interaction,  Next: External Lisp,  Prev: Lisp Eval,  Up: Building

32.10 Lisp Interaction Buffers
==============================

The buffer `*scratch*' which is selected when Emacs starts up is
provided for evaluating Lisp expressions interactively inside Emacs.

   The simplest way to use the `*scratch*' buffer is to insert Lisp
expressions and type `C-j' after each expression.  This command reads
the Lisp expression before point, evaluates it, and inserts the value
in printed representation before point.  The result is a complete
typescript of the expressions you have evaluated and their values.

   The `*scratch*' buffer's major mode is Lisp Interaction mode, which
is the same as Emacs-Lisp mode except for the binding of `C-j'.

   The rationale for this feature is that Emacs must have a buffer when
it starts up, but that buffer is not useful for editing files since a
new buffer is made for every file that you visit.  The Lisp interpreter
typescript is the most useful thing I can think of for the initial
buffer to do.  Type `M-x lisp-interaction-mode' to put the current
buffer in Lisp Interaction mode.

   An alternative way of evaluating Emacs Lisp expressions interactively
is to use Inferior Emacs-Lisp mode, which provides an interface rather
like Shell mode (*note Shell Mode::) for evaluating Emacs Lisp
expressions.  Type `M-x ielm' to create an `*ielm*' buffer which uses
this mode.  For more information see that command's documentation.


File: emacs,  Node: External Lisp,  Prev: Lisp Interaction,  Up: Building

32.11 Running an External Lisp
==============================

Emacs has facilities for running programs in other Lisp systems.  You
can run a Lisp process as an inferior of Emacs, and pass expressions to
it to be evaluated.  You can also pass changed function definitions
directly from the Emacs buffers in which you edit the Lisp programs to
the inferior Lisp process.

   To run an inferior Lisp process, type `M-x run-lisp'.  This runs the
program named `lisp', the same program you would run by typing `lisp'
as a shell command, with both input and output going through an Emacs
buffer named `*lisp*'.  That is to say, any "terminal output" from Lisp
will go into the buffer, advancing point, and any "terminal input" for
Lisp comes from text in the buffer.  (You can change the name of the
Lisp executable file by setting the variable `inferior-lisp-program'.)

   To give input to Lisp, go to the end of the buffer and type the
input, terminated by <RET>.  The `*lisp*' buffer is in Inferior Lisp
mode, which combines the special characteristics of Lisp mode with most
of the features of Shell mode (*note Shell Mode::).  The definition of
<RET> to send a line to a subprocess is one of the features of Shell
mode.

   For the source files of programs to run in external Lisps, use Lisp
mode.  You can switch to this mode with `M-x lisp-mode', and it is used
automatically for files whose names end in `.l', `.lsp', or `.lisp'.

   When you edit a function in a Lisp program you are running, the
easiest way to send the changed definition to the inferior Lisp process
is the key `C-M-x'.  In Lisp mode, this runs the function
`lisp-eval-defun', which finds the defun around or following point and
sends it as input to the Lisp process.  (Emacs can send input to any
inferior process regardless of what buffer is current.)

   Contrast the meanings of `C-M-x' in Lisp mode (for editing programs
to be run in another Lisp system) and Emacs-Lisp mode (for editing Lisp
programs to be run in Emacs; see *note Lisp Eval::): in both modes it
has the effect of installing the function definition that point is in,
but the way of doing so is different according to where the relevant
Lisp environment is found.


File: emacs,  Node: Maintaining,  Next: Abbrevs,  Prev: Building,  Up: Top

33 Maintaining Large Programs
*****************************

This chapter describes Emacs features for maintaining large programs.
The version control features (*note Version Control::) are also
particularly useful for this purpose.

* Menu:

* Change Log::	        Maintaining a change history for your program.
* Format of ChangeLog:: What the change log file looks like.
* Tags::	        Go direct to any function in your program in one
			  command.  Tags remembers which file it is in.

* Emerge::              A convenient way of merging two versions of a program.


File: emacs,  Node: Change Log,  Next: Format of ChangeLog,  Up: Maintaining

33.1 Change Logs
================

A change log file contains a chronological record of when and why you
have changed a program, consisting of a sequence of entries describing
individual changes.  Normally it is kept in a file called `ChangeLog'
in the same directory as the file you are editing, or one of its parent
directories.  A single `ChangeLog' file can record changes for all the
files in its directory and all its subdirectories.

   The Emacs command `C-x 4 a' adds a new entry to the change log file
for the file you are editing (`add-change-log-entry-other-window').  If
that file is actually a backup file, it makes an entry appropriate for
the file's parent--that is useful for making log entries for functions
that have been deleted in the current version.

   `C-x 4 a' visits the change log file and creates a new entry unless
the most recent entry is for today's date and your name.  It also
creates a new item for the current file.  For many languages, it can
even guess the name of the function or other object that was changed.

   When the variable `add-log-keep-changes-together' is non-`nil', `C-x
4 a' adds to any existing item for the file rather than starting a new
item.

   If `add-log-always-start-new-record' is non-`nil', `C-x 4 a' always
makes a new entry, even if the last entry was made by you and on the
same date.

   If the value of the variable `change-log-version-info-enabled' is
non-`nil', `C-x 4 a' adds the file's version number to the change log
entry.  It finds the version number by searching the first ten percent
of the file, using regular expressions from the variable
`change-log-version-number-regexp-list'.

   The change log file is visited in Change Log mode.  In this major
mode, each bunch of grouped items counts as one paragraph, and each
entry is considered a page.  This facilitates editing the entries.
`C-j' and auto-fill indent each new line like the previous line; this
is convenient for entering the contents of an entry.

   You can use the command `M-x change-log-merge' to merge other log
files into a buffer in Change Log Mode, preserving the date ordering of
entries.

   Version control systems are another way to keep track of changes in
your program and keep a change log.  *Note Log Buffer::.


File: emacs,  Node: Format of ChangeLog,  Next: Tags,  Prev: Change Log,  Up: Maintaining

33.2 Format of ChangeLog
========================

A change log entry starts with a header line that contains the current
date, your name, and your email address (taken from the variable
`add-log-mailing-address').  Aside from these header lines, every line
in the change log starts with a space or a tab.  The bulk of the entry
consists of "items", each of which starts with a line starting with
whitespace and a star.  Here are two entries, both dated in May 1993,
with two items and one item respectively.

     1993-05-25  Richard Stallman  <rms@gnu.org>

             * man.el: Rename symbols `man-*' to `Man-*'.
             (manual-entry): Make prompt string clearer.

             * simple.el (blink-matching-paren-distance):
             Change default to 12,000.

     1993-05-24  Richard Stallman  <rms@gnu.org>

             * vc.el (minor-mode-map-alist): Don't use it if it's void.
             (vc-cancel-version): Doc fix.

   One entry can describe several changes; each change should have its
own item, or its own line in an item.  Normally there should be a blank
line between items.  When items are related (parts of the same change,
in different places), group them by leaving no blank line between them.

   You should put a copyright notice and permission notice at the end
of the change log file.  Here is an example:

     Copyright 1997, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
     Copying and distribution of this file, with or without modification, are
     permitted provided the copyright notice and this notice are preserved.

Of course, you should substitute the proper years and copyright holder.


File: emacs,  Node: Tags,  Next: Emerge,  Prev: Format of ChangeLog,  Up: Maintaining

33.3 Tags Tables
================

A "tags table" is a description of how a multi-file program is broken
up into files.  It lists the names of the component files and the names
and positions of the functions (or other named subunits) in each file.
Grouping the related files makes it possible to search or replace
through all the files with one command.  Recording the function names
and positions makes possible the `M-.' command which finds the
definition of a function by looking up which of the files it is in.

   Tags tables are stored in files called "tags table files".  The
conventional name for a tags table file is `TAGS'.

   Each entry in the tags table records the name of one tag, the name
of the file that the tag is defined in (implicitly), and the position
in that file of the tag's definition.  When a file parsed by `etags' is
generated from a different source file, like a C file generated from a
Cweb source file, the tags of the parsed file reference the source file.

   Just what names from the described files are recorded in the tags
table depends on the programming language of the described file.  They
normally include all file names, functions and subroutines, and may
also include global variables, data types, and anything else
convenient.  Each name recorded is called a "tag".

   See also the Ebrowse facility, which is tailored for C++.  *Note
Ebrowse: (ebrowse)Top.

* Menu:

* Tag Syntax::		Tag syntax for various types of code and text files.
* Create Tags Table::	Creating a tags table with `etags'.
* Etags Regexps::       Create arbitrary tags using regular expressions.
* Select Tags Table::	How to visit a tags table.
* Find Tag::		Commands to find the definition of a specific tag.
* Tags Search::		Using a tags table for searching and replacing.
* List Tags::		Listing and finding tags defined in a file.


File: emacs,  Node: Tag Syntax,  Next: Create Tags Table,  Up: Tags

33.3.1 Source File Tag Syntax
-----------------------------

Here is how tag syntax is defined for the most popular languages:

   * In C code, any C function or typedef is a tag, and so are
     definitions of `struct', `union' and `enum'.  `#define' macro
     definitions, `#undef' and `enum' constants are also tags, unless
     you specify `--no-defines' when making the tags table.  Similarly,
     global variables are tags, unless you specify `--no-globals', and
     so are struct members, unless you specify `--no-members'.  Use of
     `--no-globals', `--no-defines' and `--no-members' can make the
     tags table file much smaller.

     You can tag function declarations and external variables in
     addition to function definitions by giving the `--declarations'
     option to `etags'.

   * In C++ code, in addition to all the tag constructs of C code,
     member functions are also recognized; member variables are also
     recognized, unless you use the `--no-members' option.  Tags for
     variables and functions in classes are named `CLASS::VARIABLE' and
     `CLASS::FUNCTION'.  `operator' definitions have tag names like
     `operator+'.

   * In Java code, tags include all the constructs recognized in C++,
     plus the `interface', `extends' and `implements' constructs.  Tags
     for variables and functions in classes are named `CLASS.VARIABLE'
     and `CLASS.FUNCTION'.

   * In LaTeX text, the argument of any of the commands `\chapter',
     `\section', `\subsection', `\subsubsection', `\eqno', `\label',
     `\ref', `\cite', `\bibitem', `\part', `\appendix', `\entry',
     `\index', `\def', `\newcommand', `\renewcommand',
     `\newenvironment' or `\renewenvironment' is a tag.

     Other commands can make tags as well, if you specify them in the
     environment variable `TEXTAGS' before invoking `etags'.  The value
     of this environment variable should be a colon-separated list of
     command names.  For example,

          TEXTAGS="mycommand:myothercommand"
          export TEXTAGS

     specifies (using Bourne shell syntax) that the commands
     `\mycommand' and `\myothercommand' also define tags.

   * In Lisp code, any function defined with `defun', any variable
     defined with `defvar' or `defconst', and in general the first
     argument of any expression that starts with `(def' in column zero
     is a tag.

   * In Scheme code, tags include anything defined with `def' or with a
     construct whose name starts with `def'.  They also include
     variables set with `set!' at top level in the file.

   Several other languages are also supported:

   * In Ada code, functions, procedures, packages, tasks and types are
     tags.  Use the `--packages-only' option to create tags for
     packages only.

     In Ada, the same name can be used for different kinds of entity
     (e.g., for a procedure and for a function).  Also, for things like
     packages, procedures and functions, there is the spec (i.e. the
     interface) and the body (i.e. the implementation).  To make it
     easier to pick the definition you want, Ada tag name have suffixes
     indicating the type of entity:

    `/b'
          package body.

    `/f'
          function.

    `/k'
          task.

    `/p'
          procedure.

    `/s'
          package spec.

    `/t'
          type.

     Thus, `M-x find-tag <RET> bidule/b <RET>' will go directly to the
     body of the package `bidule', while `M-x find-tag <RET> bidule
     <RET>' will just search for any tag `bidule'.

   * In assembler code, labels appearing at the beginning of a line,
     followed by a colon, are tags.

   * In Bison or Yacc input files, each rule defines as a tag the
     nonterminal it constructs.  The portions of the file that contain
     C code are parsed as C code.

   * In Cobol code, tags are paragraph names; that is, any word
     starting in column 8 and followed by a period.

   * In Erlang code, the tags are the functions, records and macros
     defined in the file.

   * In Fortran code, functions, subroutines and block data are tags.

   * In HTML input files, the tags are the `title' and the `h1', `h2',
     `h3' headers.  Also, tags are `name=' in anchors and all
     occurrences of `id='.

   * In Lua input files, all functions are tags.

   * In makefiles, targets are tags; additionally, variables are tags
     unless you specify `--no-globals'.

   * In Objective C code, tags include Objective C definitions for
     classes, class categories, methods and protocols.  Tags for
     variables and functions in classes are named `CLASS::VARIABLE' and
     `CLASS::FUNCTION'.

   * In Pascal code, the tags are the functions and procedures defined
     in the file.

   * In Perl code, the tags are the packages, subroutines and variables
     defined by the `package', `sub', `my' and `local' keywords.  Use
     `--globals' if you want to tag global variables.  Tags for
     subroutines are named `PACKAGE::SUB'.  The name for subroutines
     defined in the default package is `main::SUB'.

   * In PHP code, tags are functions, classes and defines.  Vars are
     tags too, unless you use the `--no-members' option.

   * In PostScript code, the tags are the functions.

   * In Prolog code, tags are predicates and rules at the beginning of
     line.

   * In Python code, `def' or `class' at the beginning of a line
     generate a tag.

   You can also generate tags based on regexp matching (*note Etags
Regexps::) to handle other formats and languages.


File: emacs,  Node: Create Tags Table,  Next: Etags Regexps,  Prev: Tag Syntax,  Up: Tags

33.3.2 Creating Tags Tables
---------------------------

The `etags' program is used to create a tags table file.  It knows the
syntax of several languages, as described in *Note Tag Syntax::.  Here
is how to run `etags':

     etags INPUTFILES...

The `etags' program reads the specified files, and writes a tags table
named `TAGS' in the current working directory.

   If the specified files don't exist, `etags' looks for compressed
versions of them and uncompresses them to read them.  Under MS-DOS,
`etags' also looks for file names like `mycode.cgz' if it is given
`mycode.c' on the command line and `mycode.c' does not exist.

   `etags' recognizes the language used in an input file based on its
file name and contents.  You can specify the language with the
`--language=NAME' option, described below.

   If the tags table data become outdated due to changes in the files
described in the table, the way to update the tags table is the same
way it was made in the first place.  If the tags table fails to record
a tag, or records it for the wrong file, then Emacs cannot possibly
find its definition until you update the tags table.  However, if the
position recorded in the tags table becomes a little bit wrong (due to
other editing), the worst consequence is a slight delay in finding the
tag.  Even if the stored position is very far wrong, Emacs will still
find the tag, after searching most of the file for it.  That delay is
hardly noticeable with today's computers.

   Thus, there is no need to update the tags table after each edit.
You should update a tags table when you define new tags that you want
to have listed, or when you move tag definitions from one file to
another, or when changes become substantial.

   One tags table can virtually include another.  Specify the included
tags file name with the `--include=FILE' option when creating the file
that is to include it.  The latter file then acts as if it covered all
the source files specified in the included file, as well as the files
it directly contains.

   If you specify the source files with relative file names when you run
`etags', the tags file will contain file names relative to the
directory where the tags file was initially written.  This way, you can
move an entire directory tree containing both the tags file and the
source files, and the tags file will still refer correctly to the source
files.  If the tags file is in `/dev', however, the file names are made
relative to the current working directory.  This is useful, for
example, when writing the tags to `/dev/stdout'.

   If you specify absolute file names as arguments to `etags', then the
tags file will contain absolute file names.  This way, the tags file
will still refer to the same files even if you move it, as long as the
source files remain in the same place.  Absolute file names start with
`/', or with `DEVICE:/' on MS-DOS and MS-Windows.

   When you want to make a tags table from a great number of files, you
may have problems listing them on the command line, because some systems
have a limit on its length.  The simplest way to circumvent this limit
is to tell `etags' to read the file names from its standard input, by
typing a dash in place of the file names, like this:

     find . -name "*.[chCH]" -print | etags -

   Use the option `--language=NAME' to specify the language explicitly.
You can intermix these options with file names; each one applies to
the file names that follow it.  Specify `--language=auto' to tell
`etags' to resume guessing the language from the file names and file
contents.  Specify `--language=none' to turn off language-specific
processing entirely; then `etags' recognizes tags by regexp matching
alone (*note Etags Regexps::).

   The option `--parse-stdin=FILE' is mostly useful when calling
`etags' from programs.  It can be used (only once) in place of a file
name on the command line.  `Etags' will read from standard input and
mark the produced tags as belonging to the file FILE.

   `etags --help' outputs the list of the languages `etags' knows, and
the file name rules for guessing the language.  It also prints a list
of all the available `etags' options, together with a short
explanation.  If followed by one or more `--language=LANG' options, it
outputs detailed information about how tags are generated for LANG.


File: emacs,  Node: Etags Regexps,  Next: Select Tags Table,  Prev: Create Tags Table,  Up: Tags

33.3.3 Etags Regexps
--------------------

The `--regex' option provides a general way of recognizing tags based
on regexp matching.  You can freely intermix this option with file
names, and each one applies to the source files that follow it.  If you
specify multiple `--regex' options, all of them are used in parallel.
The syntax is:

     --regex=[{LANGUAGE}]/TAGREGEXP/[NAMEREGEXP/]MODIFIERS

   The essential part of the option value is TAGREGEXP, the regexp for
matching tags.  It is always used anchored, that is, it only matches at
the beginning of a line.  If you want to allow indented tags, use a
regexp that matches initial whitespace; start it with `[ \t]*'.

   In these regular expressions, `\' quotes the next character, and all
the GCC character escape sequences are supported (`\a' for bell, `\b'
for back space, `\d' for delete, `\e' for escape, `\f' for formfeed,
`\n' for newline, `\r' for carriage return, `\t' for tab, and `\v' for
vertical tab).

   Ideally, TAGREGEXP should not match more characters than are needed
to recognize what you want to tag.  If the syntax requires you to write
TAGREGEXP so it matches more characters beyond the tag itself, you
should add a NAMEREGEXP, to pick out just the tag.  This will enable
Emacs to find tags more accurately and to do completion on tag names
more reliably.  You can find some examples below.

   The MODIFIERS are a sequence of zero or more characters that modify
the way `etags' does the matching.  A regexp with no modifiers is
applied sequentially to each line of the input file, in a
case-sensitive way.  The modifiers and their meanings are:

`i'
     Ignore case when matching this regexp.

`m'
     Match this regular expression against the whole file, so that
     multi-line matches are possible.

`s'
     Match this regular expression against the whole file, and allow
     `.' in TAGREGEXP to match newlines.

   The `-R' option cancels all the regexps defined by preceding
`--regex' options.  It too applies to the file names following it.
Here's an example:

     etags --regex=/REG1/i voo.doo --regex=/REG2/m \
         bar.ber -R --lang=lisp los.er

Here `etags' chooses the parsing language for `voo.doo' and `bar.ber'
according to their contents.  `etags' also uses REG1 to recognize
additional tags in `voo.doo', and both REG1 and REG2 to recognize
additional tags in `bar.ber'.  REG1 is checked against each line of
`voo.doo' and `bar.ber', in a case-insensitive way, while REG2 is
checked against the whole `bar.ber' file, permitting multi-line
matches, in a case-sensitive way.  `etags' uses only the Lisp tags
rules, with no user-specified regexp matching, to recognize tags in
`los.er'.

   You can restrict a `--regex' option to match only files of a given
language by using the optional prefix {LANGUAGE}.  (`etags --help'
prints the list of languages recognized by `etags'.)  This is
particularly useful when storing many predefined regular expressions
for `etags' in a file.  The following example tags the `DEFVAR' macros
in the Emacs source files, for the C language only:

     --regex='{c}/[ \t]*DEFVAR_[A-Z_ \t(]+"\([^"]+\)"/'

When you have complex regular expressions, you can store the list of
them in a file.  The following option syntax instructs `etags' to read
two files of regular expressions.  The regular expressions contained in
the second file are matched without regard to case.

     --regex=@CASE-SENSITIVE-FILE --ignore-case-regex=@IGNORE-CASE-FILE

A regex file for `etags' contains one regular expression per line.
Empty lines, and lines beginning with space or tab are ignored.  When
the first character in a line is `@', `etags' assumes that the rest of
the line is the name of another file of regular expressions; thus, one
such file can include another file.  All the other lines are taken to
be regular expressions.  If the first non-whitespace text on the line
is `--', that line is a comment.

   For example, we can create a file called `emacs.tags' with the
following contents:

             -- This is for GNU Emacs C source files
     {c}/[ \t]*DEFVAR_[A-Z_ \t(]+"\([^"]+\)"/\1/

and then use it like this:

     etags --regex=@emacs.tags *.[ch] */*.[ch]

   Here are some more examples.  The regexps are quoted to protect them
from shell interpretation.

   * Tag Octave files:

          etags --language=none \
                --regex='/[ \t]*function.*=[ \t]*\([^ \t]*\)[ \t]*(/\1/' \
                --regex='/###key \(.*\)/\1/' \
                --regex='/[ \t]*global[ \t].*/' \
                *.m

     Note that tags are not generated for scripts, so that you have to
     add a line by yourself of the form `###key SCRIPTNAME' if you want
     to jump to it.

   * Tag Tcl files:

          etags --language=none --regex='/proc[ \t]+\([^ \t]+\)/\1/' *.tcl

   * Tag VHDL files:

          etags --language=none \
            --regex='/[ \t]*\(ARCHITECTURE\|CONFIGURATION\) +[^ ]* +OF/' \
            --regex='/[ \t]*\(ATTRIBUTE\|ENTITY\|FUNCTION\|PACKAGE\
            \( BODY\)?\|PROCEDURE\|PROCESS\|TYPE\)[ \t]+\([^ \t(]+\)/\3/'


File: emacs,  Node: Select Tags Table,  Next: Find Tag,  Prev: Etags Regexps,  Up: Tags

33.3.4 Selecting a Tags Table
-----------------------------

Emacs has at any time one "selected" tags table, and all the commands
for working with tags tables use the selected one.  To select a tags
table, type `M-x visit-tags-table', which reads the tags table file
name as an argument, with `TAGS' in the default directory as the
default.

   Emacs does not actually read in the tags table contents until you
try to use them; all `visit-tags-table' does is store the file name in
the variable `tags-file-name', and setting the variable yourself is
just as good.  The variable's initial value is `nil'; that value tells
all the commands for working with tags tables that they must ask for a
tags table file name to use.

   Using `visit-tags-table' when a tags table is already loaded gives
you a choice: you can add the new tags table to the current list of
tags tables, or start a new list.  The tags commands use all the tags
tables in the current list.  If you start a new list, the new tags table
is used _instead_ of others.  If you add the new table to the current
list, it is used _as well as_ the others.

   You can specify a precise list of tags tables by setting the variable
`tags-table-list' to a list of strings, like this:

     (setq tags-table-list
           '("~/emacs" "/usr/local/lib/emacs/src"))

This tells the tags commands to look at the `TAGS' files in your
`~/emacs' directory and in the `/usr/local/lib/emacs/src' directory.
The order depends on which file you are in and which tags table
mentions that file, as explained above.

   Do not set both `tags-file-name' and `tags-table-list'.


File: emacs,  Node: Find Tag,  Next: Tags Search,  Prev: Select Tags Table,  Up: Tags

33.3.5 Finding a Tag
--------------------

The most important thing that a tags table enables you to do is to find
the definition of a specific tag.

`M-. TAG <RET>'
     Find first definition of TAG (`find-tag').

`C-u M-.'
     Find next alternate definition of last tag specified.

`C-u - M-.'
     Go back to previous tag found.

`C-M-. PATTERN <RET>'
     Find a tag whose name matches PATTERN (`find-tag-regexp').

`C-u C-M-.'
     Find the next tag whose name matches the last pattern used.

`C-x 4 . TAG <RET>'
     Find first definition of TAG, but display it in another window
     (`find-tag-other-window').

`C-x 5 . TAG <RET>'
     Find first definition of TAG, and create a new frame to select the
     buffer (`find-tag-other-frame').

`M-*'
     Pop back to where you previously invoked `M-.' and friends.

   `M-.' (`find-tag') is the command to find the definition of a
specified tag.  It searches through the tags table for that tag, as a
string, and then uses the tags table info to determine the file that the
definition is in and the approximate character position in the file of
the definition.  Then `find-tag' visits that file, moves point to the
approximate character position, and searches ever-increasing distances
away to find the tag definition.

   If an empty argument is given (just type <RET>), the balanced
expression in the buffer before or around point is used as the TAG
argument.  *Note Expressions::.

   You don't need to give `M-.' the full name of the tag; a part will
do.  This is because `M-.' finds tags in the table which contain TAG as
a substring.  However, it prefers an exact match to a substring match.
To find other tags that match the same substring, give `find-tag' a
numeric argument, as in `C-u M-.'; this does not read a tag name, but
continues searching the tags table's text for another tag containing
the same substring last used.  If you have a real <META> key, `M-0 M-.'
is an easier alternative to `C-u M-.'.

   Like most commands that can switch buffers, `find-tag' has a variant
that displays the new buffer in another window, and one that makes a
new frame for it.  The former is `C-x 4 .', which invokes the command
`find-tag-other-window'.  The latter is `C-x 5 .', which invokes
`find-tag-other-frame'.

   To move back to places you've found tags recently, use `C-u - M-.';
more generally, `M-.' with a negative numeric argument.  This command
can take you to another buffer.  `C-x 4 .' with a negative argument
finds the previous tag location in another window.

   As well as going back to places you've found tags recently, you can
go back to places _from where_ you found them.  Use `M-*', which
invokes the command `pop-tag-mark', for this.  Typically you would find
and study the definition of something with `M-.' and then return to
where you were with `M-*'.

   Both `C-u - M-.' and `M-*' allow you to retrace your steps to a
depth determined by the variable `find-tag-marker-ring-length'.

   The command `C-M-.' (`find-tag-regexp') visits the tags that match a
specified regular expression.  It is just like `M-.' except that it
does regexp matching instead of substring matching.


File: emacs,  Node: Tags Search,  Next: List Tags,  Prev: Find Tag,  Up: Tags

33.3.6 Searching and Replacing with Tags Tables
-----------------------------------------------

The commands in this section visit and search all the files listed in
the selected tags table, one by one.  For these commands, the tags
table serves only to specify a sequence of files to search.  These
commands scan the list of tags tables starting with the first tags
table (if any) that describes the current file, proceed from there to
the end of the list, and then scan from the beginning of the list until
they have covered all the tables in the list.

`M-x tags-search <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     Search for REGEXP through the files in the selected tags table.

`M-x tags-query-replace <RET> REGEXP <RET> REPLACEMENT <RET>'
     Perform a `query-replace-regexp' on each file in the selected tags
     table.

`M-,'
     Restart one of the commands above, from the current location of
     point (`tags-loop-continue').

   `M-x tags-search' reads a regexp using the minibuffer, then searches
for matches in all the files in the selected tags table, one file at a
time.  It displays the name of the file being searched so you can
follow its progress.  As soon as it finds an occurrence, `tags-search'
returns.

   Having found one match, you probably want to find all the rest.  To
find one more match, type `M-,' (`tags-loop-continue') to resume the
`tags-search'.  This searches the rest of the current buffer, followed
by the remaining files of the tags table.

   `M-x tags-query-replace' performs a single `query-replace-regexp'
through all the files in the tags table.  It reads a regexp to search
for and a string to replace with, just like ordinary `M-x
query-replace-regexp'.  It searches much like `M-x tags-search', but
repeatedly, processing matches according to your input.  *Note
Replace::, for more information on query replace.

   You can control the case-sensitivity of tags search commands by
customizing the value of the variable `tags-case-fold-search'.  The
default is to use the same setting as the value of `case-fold-search'
(*note Search Case::).

   It is possible to get through all the files in the tags table with a
single invocation of `M-x tags-query-replace'.  But often it is useful
to exit temporarily, which you can do with any input event that has no
special query replace meaning.  You can resume the query replace
subsequently by typing `M-,'; this command resumes the last tags search
or replace command that you did.

   The commands in this section carry out much broader searches than the
`find-tag' family.  The `find-tag' commands search only for definitions
of tags that match your substring or regexp.  The commands
`tags-search' and `tags-query-replace' find every occurrence of the
regexp, as ordinary search commands and replace commands do in the
current buffer.

   These commands create buffers only temporarily for the files that
they have to search (those which are not already visited in Emacs
buffers).  Buffers in which no match is found are quickly killed; the
others continue to exist.

   It may have struck you that `tags-search' is a lot like `grep'.  You
can also run `grep' itself as an inferior of Emacs and have Emacs show
you the matching lines one by one.  *Note Grep Searching::.


File: emacs,  Node: List Tags,  Prev: Tags Search,  Up: Tags

33.3.7 Tags Table Inquiries
---------------------------

`M-x list-tags <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Display a list of the tags defined in the program file FILE.

`M-x tags-apropos <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     Display a list of all tags matching REGEXP.

   `M-x list-tags' reads the name of one of the files described by the
selected tags table, and displays a list of all the tags defined in
that file.  The "file name" argument is really just a string to compare
against the file names recorded in the tags table; it is read as a
string rather than as a file name.  Therefore, completion and
defaulting are not available, and you must enter the file name the same
way it appears in the tags table.  Do not include a directory as part of
the file name unless the file name recorded in the tags table includes a
directory.

   `M-x tags-apropos' is like `apropos' for tags (*note Apropos::).  It
finds all the tags in the selected tags table whose entries match
REGEXP, and displays them.  If the variable `tags-apropos-verbose' is
non-`nil', it displays the names of the tags files together with the
tag names.

   You can customize the appearance of the output by setting the
variable `tags-tag-face' to a face.  You can display additional output
with `M-x tags-apropos' by customizing the variable
`tags-apropos-additional-actions'--see its documentation for details.

   You can also use the collection of tag names to complete a symbol
name in the buffer.  *Note Symbol Completion::.


File: emacs,  Node: Emerge,  Prev: Tags,  Up: Maintaining

33.4 Merging Files with Emerge
==============================

It's not unusual for programmers to get their signals crossed and
modify the same program in two different directions.  To recover from
this confusion, you need to merge the two versions.  Emerge makes this
easier.  For other ways to compare files, see *Note Comparing Files::,
and *Note Ediff: (ediff)Top.

* Menu:

* Overview of Emerge::	How to start Emerge.  Basic concepts.
* Submodes of Emerge::	Fast mode vs. Edit mode.
			  Skip Prefers mode and Auto Advance mode.
* State of Difference::	You do the merge by specifying state A or B
			  for each difference.
* Merge Commands::	Commands for selecting a difference,
			  changing states of differences, etc.
* Exiting Emerge::	What to do when you've finished the merge.
* Combining in Emerge::	    How to keep both alternatives for a difference.
* Fine Points of Emerge::   Misc.


File: emacs,  Node: Overview of Emerge,  Next: Submodes of Emerge,  Up: Emerge

33.4.1 Overview of Emerge
-------------------------

To start Emerge, run one of these four commands:

`M-x emerge-files'
     Merge two specified files.

`M-x emerge-files-with-ancestor'
     Merge two specified files, with reference to a common ancestor.

`M-x emerge-buffers'
     Merge two buffers.

`M-x emerge-buffers-with-ancestor'
     Merge two buffers with reference to a common ancestor in a third
     buffer.

   The Emerge commands compare two files or buffers, and display the
comparison in three buffers: one for each input text (the "A buffer"
and the "B buffer"), and one (the "merge buffer") where merging takes
place.  The merge buffer shows the full merged text, not just the
differences.  Wherever the two input texts differ, you can choose which
one of them to include in the merge buffer.

   The Emerge commands that take input from existing buffers use only
the accessible portions of those buffers, if they are narrowed.  *Note
Narrowing::.

   If a common ancestor version is available, from which the two texts
to be merged were both derived, Emerge can use it to guess which
alternative is right.  Wherever one current version agrees with the
ancestor, Emerge presumes that the other current version is a deliberate
change which should be kept in the merged version.  Use the
`with-ancestor' commands if you want to specify a common ancestor text.
These commands read three file or buffer names--variant A, variant B,
and the common ancestor.

   After the comparison is done and the buffers are prepared, the
interactive merging starts.  You control the merging by typing special
"merge commands" in the merge buffer (*note Merge Commands::).  For
each run of differences between the input texts, you can choose which
one of them to keep, or edit them both together.

   The merge buffer uses a special major mode, Emerge mode, with
commands for making these choices.  But you can also edit the buffer
with ordinary Emacs commands.

   At any given time, the attention of Emerge is focused on one
particular difference, called the "selected" difference.  This
difference is marked off in the three buffers like this:

     vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
     TEXT THAT DIFFERS
     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Emerge numbers all the differences sequentially and the mode line
always shows the number of the selected difference.

   Normally, the merge buffer starts out with the A version of the text.
But when the A version of a difference agrees with the common ancestor,
then the B version is initially preferred for that difference.

   Emerge leaves the merged text in the merge buffer when you exit.  At
that point, you can save it in a file with `C-x C-w'.  If you give a
numeric argument to `emerge-files' or `emerge-files-with-ancestor', it
reads the name of the output file using the minibuffer.  (This is the
last file name those commands read.)  Then exiting from Emerge saves
the merged text in the output file.

   Normally, Emerge commands save the output buffer in its file when you
exit.  If you abort Emerge with `C-]', the Emerge command does not save
the output buffer, but you can save it yourself if you wish.


File: emacs,  Node: Submodes of Emerge,  Next: State of Difference,  Prev: Overview of Emerge,  Up: Emerge

33.4.2 Submodes of Emerge
-------------------------

You can choose between two modes for giving merge commands: Fast mode
and Edit mode.  In Fast mode, basic merge commands are single
characters, but ordinary Emacs commands are disabled.  This is
convenient if you use only merge commands.  In Edit mode, all merge
commands start with the prefix key `C-c C-c', and the normal Emacs
commands are also available.  This allows editing the merge buffer, but
slows down Emerge operations.

   Use `e' to switch to Edit mode, and `C-c C-c f' to switch to Fast
mode.  The mode line indicates Edit and Fast modes with `E' and `F'.

   Emerge has two additional submodes that affect how particular merge
commands work: Auto Advance mode and Skip Prefers mode.

   If Auto Advance mode is in effect, the `a' and `b' commands advance
to the next difference.  This lets you go through the merge faster as
long as you simply choose one of the alternatives from the input.  The
mode line indicates Auto Advance mode with `A'.

   If Skip Prefers mode is in effect, the `n' and `p' commands skip
over differences in states prefer-A and prefer-B (*note State of
Difference::).  Thus you see only differences for which neither version
is presumed "correct."  The mode line indicates Skip Prefers mode with
`S'.

   Use the command `s a' (`emerge-auto-advance-mode') to set or clear
Auto Advance mode.  Use `s s' (`emerge-skip-prefers-mode') to set or
clear Skip Prefers mode.  These commands turn on the mode with a
positive argument, turns it off with a negative or zero argument, and
toggle the mode with no argument.


File: emacs,  Node: State of Difference,  Next: Merge Commands,  Prev: Submodes of Emerge,  Up: Emerge

33.4.3 State of a Difference
----------------------------

In the merge buffer, a difference is marked with lines of `v' and `^'
characters.  Each difference has one of these seven states:

A
     The difference is showing the A version.  The `a' command always
     produces this state; the mode line indicates it with `A'.

B
     The difference is showing the B version.  The `b' command always
     produces this state; the mode line indicates it with `B'.

default-A
default-B
     The difference is showing the A or the B state by default, because
     you haven't made a choice.  All differences start in the default-A
     state (and thus the merge buffer is a copy of the A buffer),
     except those for which one alternative is "preferred" (see below).

     When you select a difference, its state changes from default-A or
     default-B to plain A or B.  Thus, the selected difference never has
     state default-A or default-B, and these states are never displayed
     in the mode line.

     The command `d a' chooses default-A as the default state, and `d
     b' chooses default-B.  This chosen default applies to all
     differences which you haven't ever selected and for which no
     alternative is preferred.  If you are moving through the merge
     sequentially, the differences you haven't selected are those
     following the selected one.  Thus, while moving sequentially, you
     can effectively make the A version the default for some sections
     of the merge buffer and the B version the default for others by
     using `d a' and `d b' between sections.

prefer-A
prefer-B
     The difference is showing the A or B state because it is
     "preferred".  This means that you haven't made an explicit choice,
     but one alternative seems likely to be right because the other
     alternative agrees with the common ancestor.  Thus, where the A
     buffer agrees with the common ancestor, the B version is
     preferred, because chances are it is the one that was actually
     changed.

     These two states are displayed in the mode line as `A*' and `B*'.

combined
     The difference is showing a combination of the A and B states, as a
     result of the `x c' or `x C' commands.

     Once a difference is in this state, the `a' and `b' commands don't
     do anything to it unless you give them a numeric argument.

     The mode line displays this state as `comb'.


File: emacs,  Node: Merge Commands,  Next: Exiting Emerge,  Prev: State of Difference,  Up: Emerge

33.4.4 Merge Commands
---------------------

Here are the Merge commands for Fast mode; in Edit mode, precede them
with `C-c C-c':

`p'
     Select the previous difference.

`n'
     Select the next difference.

`a'
     Choose the A version of this difference.

`b'
     Choose the B version of this difference.

`C-u N j'
     Select difference number N.

`.'
     Select the difference containing point.  You can use this command
     in the merge buffer or in the A or B buffer.

`q'
     Quit--finish the merge.

`C-]'
     Abort--exit merging and do not save the output.

`f'
     Go into Fast mode.  (In Edit mode, this is actually `C-c C-c f'.)

`e'
     Go into Edit mode.

`l'
     Recenter (like `C-l') all three windows.

`-'
     Specify part of a prefix numeric argument.

`DIGIT'
     Also specify part of a prefix numeric argument.

`d a'
     Choose the A version as the default from here down in the merge
     buffer.

`d b'
     Choose the B version as the default from here down in the merge
     buffer.

`c a'
     Copy the A version of this difference into the kill ring.

`c b'
     Copy the B version of this difference into the kill ring.

`i a'
     Insert the A version of this difference at point.

`i b'
     Insert the B version of this difference at point.

`m'
     Put point and mark around the difference.

`^'
     Scroll all three windows down (like `M-v').

`v'
     Scroll all three windows up (like `C-v').

`<'
     Scroll all three windows left (like `C-x <').

`>'
     Scroll all three windows right (like `C-x >').

`|'
     Reset horizontal scroll on all three windows.

`x 1'
     Shrink the merge window to one line.  (Use `C-u l' to restore it
     to full size.)

`x c'
     Combine the two versions of this difference (*note Combining in
     Emerge::).

`x f'
     Show the names of the files/buffers Emerge is operating on, in a
     Help window.  (Use `C-u l' to restore windows.)

`x j'
     Join this difference with the following one.  (`C-u x j' joins
     this difference with the previous one.)

`x s'
     Split this difference into two differences.  Before you use this
     command, position point in each of the three buffers at the place
     where you want to split the difference.

`x t'
     Trim identical lines off the top and bottom of the difference.
     Such lines occur when the A and B versions are identical but
     differ from the ancestor version.


File: emacs,  Node: Exiting Emerge,  Next: Combining in Emerge,  Prev: Merge Commands,  Up: Emerge

33.4.5 Exiting Emerge
---------------------

The `q' command (`emerge-quit') finishes the merge, storing the results
into the output file if you specified one.  It restores the A and B
buffers to their proper contents, or kills them if they were created by
Emerge and you haven't changed them.  It also disables the Emerge
commands in the merge buffer, since executing them later could damage
the contents of the various buffers.

   `C-]' aborts the merge.  This means exiting without writing the
output file.  If you didn't specify an output file, then there is no
real difference between aborting and finishing the merge.

   If the Emerge command was called from another Lisp program, then its
return value is `t' for successful completion, or `nil' if you abort.


File: emacs,  Node: Combining in Emerge,  Next: Fine Points of Emerge,  Prev: Exiting Emerge,  Up: Emerge

33.4.6 Combining the Two Versions
---------------------------------

Sometimes you want to keep _both_ alternatives for a particular
difference.  To do this, use `x c', which edits the merge buffer like
this:

     #ifdef NEW
     VERSION FROM A BUFFER
     #else /* not NEW */
     VERSION FROM B BUFFER
     #endif /* not NEW */

While this example shows C preprocessor conditionals delimiting the two
alternative versions, you can specify the strings to use by setting the
variable `emerge-combine-versions-template' to a string of your choice.
In the string, `%a' says where to put version A, and `%b' says where
to put version B.  The default setting, which produces the results
shown above, looks like this:

     "#ifdef NEW\n%a#else /* not NEW */\n%b#endif /* not NEW */\n"


File: emacs,  Node: Fine Points of Emerge,  Prev: Combining in Emerge,  Up: Emerge

33.4.7 Fine Points of Emerge
----------------------------

During the merge, you mustn't try to edit the A and B buffers yourself.
Emerge modifies them temporarily, but ultimately puts them back the way
they were.

   You can have any number of merges going at once--just don't use any
one buffer as input to more than one merge at once, since the temporary
changes made in these buffers would get in each other's way.

   Starting Emerge can take a long time because it needs to compare the
files fully.  Emacs can't do anything else until `diff' finishes.
Perhaps in the future someone will change Emerge to do the comparison in
the background when the input files are large--then you could keep on
doing other things with Emacs until Emerge is ready to accept commands.

   After setting up the merge, Emerge runs the hook
`emerge-startup-hook'.  *Note Hooks::.


File: emacs,  Node: Abbrevs,  Next: Picture Mode,  Prev: Maintaining,  Up: Top

34 Abbrevs
**********

A defined "abbrev" is a word which "expands", if you insert it, into
some different text.  Abbrevs are defined by the user to expand in
specific ways.  For example, you might define `foo' as an abbrev
expanding to `find outer otter'.  Then you could insert `find outer
otter ' into the buffer by typing `f o o <SPC>'.

   A second kind of abbreviation facility is called "dynamic abbrev
expansion".  You use dynamic abbrev expansion with an explicit command
to expand the letters in the buffer before point by looking for other
words in the buffer that start with those letters.  *Note Dynamic
Abbrevs::.

   "Hippie" expansion generalizes abbreviation expansion.  *Note Hippie
Expansion: (autotype)Hippie Expand.

* Menu:

* Abbrev Concepts::   Fundamentals of defined abbrevs.
* Defining Abbrevs::  Defining an abbrev, so it will expand when typed.
* Expanding Abbrevs:: Controlling expansion: prefixes, canceling expansion.
* Editing Abbrevs::   Viewing or editing the entire list of defined abbrevs.
* Saving Abbrevs::    Saving the entire list of abbrevs for another session.
* Dynamic Abbrevs::   Abbreviations for words already in the buffer.
* Dabbrev Customization:: What is a word, for dynamic abbrevs.  Case handling.


File: emacs,  Node: Abbrev Concepts,  Next: Defining Abbrevs,  Up: Abbrevs

34.1 Abbrev Concepts
====================

An "abbrev" is a word which has been defined to "expand" into a
specified "expansion".  When you insert a word-separator character
following the abbrev, that expands the abbrev--replacing the abbrev
with its expansion.  For example, if `foo' is defined as an abbrev
expanding to `find outer otter', then you can insert `find outer
otter.' into the buffer by typing `f o o .'.

   Abbrevs expand only when Abbrev mode (a minor mode) is enabled.
Disabling Abbrev mode does not cause abbrev definitions to be forgotten,
but they do not expand until Abbrev mode is enabled again.  The command
`M-x abbrev-mode' toggles Abbrev mode; with a numeric argument, it
turns Abbrev mode on if the argument is positive, off otherwise.  *Note
Minor Modes::.  `abbrev-mode' is also a variable; Abbrev mode is on
when the variable is non-`nil'.  The variable `abbrev-mode'
automatically becomes local to the current buffer when it is set.

   Abbrevs can have "mode-specific" definitions, active only in one
major mode.  Abbrevs can also have "global" definitions that are active
in all major modes.  The same abbrev can have a global definition and
various mode-specific definitions for different major modes.  A
mode-specific definition for the current major mode overrides a global
definition.

   You can define abbrevs interactively during the editing session.  You
can also save lists of abbrev definitions in files for use in later
sessions.  Some users keep extensive lists of abbrevs that they load in
every session.


File: emacs,  Node: Defining Abbrevs,  Next: Expanding Abbrevs,  Prev: Abbrev Concepts,  Up: Abbrevs

34.2 Defining Abbrevs
=====================

`C-x a g'
     Define an abbrev, using one or more words before point as its
     expansion (`add-global-abbrev').

`C-x a l'
     Similar, but define an abbrev specific to the current major mode
     (`add-mode-abbrev').

`C-x a i g'
     Define a word in the buffer as an abbrev
     (`inverse-add-global-abbrev').

`C-x a i l'
     Define a word in the buffer as a mode-specific abbrev
     (`inverse-add-mode-abbrev').

`M-x define-global-abbrev <RET> ABBREV <RET> EXP <RET>'
     Define ABBREV as an abbrev expanding into EXP.

`M-x define-mode-abbrev <RET> ABBREV <RET> EXP <RET>'
     Define ABBREV as a mode-specific abbrev expanding into EXP.

`M-x kill-all-abbrevs'
     Discard all abbrev definitions, leaving a blank slate.

   The usual way to define an abbrev is to enter the text you want the
abbrev to expand to, position point after it, and type `C-x a g'
(`add-global-abbrev').  This reads the abbrev itself using the
minibuffer, and then defines it as an abbrev for one or more words
before point.  Use a numeric argument to say how many words before
point should be taken as the expansion.  For example, to define the
abbrev `foo' as mentioned above, insert the text `find outer otter' and
then type `C-u 3 C-x a g f o o <RET>'.

   An argument of zero to `C-x a g' means to use the contents of the
region as the expansion of the abbrev being defined.

   The command `C-x a l' (`add-mode-abbrev') is similar, but defines a
mode-specific abbrev.  Mode-specific abbrevs are active only in a
particular major mode.  `C-x a l' defines an abbrev for the major mode
in effect at the time `C-x a l' is typed.  The arguments work the same
as for `C-x a g'.

   If the abbrev text itself is already in the buffer, you can use the
commands `C-x a i g' (`inverse-add-global-abbrev') and `C-x a i l'
(`inverse-add-mode-abbrev') to define it as an abbrev by specify the
expansion in the minibuffer.  These commands are called "inverse"
because they invert the meaning of the two text strings they use (one
from the buffer and one read with the minibuffer).

   You can define an abbrev without inserting either the abbrev or its
expansion in the buffer using the command `define-global-abbrev'.  It
reads two arguments--the abbrev, and its expansion.  The command
`define-mode-abbrev' does likewise for a mode-specific abbrev.

   To change the definition of an abbrev, just define a new definition.
When the abbrev has a prior definition, the abbrev definition commands
ask for confirmation before replacing it.

   To remove an abbrev definition, give a negative argument to the
abbrev definition command: `C-u - C-x a g' or `C-u - C-x a l'.  The
former removes a global definition, while the latter removes a
mode-specific definition.  `M-x kill-all-abbrevs' removes all abbrev
definitions, both global and local.


File: emacs,  Node: Expanding Abbrevs,  Next: Editing Abbrevs,  Prev: Defining Abbrevs,  Up: Abbrevs

34.3 Controlling Abbrev Expansion
=================================

When Abbrev mode is enabled, an abbrev expands whenever it is present
in the buffer just before point and you type a self-inserting
whitespace or punctuation character (<SPC>, comma, etc.).  More
precisely, any character that is not a word constituent expands an
abbrev, and any word-constituent character can be part of an abbrev.
The most common way to use an abbrev is to insert it and then insert a
punctuation or whitespace character to expand it.

   Abbrev expansion preserves case; thus, `foo' expands into `find
outer otter'; `Foo' into `Find outer otter', and `FOO' into `FIND OUTER
OTTER' or `Find Outer Otter' according to the variable
`abbrev-all-caps' (setting it non-`nil' specifies `FIND OUTER OTTER').

   These commands are used to control abbrev expansion:

`M-''
     Separate a prefix from a following abbrev to be expanded
     (`abbrev-prefix-mark').

`C-x a e'
     Expand the abbrev before point (`expand-abbrev').  This is
     effective even when Abbrev mode is not enabled.

`M-x expand-region-abbrevs'
     Expand some or all abbrevs found in the region.

   You may wish to expand an abbrev and attach a prefix to the
expansion; for example, if `cnst' expands into `construction', you
might want to use it to enter `reconstruction'.  It does not work to
type `recnst', because that is not necessarily a defined abbrev.  What
you can do is use the command `M-'' (`abbrev-prefix-mark') in between
the prefix `re' and the abbrev `cnst'.  First, insert `re'.  Then type
`M-''; this inserts a hyphen in the buffer to indicate that it has done
its work.  Then insert the abbrev `cnst'; the buffer now contains
`re-cnst'.  Now insert a non-word character to expand the abbrev `cnst'
into `construction'.  This expansion step also deletes the hyphen that
indicated `M-'' had been used.  The result is the desired
`reconstruction'.

   If you actually want the text of the abbrev in the buffer, rather
than its expansion, you can accomplish this by inserting the following
punctuation with `C-q'.  Thus, `foo C-q ,' leaves `foo,' in the buffer,
not expanding it.

   If you expand an abbrev by mistake, you can undo the expansion and
bring back the abbrev itself by typing `C-_' to undo (*note Undo::).
This also undoes the insertion of the non-word character that expanded
the abbrev.  If the result you want is the terminating non-word
character plus the unexpanded abbrev, you must reinsert the terminating
character, quoting it with `C-q'.  You can also use the command `M-x
unexpand-abbrev' to cancel the last expansion without deleting the
terminating character.

   `M-x expand-region-abbrevs' searches through the region for defined
abbrevs, and for each one found offers to replace it with its expansion.
This command is useful if you have typed in text using abbrevs but
forgot to turn on Abbrev mode first.  It may also be useful together
with a special set of abbrev definitions for making several global
replacements at once.  This command is effective even if Abbrev mode is
not enabled.

   Expanding any abbrev first runs the hook `pre-abbrev-expand-hook'
(*note Hooks::).


File: emacs,  Node: Editing Abbrevs,  Next: Saving Abbrevs,  Prev: Expanding Abbrevs,  Up: Abbrevs

34.4 Examining and Editing Abbrevs
==================================

`M-x list-abbrevs'
     Display a list of all abbrev definitions.  With a numeric
     argument, list only local abbrevs.

`M-x edit-abbrevs'
     Edit a list of abbrevs; you can add, alter or remove definitions.

   The output from `M-x list-abbrevs' looks like this:

     VARIOUS OTHER TABLES...
     (lisp-mode-abbrev-table)
     "dk"	       0    "define-key"
     (global-abbrev-table)
     "dfn"	       0    "definition"

(Some blank lines of no semantic significance, and some other abbrev
tables, have been omitted.)

   A line containing a name in parentheses is the header for abbrevs in
a particular abbrev table; `global-abbrev-table' contains all the global
abbrevs, and the other abbrev tables that are named after major modes
contain the mode-specific abbrevs.

   Within each abbrev table, each nonblank line defines one abbrev.  The
word at the beginning of the line is the abbrev.  The number that
follows is the number of times the abbrev has been expanded.  Emacs
keeps track of this to help you see which abbrevs you actually use, so
that you can eliminate those that you don't use often.  The string at
the end of the line is the expansion.

   Some abbrevs are marked with `(sys)'.  These "system" abbrevs (*note
Abbrevs: (elisp)Abbrevs.) are pre-defined by various modes, and are not
saved to your abbrev file.  To disable a "system" abbrev, define an
abbrev of the same name that expands to itself, and save it to your
abbrev file.

   `M-x edit-abbrevs' allows you to add, change or kill abbrev
definitions by editing a list of them in an Emacs buffer.  The list has
the same format described above.  The buffer of abbrevs is called
`*Abbrevs*', and is in Edit-Abbrevs mode.  Type `C-c C-c' in this
buffer to install the abbrev definitions as specified in the
buffer--and delete any abbrev definitions not listed.

   The command `edit-abbrevs' is actually the same as `list-abbrevs'
except that it selects the buffer `*Abbrevs*' whereas `list-abbrevs'
merely displays it in another window.


File: emacs,  Node: Saving Abbrevs,  Next: Dynamic Abbrevs,  Prev: Editing Abbrevs,  Up: Abbrevs

34.5 Saving Abbrevs
===================

These commands allow you to keep abbrev definitions between editing
sessions.

`M-x write-abbrev-file <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Write a file FILE describing all defined abbrevs.

`M-x read-abbrev-file <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Read the file FILE and define abbrevs as specified therein.

`M-x quietly-read-abbrev-file <RET> FILE <RET>'
     Similar but do not display a message about what is going on.

`M-x define-abbrevs'
     Define abbrevs from definitions in current buffer.

`M-x insert-abbrevs'
     Insert all abbrevs and their expansions into current buffer.

   `M-x write-abbrev-file' reads a file name using the minibuffer and
then writes a description of all current abbrev definitions into that
file.  This is used to save abbrev definitions for use in a later
session.  The text stored in the file is a series of Lisp expressions
that, when executed, define the same abbrevs that you currently have.

   `M-x read-abbrev-file' reads a file name using the minibuffer and
then reads the file, defining abbrevs according to the contents of the
file.  The function `quietly-read-abbrev-file' is similar except that
it does not display a message in the echo area; you cannot invoke it
interactively, and it is used primarily in the `.emacs' file.  If
either of these functions is called with `nil' as the argument, it uses
the file name specified in the variable `abbrev-file-name', which is by
default `"~/.abbrev_defs"'.  That file is your standard abbrev
definition file, and Emacs loads abbrevs from it automatically when it
starts up.

   Emacs will offer to save abbrevs automatically if you have changed
any of them, whenever it offers to save all files (for `C-x s' or `C-x
C-c').  It saves them in the file specified by `abbrev-file-name'.
This feature can be inhibited by setting the variable `save-abbrevs' to
`nil'.

   The commands `M-x insert-abbrevs' and `M-x define-abbrevs' are
similar to the previous commands but work on text in an Emacs buffer.
`M-x insert-abbrevs' inserts text into the current buffer after point,
describing all current abbrev definitions; `M-x define-abbrevs' parses
the entire current buffer and defines abbrevs accordingly.


File: emacs,  Node: Dynamic Abbrevs,  Next: Dabbrev Customization,  Prev: Saving Abbrevs,  Up: Abbrevs

34.6 Dynamic Abbrev Expansion
=============================

The abbrev facility described above operates automatically as you
insert text, but all abbrevs must be defined explicitly.  By contrast,
"dynamic abbrevs" allow the meanings of abbreviations to be determined
automatically from the contents of the buffer, but dynamic abbrev
expansion happens only when you request it explicitly.

`M-/'
     Expand the word in the buffer before point as a "dynamic abbrev",
     by searching in the buffer for words starting with that
     abbreviation (`dabbrev-expand').

`C-M-/'
     Complete the word before point as a dynamic abbrev
     (`dabbrev-completion').

   For example, if the buffer contains `does this follow ' and you type
`f o M-/', the effect is to insert `follow' because that is the last
word in the buffer that starts with `fo'.  A numeric argument to `M-/'
says to take the second, third, etc. distinct expansion found looking
backward from point.  Repeating `M-/' searches for an alternative
expansion by looking farther back.  After scanning all the text before
point, it searches the text after point.  The variable `dabbrev-limit',
if non-`nil', specifies how far away in the buffer to search for an
expansion.

   After scanning the current buffer, `M-/' normally searches other
buffers, unless you have set `dabbrev-check-all-buffers' to `nil'.

   For finer control over which buffers to scan, customize the variable
`dabbrev-ignored-buffer-regexps'.  Its value is a list of regular
expressions.  If a buffer's name matches any of these regular
expressions, dynamic abbrev expansion skips that buffer.

   A negative argument to `M-/', as in `C-u - M-/', says to search
first for expansions after point, then other buffers, and consider
expansions before point only as a last resort.  If you repeat the `M-/'
to look for another expansion, do not specify an argument.  Repeating
`M-/' cycles through all the expansions after point and then the
expansions before point.

   After you have expanded a dynamic abbrev, you can copy additional
words that follow the expansion in its original context.  Simply type
`<SPC> M-/' for each additional word you want to copy.  The spacing and
punctuation between words is copied along with the words.

   The command `C-M-/' (`dabbrev-completion') performs completion of a
dynamic abbrev.  Instead of trying the possible expansions one by one,
it finds all of them, then inserts the text that they have in common.
If they have nothing in common, `C-M-/' displays a list of completions,
from which you can select a choice in the usual manner.  *Note
Completion::.

   Dynamic abbrev expansion is completely independent of Abbrev mode;
the expansion of a word with `M-/' is completely independent of whether
it has a definition as an ordinary abbrev.


File: emacs,  Node: Dabbrev Customization,  Prev: Dynamic Abbrevs,  Up: Abbrevs

34.7 Customizing Dynamic Abbreviation
=====================================

Normally, dynamic abbrev expansion ignores case when searching for
expansions.  That is, the expansion need not agree in case with the word
you are expanding.

   This feature is controlled by the variable
`dabbrev-case-fold-search'.  If it is `t', case is ignored in this
search; if it is `nil', the word and the expansion must match in case.
If the value of `dabbrev-case-fold-search' is `case-fold-search', which
is true by default, then the variable `case-fold-search' controls
whether to ignore case while searching for expansions.

   Normally, dynamic abbrev expansion preserves the case pattern _of
the dynamic abbrev you are expanding_, by converting the expansion to
that case pattern.

   The variable `dabbrev-case-replace' controls whether to preserve the
case pattern of the dynamic abbrev.  If it is `t', the dynamic abbrev's
case pattern is preserved in most cases; if it is `nil', the expansion
is always copied verbatim.  If the value of `dabbrev-case-replace' is
`case-replace', which is true by default, then the variable
`case-replace' controls whether to copy the expansion verbatim.

   However, if the expansion contains a complex mixed case pattern, and
the dynamic abbrev matches this pattern as far as it goes, then the
expansion is always copied verbatim, regardless of those variables.
Thus, for example, if the buffer contains
`variableWithSillyCasePattern', and you type `v a M-/', it copies the
expansion verbatim including its case pattern.

   The variable `dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp', if non-`nil', controls
which characters are considered part of a word, for dynamic expansion
purposes.  The regular expression must match just one character, never
two or more.  The same regular expression also determines which
characters are part of an expansion.  The value `nil' has a special
meaning: dynamic abbrevs are made of word characters, but expansions are
made of word and symbol characters.

   In shell scripts and makefiles, a variable name is sometimes prefixed
with `$' and sometimes not.  Major modes for this kind of text can
customize dynamic abbrev expansion to handle optional prefixes by
setting the variable `dabbrev-abbrev-skip-leading-regexp'.  Its value
should be a regular expression that matches the optional prefix that
dynamic abbrev expression should ignore.


File: emacs,  Node: Picture Mode,  Next: Sending Mail,  Prev: Abbrevs,  Up: Top

35 Editing Pictures
*******************

To edit a picture made out of text characters (for example, a picture
of the division of a register into fields, as a comment in a program),
use the command `M-x edit-picture' to enter Picture mode.

   In Picture mode, editing is based on the "quarter-plane" model of
text, according to which the text characters lie studded on an area that
stretches infinitely far to the right and downward.  The concept of the
end of a line does not exist in this model; the most you can say is
where the last nonblank character on the line is found.

   Of course, Emacs really always considers text as a sequence of
characters, and lines really do have ends.  But Picture mode replaces
the most frequently-used commands with variants that simulate the
quarter-plane model of text.  They do this by inserting spaces or by
converting tabs to spaces.

   Most of the basic editing commands of Emacs are redefined by Picture
mode to do essentially the same thing but in a quarter-plane way.  In
addition, Picture mode defines various keys starting with the `C-c'
prefix to run special picture editing commands.

   One of these keys, `C-c C-c', is particularly important.  Often a
picture is part of a larger file that is usually edited in some other
major mode.  `M-x edit-picture' records the name of the previous major
mode so you can use the `C-c C-c' command (`picture-mode-exit') later
to go back to that mode.  `C-c C-c' also deletes spaces from the ends
of lines, unless given a numeric argument.

   The special commands of Picture mode all work in other modes
(provided the `picture' library is loaded), but are not bound to keys
except in Picture mode.  The descriptions below talk of moving "one
column" and so on, but all the picture mode commands handle numeric
arguments as their normal equivalents do.

   Turning on Picture mode runs the hook `picture-mode-hook'.
Additional extensions to Picture mode can be found in `artist.el'.

* Menu:

* Basic Picture::         Basic concepts and simple commands of Picture Mode.
* Insert in Picture::     Controlling direction of cursor motion
                            after "self-inserting" characters.
* Tabs in Picture::       Various features for tab stops and indentation.
* Rectangles in Picture:: Clearing and superimposing rectangles.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Picture,  Next: Insert in Picture,  Up: Picture Mode

35.1 Basic Editing in Picture Mode
==================================

Most keys do the same thing in Picture mode that they usually do, but
do it in a quarter-plane style.  For example, `C-f' is rebound to run
`picture-forward-column', a command which moves point one column to the
right, inserting a space if necessary so that the actual end of the
line makes no difference.  `C-b' is rebound to run
`picture-backward-column', which always moves point left one column,
converting a tab to multiple spaces if necessary.  `C-n' and `C-p' are
rebound to run `picture-move-down' and `picture-move-up', which can
either insert spaces or convert tabs as necessary to make sure that
point stays in exactly the same column.  `C-e' runs
`picture-end-of-line', which moves to after the last nonblank character
on the line.  There is no need to change `C-a', as the choice of screen
model does not affect beginnings of lines.

   Insertion of text is adapted to the quarter-plane screen model
through the use of Overwrite mode (*note Minor Modes::.)
Self-inserting characters replace existing text, column by column,
rather than pushing existing text to the right.  <RET> runs
`picture-newline', which just moves to the beginning of the following
line so that new text will replace that line.

   In Picture mode, the commands that normally delete or kill text,
instead erase text (replacing it with spaces).  <DEL>
(`picture-backward-clear-column') replaces the preceding character with
a space rather than removing it; this moves point backwards.  `C-d'
(`picture-clear-column') replaces the next character or characters with
spaces, but does not move point.  (If you want to clear characters to
spaces and move forward over them, use <SPC>.)  `C-k'
(`picture-clear-line') really kills the contents of lines, but does not
delete the newlines from the buffer.

   To do actual insertion, you must use special commands.  `C-o'
(`picture-open-line') creates a blank line after the current line; it
never splits a line.  `C-M-o' (`split-line') makes sense in Picture
mode, so it is not changed.  `C-j' (`picture-duplicate-line') inserts
another line with the same contents below the current line.

   To do actual deletion in Picture mode, use `C-w', `C-c C-d' (which
is defined as `delete-char', as `C-d' is in other modes), or one of the
picture rectangle commands (*note Rectangles in Picture::).


File: emacs,  Node: Insert in Picture,  Next: Tabs in Picture,  Prev: Basic Picture,  Up: Picture Mode

35.2 Controlling Motion after Insert
====================================

Since "self-inserting" characters in Picture mode overwrite and move
point, there is no essential restriction on how point should be moved.
Normally point moves right, but you can specify any of the eight
orthogonal or diagonal directions for motion after a "self-inserting"
character.  This is useful for drawing lines in the buffer.

`C-c <'
`C-c <LEFT>'
     Move left after insertion (`picture-movement-left').

`C-c >'
`C-c <RIGHT>'
     Move right after insertion (`picture-movement-right').

`C-c ^'
`C-c <UP>'
     Move up after insertion (`picture-movement-up').

`C-c .'
`C-c <DOWN>'
     Move down after insertion (`picture-movement-down').

`C-c `'
`C-c <HOME>'
     Move up and left ("northwest") after insertion
     (`picture-movement-nw').

`C-c ''
`C-c <PAGEUP>'
     Move up and right ("northeast") after insertion
     (`picture-movement-ne').

`C-c /'
`C-c <END>'
     Move down and left ("southwest") after insertion
     (`picture-movement-sw').

`C-c \'
`C-c <PAGEDOWN>'
     Move down and right ("southeast") after insertion
     (`picture-movement-se').

   Two motion commands move based on the current Picture insertion
direction.  The command `C-c C-f' (`picture-motion') moves in the same
direction as motion after "insertion" currently does, while `C-c C-b'
(`picture-motion-reverse') moves in the opposite direction.


File: emacs,  Node: Tabs in Picture,  Next: Rectangles in Picture,  Prev: Insert in Picture,  Up: Picture Mode

35.3 Picture Mode Tabs
======================

Two kinds of tab-like action are provided in Picture mode.  Use
`M-<TAB>' (`picture-tab-search') for context-based tabbing.  With no
argument, it moves to a point underneath the next "interesting"
character that follows whitespace in the previous nonblank line.
"Next" here means "appearing at a horizontal position greater than the
one point starts out at."  With an argument, as in `C-u M-<TAB>', this
command moves to the next such interesting character in the current
line.  `M-<TAB>' does not change the text; it only moves point.
"Interesting" characters are defined by the variable
`picture-tab-chars', which should define a set of characters.  The
syntax for this variable is like the syntax used inside of `[...]' in a
regular expression--but without the `[' and the `]'.  Its default value
is `"!-~"'.

   <TAB> itself runs `picture-tab', which operates based on the current
tab stop settings; it is the Picture mode equivalent of
`tab-to-tab-stop'.  Normally it just moves point, but with a numeric
argument it clears the text that it moves over.

   The context-based and tab-stop-based forms of tabbing are brought
together by the command `C-c <TAB>' (`picture-set-tab-stops').  This
command sets the tab stops to the positions which `M-<TAB>' would
consider significant in the current line.  The use of this command,
together with <TAB>, can get the effect of context-based tabbing.  But
`M-<TAB>' is more convenient in the cases where it is sufficient.

   It may be convenient to prevent use of actual tab characters in
pictures.  For example, this prevents `C-x <TAB>' from messing up the
picture.  You can do this by setting the variable `indent-tabs-mode' to
`nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: Rectangles in Picture,  Prev: Tabs in Picture,  Up: Picture Mode

35.4 Picture Mode Rectangle Commands
====================================

Picture mode defines commands for working on rectangular pieces of the
text in ways that fit with the quarter-plane model.  The standard
rectangle commands may also be useful.  *Note Rectangles::.

`C-c C-k'
     Clear out the region-rectangle with spaces
     (`picture-clear-rectangle').  With argument, delete the text.

`C-c C-w R'
     Similar, but save rectangle contents in register R first
     (`picture-clear-rectangle-to-register').

`C-c C-y'
     Copy last killed rectangle into the buffer by overwriting, with
     upper left corner at point (`picture-yank-rectangle').  With
     argument, insert instead.

`C-c C-x R'
     Similar, but use the rectangle in register R
     (`picture-yank-rectangle-from-register').

   The picture rectangle commands `C-c C-k' (`picture-clear-rectangle')
and `C-c C-w' (`picture-clear-rectangle-to-register') differ from the
standard rectangle commands in that they normally clear the rectangle
instead of deleting it; this is analogous with the way `C-d' is changed
in Picture mode.

   However, deletion of rectangles can be useful in Picture mode, so
these commands delete the rectangle if given a numeric argument.  `C-c
C-k' either with or without a numeric argument saves the rectangle for
`C-c C-y'.

   The Picture mode commands for yanking rectangles differ from the
standard ones in that they overwrite instead of inserting.  This is the
same way that Picture mode insertion of other text differs from other
modes.  `C-c C-y' (`picture-yank-rectangle') inserts (by overwriting)
the rectangle that was most recently killed, while `C-c C-x'
(`picture-yank-rectangle-from-register') does likewise for the
rectangle found in a specified register.


File: emacs,  Node: Sending Mail,  Next: Rmail,  Prev: Picture Mode,  Up: Top

36 Sending Mail
***************

To send a message in Emacs, you start by typing a command (`C-x m') to
select and initialize the `*mail*' buffer.  Then you edit the text and
headers of the message in this buffer, and type another command (`C-c
C-s' or `C-c C-c') to send the message.

`C-x m'
     Begin composing a message to send (`compose-mail').

`C-x 4 m'
     Likewise, but display the message in another window
     (`compose-mail-other-window').

`C-x 5 m'
     Likewise, but make a new frame (`compose-mail-other-frame').

`C-c C-s'
     In Mail mode, send the message (`mail-send').

`C-c C-c'
     Send the message and bury the mail buffer (`mail-send-and-exit').

   The command `C-x m' (`compose-mail') selects a buffer named `*mail*'
and initializes it with the skeleton of an outgoing message.  `C-x 4 m'
(`compose-mail-other-window') selects the `*mail*' buffer in a
different window, leaving the previous current buffer visible.  `C-x 5
m' (`compose-mail-other-frame') creates a new frame to select the
`*mail*' buffer.

   Because the mail-composition buffer is an ordinary Emacs buffer, you
can switch to other buffers while in the middle of composing mail, and
switch back later (or never).  If you use the `C-x m' command again
when you have been composing another message but have not sent it, you
are asked to confirm before the old message is erased.  If you answer
`n', the `*mail*' buffer remains selected with its old contents, so you
can finish the old message and send it.  `C-u C-x m' is another way to
do this.  Sending the message marks the `*mail*' buffer "unmodified,"
which avoids the need for confirmation when `C-x m' is next used.

   If you are composing a message in the `*mail*' buffer and want to
send another message before finishing the first, rename the `*mail*'
buffer using `M-x rename-uniquely' (*note Misc Buffer::).  Then you can
use `C-x m' or its variants described above to make a new `*mail*'
buffer.  Once you've done that, you can work with each mail buffer
independently.

   The variable `mail-default-directory' controls the default directory
for mail buffers, and also says where to put their auto-save files.

* Menu:

* Format: Mail Format.	     Format of the mail being composed.
* Headers: Mail Headers.     Details of permitted mail header fields.
* Aliases: Mail Aliases.     Abbreviating and grouping mail addresses.
* Mode: Mail Mode.	     Special commands for editing mail being composed.
* Amuse: Mail Amusements.    Distracting the NSA; adding fortune messages.
* Methods: Mail Methods.     Using alternative mail-composition methods.


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Format,  Next: Mail Headers,  Up: Sending Mail

36.1 The Format of the Mail Buffer
==================================

In addition to the "text" or "body", a message has "header fields"
which say who sent it, when, to whom, why, and so on.  Some header
fields, such as `Date' and `Sender', are created automatically when you
send the message.  Others, such as the recipient names, must be
specified by you in order to send the message properly.

   In the mail buffer, you can insert and edit header fields using
ordinary editing commands.  Mail mode provides a commands to help you
edit some header fields, and some are preinitialized in the buffer
automatically when appropriate.

   The line in the buffer that says

     --text follows this line--

is a special delimiter that separates the headers you have specified
from the text.  Whatever follows this line is the text of the message;
the headers precede it.  The delimiter line itself does not appear in
the message actually sent.  The text used for the delimiter line is
controlled by the variable `mail-header-separator'.

   Here is an example of what the headers and text in the mail buffer
might look like.

     To: gnu@gnu.org
     CC: lungfish@spam.org, byob@spam.org
     Subject: The Emacs Manual
     --Text follows this line--
     Please ignore this message.


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Headers,  Next: Mail Aliases,  Prev: Mail Format,  Up: Sending Mail

36.2 Mail Header Fields
=======================

A header field in the mail buffer starts with a field name at the
beginning of a line, terminated by a colon.  Upper and lower case are
equivalent in field names (and in mailing addresses also).  After the
colon and optional whitespace comes the contents of the field.

   You can use any name you like for a header field, but normally people
use only standard field names with accepted meanings.  Here is a table
of fields commonly used in outgoing messages.

`To'
     This field contains the mailing addresses to which the message is
     addressed.  If you list more than one address, use commas, not
     spaces, to separate them.

`Subject'
     The contents of the `Subject' field should be a piece of text that
     says what the message is about.  The reason `Subject' fields are
     useful is that most mail-reading programs can provide a summary of
     messages, listing the subject of each message but not its text.

`CC'
     This field contains additional mailing addresses to send the
     message to, like `To' except that these readers should not regard
     the message as directed at them.

`BCC'
     This field contains additional mailing addresses to send the
     message to, which should not appear in the header of the message
     actually sent.  Copies sent this way are called "blind carbon
     copies".

     To send a blind carbon copy of every outgoing message to yourself,
     set the variable `mail-self-blind' to `t'.  To send a blind carbon
     copy of every message to some other ADDRESS, set the variable
     `mail-default-headers' to `"Bcc: ADDRESS\n"'.

`FCC'
     This field contains the name of one file and directs Emacs to
     append a copy of the message to that file when you send the
     message.  If the file is in Rmail format, Emacs writes the message
     in Rmail format; otherwise, Emacs writes the message in system
     mail file format.  To specify more than one file, use several
     `FCC' fields, with one file name in each field.

     To put a fixed file name in the `FCC' field each time you start
     editing an outgoing message, set the variable
     `mail-archive-file-name' to that file name.  Unless you remove the
     `FCC' field before sending, the message will be written into that
     file when it is sent.

`From'
     Use the `From' field to say who you are, when the account you are
     using to send the mail is not your own.  The contents of the `From'
     field should be a valid mailing address, since replies will
     normally go there.  If you don't specify the `From' field
     yourself, Emacs uses the value of `user-mail-address' as the
     default.

`Reply-to'
     Use this field to direct replies to a different address.  Most
     mail-reading programs (including Rmail) automatically send replies
     to the `Reply-to' address in preference to the `From' address.  By
     adding a `Reply-to' field to your header, you can work around any
     problems your `From' address may cause for replies.

     To put a fixed `Reply-to' address into every outgoing message, set
     the variable `mail-default-reply-to' to that address (as a string).
     Then `mail' initializes the message with a `Reply-to' field as
     specified.  You can delete or alter that header field before you
     send the message, if you wish.  When Emacs starts up, if the
     environment variable `REPLYTO' is set, `mail-default-reply-to' is
     initialized from that environment variable.

`In-reply-to'
     This field contains a piece of text describing the message you are
     replying to.  Some mail systems can use this information to
     correlate related pieces of mail.  Normally this field is filled
     in by Rmail when you reply to a message in Rmail, and you never
     need to think about it (*note Rmail::).

`References'
     This field lists the message IDs of related previous messages.
     Rmail sets up this field automatically when you reply to a message.

   The `To', `CC', and `BCC' header fields can appear any number of
times, and each such header field can contain multiple addresses,
separated by commas.  This way, you can specify any number of places to
send the message.  These fields can also have continuation lines: one
or more lines starting with whitespace, following the starting line of
the field, are considered part of the field.  Here's an example of a
`To' field with a continuation line:

     To: foo@here.net, this@there.net,
       me@gnu.cambridge.mass.usa.earth.spiral3281

   When you send the message, if you didn't write a `From' field
yourself, Emacs puts in one for you.  The variable `mail-from-style'
controls the format:

`nil'
     Use just the email address, as in `king@grassland.com'.

`parens'
     Use both email address and full name, as in:
     `king@grassland.com (Elvis Parsley)'.

`angles'
     Use both email address and full name, as in:
     `Elvis Parsley <king@grassland.com>'.

`system-default'
     Allow the system to insert the `From' field.

   You can direct Emacs to insert certain default headers into the
outgoing message by setting the variable `mail-default-headers' to a
string.  Then `C-x m' inserts this string into the message headers.  If
the default header fields are not appropriate for a particular message,
edit them as appropriate before sending the message.


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Aliases,  Next: Mail Mode,  Prev: Mail Headers,  Up: Sending Mail

36.3 Mail Aliases
=================

You can define "mail aliases" in a file named `~/.mailrc'.  These are
short mnemonic names which stand for mail addresses or groups of mail
addresses.  Like many other mail programs, Emacs expands aliases when
they occur in the `To', `From', `CC', `BCC', and `Reply-to' fields,
plus their `Resent-' variants.

   To define an alias in `~/.mailrc', write a line in the following
format:

     alias SHORTADDRESS FULLADDRESSES

Here FULLADDRESSES stands for one or more mail addresses for
SHORTADDRESS to expand into.  Separate multiple addresses with spaces;
if an address contains a space, quote the whole address with a pair of
double-quotes.

   For instance, to make `maingnu' stand for `gnu@gnu.org' plus a local
address of your own, put in this line:

     alias maingnu gnu@gnu.org local-gnu

Addresses specified in this way should use doublequotes around an
entire address when the address contains spaces.  But you need not
include doublequotes around parts of the address, such as the person's
full name.  Emacs puts them in if they are needed.  For example,

     alias chief-torturer "George W. Bush <bush@whitehouse.gov>"

is correct in `.mailrc'.  Emacs will insert the address as `"George W.
Bush" <bush@whitehouse.gov>'.

   Emacs also recognizes "include" commands in `.mailrc' files.  They
look like this:

     source FILENAME

The file `~/.mailrc' is used primarily by other mail-reading programs;
it can contain various other commands.  Emacs ignores everything in it
except for alias definitions and include commands.

   Another way to define a mail alias, within Emacs alone, is with the
`define-mail-alias' command.  It prompts for the alias and then the
full address.  You can use it to define aliases in your `.emacs' file,
like this:

     (define-mail-alias "maingnu" "gnu@gnu.org")

   `define-mail-alias' records aliases by adding them to a variable
named `mail-aliases'.  If you are comfortable with manipulating Lisp
lists, you can set `mail-aliases' directly.  The initial value of
`mail-aliases' is `t', which means that Emacs should read `.mailrc' to
get the proper value.

   You can specify a different file name to use instead of `~/.mailrc'
by setting the variable `mail-personal-alias-file'.

   Normally, Emacs expands aliases when you send the message.  You do
not need to expand mail aliases before sending the message, but you can
expand them if you want to see where the mail will actually go.  To do
this, use the command `M-x expand-mail-aliases'; it expands all mail
aliases currently present in the mail headers that hold addresses.

   If you like, you can have mail aliases expand as abbrevs, as soon as
you type them in (*note Abbrevs::).  To enable this feature, execute the
following:

     (add-hook 'mail-mode-hook 'mail-abbrevs-setup)

This can go in your `.emacs' file.  *Note Hooks::.  If you use this
feature, you must use `define-mail-abbrev' instead of
`define-mail-alias'; the latter does not work with this package.  Note
that the mail abbreviation package uses the variable `mail-abbrevs'
instead of `mail-aliases', and that all alias names are converted to
lower case.

   The mail abbreviation package also provides the `C-c C-a'
(`mail-interactive-insert-alias') command, which reads an alias name
(with completion) and inserts its definition at point.  This is useful
when editing the message text itself or a header field such as
`Subject' in which Emacs does not normally expand aliases.

   Note that abbrevs expand only if you insert a word-separator
character afterward.  However, you can rebind `C-n' and `M->' to cause
expansion as well.  Here's how to do that:

     (add-hook 'mail-mode-hook
         (lambda ()
           (define-key
             mail-mode-map [remap next-line] 'mail-abbrev-next-line)
           (define-key
             mail-mode-map [remap end-of-buffer] 'mail-abbrev-end-of-buffer)))


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Mode,  Next: Mail Amusements,  Prev: Mail Aliases,  Up: Sending Mail

36.4 Mail Mode
==============

The major mode used in the mail buffer is Mail mode, which is much like
Text mode except that various special commands are provided on the
`C-c' prefix.  These commands all have to do specifically with editing
or sending the message.  In addition, Mail mode defines the character
`%' as a word separator; this is helpful for using the word commands to
edit mail addresses.

   Mail mode is normally used in buffers set up automatically by the
`mail' command and related commands.  However, you can also switch to
Mail mode in a file-visiting buffer.  This is a useful thing to do if
you have saved the text of a draft message in a file.

* Menu:

* Mail Sending::        Commands to send the message.
* Header Editing::      Commands to move to header fields and edit them.
* Citing Mail::         Copying all or part of a message you are replying to.
* Mail Mode Misc::      Spell checking, signatures, etc.


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Sending,  Next: Header Editing,  Up: Mail Mode

36.4.1 Mail Sending
-------------------

Mail mode has two commands for sending the message you have been
editing:

`C-c C-s'
     Send the message, and leave the mail buffer selected (`mail-send').

`C-c C-c'
     Send the message, and select some other buffer
     (`mail-send-and-exit').

   `C-c C-s' (`mail-send') sends the message and marks the mail buffer
unmodified, but leaves that buffer selected so that you can modify the
message (perhaps with new recipients) and send it again.  `C-c C-c'
(`mail-send-and-exit') sends and then deletes the window or switches to
another buffer.  It puts the mail buffer at the lowest priority for
reselection by default, since you are finished with using it.  This is
the usual way to send the message.

   In a file-visiting buffer, sending the message does not clear the
modified flag, because only saving the file should do that.  Also, you
don't get a warning if you try to send the same message twice.

   When you send a message that contains non-ASCII characters, they need
to be encoded with a coding system (*note Coding Systems::).  Usually
the coding system is specified automatically by your chosen language
environment (*note Language Environments::).  You can explicitly specify
the coding system for outgoing mail by setting the variable
`sendmail-coding-system' (*note Recognize Coding::).

   If the coding system thus determined does not handle the characters
in a particular message, Emacs asks you to select the coding system to
use, showing a list of possible coding systems.

   The variable `send-mail-function' controls how the default mail user
agent sends mail.  It should be set to a function.  The default is
`sendmail-send-it', which delivers mail using the Sendmail installation
on the local host.  To send mail through a SMTP server, set it to
`smtpmail-send-it' and set up the Emacs SMTP library (*note Emacs SMTP
Library: (smtpmail)Top.).  A third option is `feedmail-send-it', see
the commentary section of the `feedmail.el' package for more
information.


File: emacs,  Node: Header Editing,  Next: Citing Mail,  Prev: Mail Sending,  Up: Mail Mode

36.4.2 Mail Header Editing
--------------------------

Mail mode provides special commands to move to particular header fields
and to complete addresses in headers.

`C-c C-f C-t'
     Move to the `To' header field, creating one if there is none
     (`mail-to').

`C-c C-f C-s'
     Move to the `Subject' header field, creating one if there is none
     (`mail-subject').

`C-c C-f C-c'
     Move to the `CC' header field, creating one if there is none
     (`mail-cc').

`C-c C-f C-b'
     Move to the `BCC' header field, creating one if there is none
     (`mail-bcc').

`C-c C-f C-f'
     Move to the `FCC' header field, creating one if there is none
     (`mail-fcc').

`M-<TAB>'
     Complete a mailing address (`mail-complete').

   There are five commands to move point to particular header fields,
all based on the prefix `C-c C-f' (`C-f' is for "field").  They are
listed in the table above.  If the field in question does not exist,
these commands create one.  We provide special motion commands for these
particular fields because they are the fields users most often want to
edit.

   While editing a header field that contains mailing addresses, such
as `To:', `CC:' and `BCC:', you can complete a mailing address by
typing `M-<TAB>' (`mail-complete').  It inserts the full name
corresponding to the address, if it can determine the full name.  The
variable `mail-complete-style' controls whether to insert the full
name, and what style to use, as in `mail-from-style' (*note Mail
Headers::).  (If your window manager defines `M-<TAB>' to switch
windows, you can type `<ESC> <TAB>' or `C-M-i'.)

   For completion purposes, the valid mailing addresses are taken to be
the local users' names plus your personal mail aliases.  You can
specify additional sources of valid addresses; see the customization
group `mailalias' to see the variables for customizing this feature
(*note Customization Groups::).

   If you type `M-<TAB>' in the body of the message, `mail-complete'
invokes `ispell-complete-word', as in Text mode.


File: emacs,  Node: Citing Mail,  Next: Mail Mode Misc,  Prev: Header Editing,  Up: Mail Mode

36.4.3 Citing Mail
------------------

Mail mode also has commands for yanking or "citing" all or part of a
message that you are replying to.  These commands are active only when
you started sending a message using an Rmail command.

`C-c C-y'
     Yank the selected message from Rmail (`mail-yank-original').

`C-c C-r'
     Yank the region from the Rmail buffer (`mail-yank-region').

`C-c C-q'
     Fill each paragraph cited from another message
     (`mail-fill-yanked-message').

   When mail sending is invoked from the Rmail mail reader using an
Rmail command, `C-c C-y' can be used inside the mail buffer to insert
the text of the message you are replying to.  Normally it indents each
line of that message three spaces and eliminates most header fields.  A
numeric argument specifies the number of spaces to indent.  An argument
of just `C-u' says not to indent at all and not to eliminate anything.
`C-c C-y' always uses the current message from the Rmail buffer, so you
can insert several old messages by selecting one in Rmail, switching to
`*mail*' and yanking it, then switching back to Rmail to select another.

   You can specify the text for `C-c C-y' to insert at the beginning of
each line: set `mail-yank-prefix' to the desired string.  (A value of
`nil' means to use indentation; this is the default.)  However, `C-u
C-c C-y' never adds anything at the beginning of the inserted lines,
regardless of the value of `mail-yank-prefix'.

   To yank just a part of an incoming message, set the region in Rmail
to the part you want; then go to the `*Mail*' message and type `C-c
C-r' (`mail-yank-region').  Each line that is copied is indented or
prefixed according to `mail-yank-prefix'.

   After using `C-c C-y' or `C-c C-r', you can type `C-c C-q'
(`mail-fill-yanked-message') to fill the paragraphs of the yanked old
message or messages.  One use of `C-c C-q' fills all such paragraphs,
each one individually.  To fill a single paragraph of the quoted
message, use `M-q'.  If filling does not automatically handle the type
of citation prefix you use, try setting the fill prefix explicitly.
*Note Filling::.


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Mode Misc,  Prev: Citing Mail,  Up: Mail Mode

36.4.4 Mail Mode Miscellany
---------------------------

`C-c C-t'
     Move to the beginning of the message body text (`mail-text').

`C-c C-w'
     Insert the file `~/.signature' at the end of the message text
     (`mail-signature').

`C-c C-i FILE <RET>'
     Insert the contents of FILE at the end of the outgoing message
     (`mail-attach-file').

`M-x ispell-message'
     Perform spelling correction on the message text, but not on
     citations from other messages.

   `C-c C-t' (`mail-text') moves point to just after the header
separator line--that is, to the beginning of the message body text.

   `C-c C-w' (`mail-signature') adds a standard piece of text at the
end of the message to say more about who you are.  The text comes from
the file `~/.signature' in your home directory.  To insert your
signature automatically, set the variable `mail-signature' to `t';
after that, starting a mail message automatically inserts the contents
of your `~/.signature' file.  If you want to omit your signature from a
particular message, delete it from the buffer before you send the
message.

   You can also set `mail-signature' to a string; then that string is
inserted automatically as your signature when you start editing a
message to send.  If you set it to some other Lisp expression, the
expression is evaluated each time, and its value (which should be a
string) specifies the signature.

   You can do spelling correction on the message text you have written
with the command `M-x ispell-message'.  If you have yanked an incoming
message into the outgoing draft, this command skips what was yanked,
but it checks the text that you yourself inserted.  (It looks for
indentation or `mail-yank-prefix' to distinguish the cited lines from
your input.)  *Note Spelling::.

   To include a file in the outgoing message, you can use `C-x i', the
usual command to insert a file in the current buffer.  But it is often
more convenient to use a special command, `C-c C-i'
(`mail-attach-file').  This command inserts the file contents at the
end of the buffer, after your signature if any, with a delimiter line
that includes the file name.  Note that this is not a MIME attachment.

   Turning on Mail mode (which `C-x m' does automatically) runs the
normal hooks `text-mode-hook' and `mail-mode-hook'.  Initializing a new
outgoing message runs the normal hook `mail-setup-hook'; if you want to
add special fields to your mail header or make other changes to the
appearance of the mail buffer, use that hook.  *Note Hooks::.

   The main difference between these hooks is just when they are
invoked.  Whenever you type `M-x mail', `mail-mode-hook' runs as soon
as the `*mail*' buffer is created.  Then the `mail-setup' function
inserts the default contents of the buffer.  After these default
contents are inserted, `mail-setup-hook' runs.


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Amusements,  Next: Mail Methods,  Prev: Mail Mode,  Up: Sending Mail

36.5 Mail Amusements
====================

`M-x spook' adds a line of randomly chosen keywords to an outgoing mail
message.  The keywords are chosen from a list of words that suggest you
are discussing something subversive.

   The idea behind this feature is the suspicion that the NSA(1) snoops
on all electronic mail messages that contain keywords suggesting they
might find them interesting.  (The NSA says they don't, but that's what
they _would_ say.)  The idea is that if lots of people add suspicious
words to their messages, the NSA will get so busy with spurious input
that they will have to give up reading it all.

   Here's how to insert spook keywords automatically whenever you start
entering an outgoing message:

     (add-hook 'mail-setup-hook 'spook)

   Whether or not this confuses the NSA, it at least amuses people.

   You can use the `fortune' program to put a "fortune cookie" message
into outgoing mail.  To do this, add `fortune-to-signature' to
`mail-setup-hook':

     (add-hook 'mail-setup-hook 'fortune-to-signature)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The US National Security Agency.


File: emacs,  Node: Mail Methods,  Prev: Mail Amusements,  Up: Sending Mail

36.6 Mail-Composition Methods
=============================

In this chapter we have described the usual Emacs mode for editing and
sending mail--Mail mode.  Emacs has alternative facilities for editing
and sending mail, including MH-E and Message mode, not documented in
this manual.  *Note MH-E: (mh-e)Top.  *Note Message: (message)Top.  You
can choose any of them as your preferred method.  The commands `C-x m',
`C-x 4 m' and `C-x 5 m' use whichever agent you have specified, as do
various other Emacs commands and facilities that send mail.

   To specify your mail-composition method, customize the variable
`mail-user-agent'.  Currently legitimate values include
`sendmail-user-agent' (Mail mode), `mh-e-user-agent',
`message-user-agent' and `gnus-user-agent'.

   If you select a different mail-composition method, the information
in this chapter about the `*mail*' buffer and Mail mode does not apply;
the other methods use a different format of text in a different buffer,
and their commands are different as well.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail,  Next: Dired,  Prev: Sending Mail,  Up: Top

37 Reading Mail with Rmail
**************************

Rmail is an Emacs subsystem for reading and disposing of mail that you
receive.  Rmail stores mail messages in files called Rmail files which
use a special format.  Reading the message in an Rmail file is done in
a special major mode, Rmail mode, which redefines most letters to run
commands for managing mail.

* Menu:

* Basic: Rmail Basics.       Basic concepts of Rmail, and simple use.
* Scroll: Rmail Scrolling.   Scrolling through a message.
* Motion: Rmail Motion.      Moving to another message.
* Deletion: Rmail Deletion.  Deleting and expunging messages.
* Inbox: Rmail Inbox.        How mail gets into the Rmail file.
* Files: Rmail Files.        Using multiple Rmail files.
* Output: Rmail Output.	     Copying message out to files.
* Labels: Rmail Labels.      Classifying messages by labeling them.
* Attrs: Rmail Attributes.   Certain standard labels, called attributes.
* Reply: Rmail Reply.        Sending replies to messages you are viewing.
* Summary: Rmail Summary.    Summaries show brief info on many messages.
* Sort: Rmail Sorting.       Sorting messages in Rmail.
* Display: Rmail Display.    How Rmail displays a message; customization.
* Coding: Rmail Coding.      How Rmail handles decoding character sets.
* Editing: Rmail Editing.    Editing message text and headers in Rmail.
* Digest: Rmail Digest.      Extracting the messages from a digest message.
* Out of Rmail::	     Converting an Rmail file to mailbox format.
* Rot13: Rmail Rot13.	     Reading messages encoded in the rot13 code.
* Movemail::                 More details of fetching new mail.
* Remote Mailboxes::         Retrieving Mail from Remote Mailboxes.
* Other Mailbox Formats::    Retrieving Mail from Local Mailboxes in
                             Various Formats


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Basics,  Next: Rmail Scrolling,  Up: Rmail

37.1 Basic Concepts of Rmail
============================

Using Rmail in the simplest fashion, you have one Rmail file `~/RMAIL'
in which all of your mail is saved.  It is called your "primary Rmail
file".  The command `M-x rmail' reads your primary Rmail file, merges
new mail in from your inboxes, displays the first message you haven't
read yet, and lets you begin reading.  The variable `rmail-file-name'
specifies the name of the primary Rmail file.

   Rmail uses narrowing to hide all but one message in the Rmail file.
The message that is shown is called the "current message".  Rmail
mode's special commands can do such things as delete the current
message, copy it into another file, send a reply, or move to another
message.  You can also create multiple Rmail files and use Rmail to move
messages between them.

   Within the Rmail file, messages are normally arranged sequentially in
order of receipt; you can specify other ways to sort them.  Messages are
identified by consecutive integers which are their "message numbers".
The number of the current message is displayed in Rmail's mode line,
followed by the total number of messages in the file.  You can move to
a message by specifying its message number with the `j' key (*note
Rmail Motion::).

   Following the usual conventions of Emacs, changes in an Rmail file
become permanent only when you save the file.  You can save it with `s'
(`rmail-expunge-and-save'), which also expunges deleted messages from
the file first (*note Rmail Deletion::).  To save the file without
expunging, use `C-x C-s'.  Rmail also saves the Rmail file after
merging new mail from an inbox file (*note Rmail Inbox::).

   You can exit Rmail with `q' (`rmail-quit'); this expunges and saves
the Rmail file, then buries the Rmail buffer as well as its summary
buffer, if present (*note Rmail Summary::).  But there is no need to
"exit" formally.  If you switch from Rmail to editing in other buffers,
and never switch back, you have exited.  Just make sure to save the
Rmail file eventually (like any other file you have changed).  `C-x s'
is a suitable way to do this (*note Save Commands::).  The Rmail
command `b', `rmail-bury', buries the Rmail buffer and its summary
buffer without expunging and saving the Rmail file.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Scrolling,  Next: Rmail Motion,  Prev: Rmail Basics,  Up: Rmail

37.2 Scrolling Within a Message
===============================

When Rmail displays a message that does not fit on the screen, you must
scroll through it to read the rest.  You could do this with `C-v',
`M-v' and `M-<', but in Rmail scrolling is so frequent that it deserves
to be easier.

`<SPC>'
     Scroll forward (`scroll-up').

`<DEL>'
     Scroll backward (`scroll-down').

`.'
     Scroll to start of message (`rmail-beginning-of-message').

`/'
     Scroll to end of message (`rmail-end-of-message').

   Since the most common thing to do while reading a message is to
scroll through it by screenfuls, Rmail makes <SPC> and <DEL> synonyms of
`C-v' (`scroll-up') and `M-v' (`scroll-down')

   The command `.' (`rmail-beginning-of-message') scrolls back to the
beginning of the selected message.  This is not quite the same as `M-<':
for one thing, it does not set the mark; for another, it resets the
buffer boundaries to the current message if you have changed them.
Similarly, the command `/' (`rmail-end-of-message') scrolls forward to
the end of the selected message.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Motion,  Next: Rmail Deletion,  Prev: Rmail Scrolling,  Up: Rmail

37.3 Moving Among Messages
==========================

The most basic thing to do with a message is to read it.  The way to do
this in Rmail is to make the message current.  The usual practice is to
move sequentially through the file, since this is the order of receipt
of messages.  When you enter Rmail, you are positioned at the first
message that you have not yet made current (that is, the first one that
has the `unseen' attribute; *note Rmail Attributes::).  Move forward to
see the other new messages; move backward to re-examine old messages.

`n'
     Move to the next nondeleted message, skipping any intervening
     deleted messages (`rmail-next-undeleted-message').

`p'
     Move to the previous nondeleted message
     (`rmail-previous-undeleted-message').

`M-n'
     Move to the next message, including deleted messages
     (`rmail-next-message').

`M-p'
     Move to the previous message, including deleted messages
     (`rmail-previous-message').

`j'
     Move to the first message.  With argument N, move to message
     number N (`rmail-show-message').

`>'
     Move to the last message (`rmail-last-message').

`<'
     Move to the first message (`rmail-first-message').

`M-s REGEXP <RET>'
     Move to the next message containing a match for REGEXP
     (`rmail-search').

`- M-s REGEXP <RET>'
     Move to the previous message containing a match for REGEXP.

   `n' and `p' are the usual way of moving among messages in Rmail.
They move through the messages sequentially, but skip over deleted
messages, which is usually what you want to do.  Their command
definitions are named `rmail-next-undeleted-message' and
`rmail-previous-undeleted-message'.  If you do not want to skip deleted
messages--for example, if you want to move to a message to undelete
it--use the variants `M-n' and `M-p' (`rmail-next-message' and
`rmail-previous-message').  A numeric argument to any of these commands
serves as a repeat count.

   In Rmail, you can specify a numeric argument by typing just the
digits.  You don't need to type `C-u' first.

   The `M-s' (`rmail-search') command is Rmail's version of search.
The usual incremental search command `C-s' works in Rmail, but it
searches only within the current message.  The purpose of `M-s' is to
search for another message.  It reads a regular expression (*note
Regexps::) nonincrementally, then searches starting at the beginning of
the following message for a match.  It then selects that message.  If
REGEXP is empty, `M-s' reuses the regexp used the previous time.

   To search backward in the file for another message, give `M-s' a
negative argument.  In Rmail you can do this with `- M-s'.

   It is also possible to search for a message based on labels.  *Note
Rmail Labels::.

   To move to a message specified by absolute message number, use `j'
(`rmail-show-message') with the message number as argument.  With no
argument, `j' selects the first message.  `<' (`rmail-first-message')
also selects the first message.  `>' (`rmail-last-message') selects the
last message.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Deletion,  Next: Rmail Inbox,  Prev: Rmail Motion,  Up: Rmail

37.4 Deleting Messages
======================

When you no longer need to keep a message, you can "delete" it.  This
flags it as ignorable, and some Rmail commands pretend it is no longer
present; but it still has its place in the Rmail file, and still has its
message number.

   "Expunging" the Rmail file actually removes the deleted messages.
The remaining messages are renumbered consecutively.  Expunging is the
only action that changes the message number of any message, except for
undigestifying (*note Rmail Digest::).

`d'
     Delete the current message, and move to the next nondeleted message
     (`rmail-delete-forward').

`C-d'
     Delete the current message, and move to the previous nondeleted
     message (`rmail-delete-backward').

`u'
     Undelete the current message, or move back to a deleted message and
     undelete it (`rmail-undelete-previous-message').

`x'
     Expunge the Rmail file (`rmail-expunge').

   There are two Rmail commands for deleting messages.  Both delete the
current message and select another message.  `d'
(`rmail-delete-forward') moves to the following message, skipping
messages already deleted, while `C-d' (`rmail-delete-backward') moves
to the previous nondeleted message.  If there is no nondeleted message
to move to in the specified direction, the message that was just
deleted remains current.  `d' with a numeric argument is equivalent to
`C-d'.

   Whenever Rmail deletes a message, it runs the hook
`rmail-delete-message-hook'.  When the hook functions are invoked, the
message has been marked deleted, but it is still the current message in
the Rmail buffer.

   To make all the deleted messages finally vanish from the Rmail file,
type `x' (`rmail-expunge').  Until you do this, you can still
"undelete" the deleted messages.  The undeletion command, `u'
(`rmail-undelete-previous-message'), is designed to cancel the effect
of a `d' command in most cases.  It undeletes the current message if
the current message is deleted.  Otherwise it moves backward to
previous messages until a deleted message is found, and undeletes that
message.

   You can usually undo a `d' with a `u' because the `u' moves back to
and undeletes the message that the `d' deleted.  But this does not work
when the `d' skips a few already-deleted messages that follow the
message being deleted; then the `u' command undeletes the last of the
messages that were skipped.  There is no clean way to avoid this
problem.  However, by repeating the `u' command, you can eventually get
back to the message that you intend to undelete.  You can also select a
particular deleted message with the `M-p' command, then type `u' to
undelete it.

   A deleted message has the `deleted' attribute, and as a result
`deleted' appears in the mode line when the current message is deleted.
In fact, deleting or undeleting a message is nothing more than adding
or removing this attribute.  *Note Rmail Attributes::.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Inbox,  Next: Rmail Files,  Prev: Rmail Deletion,  Up: Rmail

37.5 Rmail Files and Inboxes
============================

When you receive mail locally, the operating system places incoming
mail for you in a file that we call your "inbox".  When you start up
Rmail, it runs a C program called `movemail' to copy the new messages
from your local inbox into your primary Rmail file, which also contains
other messages saved from previous Rmail sessions.  It is in this file
that you actually read the mail with Rmail.  This operation is called
"getting new mail".  You can get new mail at any time in Rmail by
typing `g'.

   The variable `rmail-primary-inbox-list' contains a list of the files
which are inboxes for your primary Rmail file.  If you don't set this
variable explicitly, it is initialized from the `MAIL' environment
variable, or, as a last resort, set to `nil', which means to use the
default inbox.  The default inbox file depends on your operating
system; often it is `/var/mail/USERNAME', `/usr/spool/mail/USERNAME', or
`/usr/mail/USERNAME'.

   You can specify the inbox file(s) for any Rmail file with the
command `set-rmail-inbox-list'; see *Note Rmail Files::.

   There are two reasons for having separate Rmail files and inboxes.

  1. The inbox file format varies between operating systems and
     according to the other mail software in use.  Only one part of
     Rmail needs to know about the alternatives, and it need only
     understand how to convert all of them to Rmail's own format.

  2. It is very cumbersome to access an inbox file without danger of
     losing mail, because it is necessary to interlock with mail
     delivery.  Moreover, different operating systems use different
     interlocking techniques.  The strategy of moving mail out of the
     inbox once and for all into a separate Rmail file avoids the need
     for interlocking in all the rest of Rmail, since only Rmail
     operates on the Rmail file.

   Rmail was written to use Babyl format as its internal format.  Since
then, we have recognized that the usual inbox format on Unix and GNU
systems is adequate for the job, and we plan to change Rmail to use that
as its internal format.  However, the Rmail file will still be separate
from the inbox file, even when their format is the same.

   When getting new mail, Rmail first copies the new mail from the
inbox file to the Rmail file; then it saves the Rmail file; then it
clears out the inbox file.  This way, a system crash may cause
duplication of mail between the inbox and the Rmail file, but cannot
lose mail.  If `rmail-preserve-inbox' is non-`nil', then Rmail does not
clear out the inbox file when it gets new mail.  You may wish to set
this, for example, on a portable computer you use to check your mail
via POP while traveling, so that your mail will remain on the server
and you can save it later on your workstation.

   In some cases, Rmail copies the new mail from the inbox file
indirectly.  First it runs the `movemail' program to move the mail from
the inbox to an intermediate file called `~/.newmail-INBOXNAME'.  Then
Rmail merges the new mail from that file, saves the Rmail file, and
only then deletes the intermediate file.  If there is a crash at the
wrong time, this file continues to exist, and Rmail will use it again
the next time it gets new mail from that inbox.

   If Rmail is unable to convert the data in `~/.newmail-INBOXNAME'
into Babyl format, it renames the file to `~/RMAILOSE.N' (N is an
integer chosen to make the name unique) so that Rmail will not have
trouble with the data again.  You should look at the file, find
whatever message confuses Rmail (probably one that includes the
control-underscore character, octal code 037), and delete it.  Then you
can use `1 g' to get new mail from the corrected file.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Files,  Next: Rmail Output,  Prev: Rmail Inbox,  Up: Rmail

37.6 Multiple Rmail Files
=========================

Rmail operates by default on your "primary Rmail file", which is named
`~/RMAIL' and receives your incoming mail from your system inbox file.
But you can also have other Rmail files and edit them with Rmail.  These
files can receive mail through their own inboxes, or you can move
messages into them with explicit Rmail commands (*note Rmail Output::).

`i FILE <RET>'
     Read FILE into Emacs and run Rmail on it (`rmail-input').

`M-x set-rmail-inbox-list <RET> FILES <RET>'
     Specify inbox file names for current Rmail file to get mail from.

`g'
     Merge new mail from current Rmail file's inboxes
     (`rmail-get-new-mail').

`C-u g FILE <RET>'
     Merge new mail from inbox file FILE.

   To run Rmail on a file other than your primary Rmail file, you can
use the `i' (`rmail-input') command in Rmail.  This visits the file in
Rmail mode.  You can use `M-x rmail-input' even when not in Rmail, but
it is easier to type `C-u M-x rmail', which does the same thing.

   The file you read with `i' should normally be a valid Rmail file.
If it is not, Rmail tries to decompose it into a stream of messages in
various known formats.  If it succeeds, it converts the whole file to an
Rmail file.  If you specify a file name that doesn't exist, `i'
initializes a new buffer for creating a new Rmail file.

   You can also select an Rmail file from a menu.  In the Classify menu,
choose the Input Rmail File item; then choose the Rmail file you want.
The variables `rmail-secondary-file-directory' and
`rmail-secondary-file-regexp' specify which files to offer in the menu:
the first variable says which directory to find them in; the second
says which files in that directory to offer (all those that match the
regular expression).  These variables also apply to choosing a file for
output (*note Rmail Output::).

   Each Rmail file can contain a list of inbox file names; you can
specify this list with `M-x set-rmail-inbox-list <RET> FILES <RET>'.
The argument can contain any number of file names, separated by commas.
It can also be empty, which specifies that this file should have no
inboxes.  Once you specify a list of inboxes in an Rmail file, the
Rmail file remembers it permanently until you specify a different list.

   As a special exception, if your primary Rmail file does not specify
any inbox files, it uses your standard system inbox.

   The `g' command (`rmail-get-new-mail') merges mail into the current
Rmail file from its inboxes.  If the Rmail file has no inboxes, `g'
does nothing.  The command `M-x rmail' also merges new mail into your
primary Rmail file.

   To merge mail from a file that is not the usual inbox, give the `g'
key a numeric argument, as in `C-u g'.  Then it reads a file name and
merges mail from that file.  The inbox file is not deleted or changed
in any way when `g' with an argument is used.  This is, therefore, a
general way of merging one file of messages into another.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Output,  Next: Rmail Labels,  Prev: Rmail Files,  Up: Rmail

37.7 Copying Messages Out to Files
==================================

These commands copy messages from an Rmail file into another file.

`o FILE <RET>'
     Append a copy of the current message to the file FILE, using Rmail
     file format by default (`rmail-output-to-rmail-file').

`C-o FILE <RET>'
     Append a copy of the current message to the file FILE, using
     system inbox file format by default (`rmail-output').

`w FILE <RET>'
     Output just the message body to the file FILE, taking the default
     file name from the message `Subject' header.

   The commands `o' and `C-o' copy the current message into a specified
file.  This file may be an Rmail file or it may be in system inbox
format; the output commands ascertain the file's format and write the
copied message in that format.

   The `o' and `C-o' commands differ in two ways: each has its own
separate default file name, and each specifies a choice of format to
use when the file does not already exist.  The `o' command uses Rmail
format when it creates a new file, while `C-o' uses system inbox format
for a new file.  The default file name for `o' is the file name used
last with `o', and the default file name for `C-o' is the file name
used last with `C-o'.

   If the output file is an Rmail file currently visited in an Emacs
buffer, the output commands copy the message into that buffer.  It is
up to you to save the buffer eventually in its file.

   Sometimes you may receive a message whose body holds the contents of
a file.  You can save the body to a file (excluding the message header)
with the `w' command (`rmail-output-body-to-file').  Often these
messages contain the intended file name in the `Subject' field, so the
`w' command uses the `Subject' field as the default for the output file
name.  However, the file name is read using the minibuffer, so you can
specify a different name if you wish.

   You can also output a message to an Rmail file chosen with a menu.
In the Classify menu, choose the Output Rmail File menu item; then
choose the Rmail file you want.  This outputs the current message to
that file, like the `o' command.  The variables
`rmail-secondary-file-directory' and `rmail-secondary-file-regexp'
specify which files to offer in the menu: the first variable says which
directory to find them in; the second says which files in that
directory to offer (all those that match the regular expression).

   Copying a message with `o' or `C-o' gives the original copy of the
message the `filed' attribute, so that `filed' appears in the mode line
when such a message is current.  `w' gives it the `stored' attribute.
If you like to keep just a single copy of every mail message, set the
variable `rmail-delete-after-output' to `t'; then the `o', `C-o' and
`w' commands delete the original message after copying it.  (You can
undelete the original afterward if you wish.)

   Copying messages into files in system inbox format uses the header
fields that are displayed in Rmail at the time.  Thus, if you use the
`t' command to view the entire header and then copy the message, the
entire header is copied.  *Note Rmail Display::.

   The variable `rmail-output-file-alist' lets you specify intelligent
defaults for the output file, based on the contents of the current
message.  The value should be a list whose elements have this form:

     (REGEXP . NAME-EXP)

If there's a match for REGEXP in the current message, then the default
file name for output is NAME-EXP.  If multiple elements match the
message, the first matching element decides the default file name.  The
subexpression NAME-EXP may be a string constant giving the file name to
use, or more generally it may be any Lisp expression that returns a
file name as a string.  `rmail-output-file-alist' applies to both `o'
and `C-o'.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Labels,  Next: Rmail Attributes,  Prev: Rmail Output,  Up: Rmail

37.8 Labels
===========

Each message can have various "labels" assigned to it as a means of
classification.  Each label has a name; different names are different
labels.  Any given label is either present or absent on a particular
message.  A few label names have standard meanings and are given to
messages automatically by Rmail when appropriate; these special labels
are called "attributes".  (*Note Rmail Attributes::.)  All other labels
are assigned only by users.

`a LABEL <RET>'
     Assign the label LABEL to the current message (`rmail-add-label').

`k LABEL <RET>'
     Remove the label LABEL from the current message
     (`rmail-kill-label').

`C-M-n LABELS <RET>'
     Move to the next message that has one of the labels LABELS
     (`rmail-next-labeled-message').

`C-M-p LABELS <RET>'
     Move to the previous message that has one of the labels LABELS
     (`rmail-previous-labeled-message').

`l LABELS <RET>'
`C-M-l LABELS <RET>'
     Make a summary of all messages containing any of the labels LABELS
     (`rmail-summary-by-labels').

   The `a' (`rmail-add-label') and `k' (`rmail-kill-label') commands
allow you to assign or remove any label on the current message.  If the
LABEL argument is empty, it means to assign or remove the same label
most recently assigned or removed.

   Once you have given messages labels to classify them as you wish,
there are two ways to use the labels: in moving and in summaries.

   The command `C-M-n LABELS <RET>' (`rmail-next-labeled-message')
moves to the next message that has one of the labels LABELS.  The
argument LABELS specifies one or more label names, separated by commas.
`C-M-p' (`rmail-previous-labeled-message') is similar, but moves
backwards to previous messages.  A numeric argument to either command
serves as a repeat count.

   The command `C-M-l LABELS <RET>' (`rmail-summary-by-labels')
displays a summary containing only the messages that have at least one
of a specified set of labels.  The argument LABELS is one or more label
names, separated by commas.  *Note Rmail Summary::, for information on
summaries.

   If the LABELS argument to `C-M-n', `C-M-p' or `C-M-l' is empty, it
means to use the last set of labels specified for any of these commands.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Attributes,  Next: Rmail Reply,  Prev: Rmail Labels,  Up: Rmail

37.9 Rmail Attributes
=====================

Some labels such as `deleted' and `filed' have built-in meanings, and
Rmail assigns them to messages automatically at appropriate times;
these labels are called "attributes".  Here is a list of Rmail
attributes:

`unseen'
     Means the message has never been current.  Assigned to messages
     when they come from an inbox file, and removed when a message is
     made current.  When you start Rmail, it initially shows the first
     message that has this attribute.

`deleted'
     Means the message is deleted.  Assigned by deletion commands and
     removed by undeletion commands (*note Rmail Deletion::).

`filed'
     Means the message has been copied to some other file.  Assigned by
     the `o' and `C-o' file output commands (*note Rmail Output::).

`stored'
     Assigned by the `w' file output command (*note Rmail Output::).

`answered'
     Means you have mailed an answer to the message.  Assigned by the
     `r' command (`rmail-reply').  *Note Rmail Reply::.

`forwarded'
     Means you have forwarded the message.  Assigned by the `f' command
     (`rmail-forward').  *Note Rmail Reply::.

`edited'
     Means you have edited the text of the message within Rmail.  *Note
     Rmail Editing::.

`resent'
     Means you have resent the message.  Assigned by the command `M-x
     rmail-resend'.  *Note Rmail Reply::.

   All other labels are assigned or removed only by users, and have no
standard meaning.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Reply,  Next: Rmail Summary,  Prev: Rmail Attributes,  Up: Rmail

37.10 Sending Replies
=====================

Rmail has several commands that use Mail mode to send outgoing mail.
*Note Sending Mail::, for information on using Mail mode, including
certain features meant to work with Rmail.  What this section documents
are the special commands of Rmail for entering Mail mode.  Note that the
usual keys for sending mail--`C-x m', `C-x 4 m', and `C-x 5 m'--also
work normally in Rmail mode.

`m'
     Send a message (`rmail-mail').

`c'
     Continue editing the already started outgoing message
     (`rmail-continue').

`r'
     Send a reply to the current Rmail message (`rmail-reply').

`f'
     Forward the current message to other users (`rmail-forward').

`C-u f'
     Resend the current message to other users (`rmail-resend').

`M-m'
     Try sending a bounced message a second time
     (`rmail-retry-failure').

   The most common reason to send a message while in Rmail is to reply
to the message you are reading.  To do this, type `r' (`rmail-reply').
This displays the `*mail*' buffer in another window, much like `C-x 4
m', but preinitializes the `Subject', `To', `CC', `In-reply-to' and
`References' header fields based on the message you are replying to.
The `To' field starts out as the address of the person who sent the
message you received, and the `CC' field starts out with all the other
recipients of that message.

   You can exclude certain recipients from being placed automatically in
the `CC', using the variable `rmail-dont-reply-to-names'.  Its value
should be a regular expression (as a string); any recipient that the
regular expression matches, is excluded from the `CC' field.  The
default value matches your own name, and any name starting with
`info-'.  (Those names are excluded because there is a convention of
using them for large mailing lists to broadcast announcements.)

   To omit the `CC' field completely for a particular reply, enter the
reply command with a numeric argument: `C-u r' or `1 r'.  This means to
reply only to the sender of the original message.

   Once the `*mail*' buffer has been initialized, editing and sending
the mail goes as usual (*note Sending Mail::).  You can edit the
presupplied header fields if they are not what you want.  You can also
use the commands of Mail mode (*note Mail Mode::), including `C-c C-y'
which yanks in the message that you are replying to.  You can also
switch to the Rmail buffer, select a different message there, switch
back, and yank the new current message.

   Sometimes a message does not reach its destination.  Mailers usually
send the failed message back to you, enclosed in a "failure message".
The Rmail command `M-m' (`rmail-retry-failure') prepares to send the
same message a second time: it sets up a `*mail*' buffer with the same
text and header fields as before.  If you type `C-c C-c' right away,
you send the message again exactly the same as the first time.
Alternatively, you can edit the text or headers and then send it.  The
variable `rmail-retry-ignored-headers', in the same format as
`rmail-ignored-headers' (*note Rmail Display::), controls which headers
are stripped from the failed message when retrying it.

   Another frequent reason to send mail in Rmail is to "forward" the
current message to other users.  `f' (`rmail-forward') makes this easy
by preinitializing the `*mail*' buffer with the current message as the
text, and a subject designating a forwarded message.  All you have to
do is fill in the recipients and send.  When you forward a message,
recipients get a message which is "from" you, and which has the
original message in its contents.

   Forwarding a message encloses it between two delimiter lines.  It
also modifies every line that starts with a dash, by inserting `- ' at
the start of the line.  When you receive a forwarded message, if it
contains something besides ordinary text--for example, program source
code--you might find it useful to undo that transformation.  You can do
this by selecting the forwarded message and typing `M-x
unforward-rmail-message'.  This command extracts the original forwarded
message, deleting the inserted `- ' strings, and inserts it into the
Rmail file as a separate message immediately following the current one.

   "Resending" is an alternative similar to forwarding; the difference
is that resending sends a message that is "from" the original sender,
just as it reached you--with a few added header fields `Resent-From'
and `Resent-To' to indicate that it came via you.  To resend a message
in Rmail, use `C-u f'.  (`f' runs `rmail-forward', which is programmed
to invoke `rmail-resend' if you provide a numeric argument.)

   The `m' (`rmail-mail') command is used to start editing an outgoing
message that is not a reply.  It leaves the header fields empty.  Its
only difference from `C-x 4 m' is that it makes the Rmail buffer
accessible for `C-c C-y', just as `r' does.  Thus, `m' can be used to
reply to or forward a message; it can do anything `r' or `f' can do.

   The `c' (`rmail-continue') command resumes editing the `*mail*'
buffer, to finish editing an outgoing message you were already
composing, or to alter a message you have sent.

   If you set the variable `rmail-mail-new-frame' to a non-`nil' value,
then all the Rmail commands to start sending a message create a new
frame to edit it in.  This frame is deleted when you send the message,
or when you use the `Cancel' item in the `Mail' menu.

   All the Rmail commands to send a message use the mail-composition
method that you have chosen (*note Mail Methods::).


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Summary,  Next: Rmail Sorting,  Prev: Rmail Reply,  Up: Rmail

37.11 Summaries
===============

A "summary" is a buffer containing one line per message to give you an
overview of the mail in an Rmail file.  Each line shows the message
number and date, the sender, the line count, the labels, and the
subject.  Moving point in the summary buffer selects messages as you
move to their summary lines.  Almost all Rmail commands are valid in
the summary buffer also; when used there, they apply to the message
described by the current line of the summary.

   A summary buffer applies to a single Rmail file only; if you are
editing multiple Rmail files, each one can have its own summary buffer.
The summary buffer name is made by appending `-summary' to the Rmail
buffer's name.  Normally only one summary buffer is displayed at a time.

* Menu:

* Rmail Make Summary::	     Making various sorts of summaries.
* Rmail Summary Edit::	     Manipulating messages from the summary.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Make Summary,  Next: Rmail Summary Edit,  Up: Rmail Summary

37.11.1 Making Summaries
------------------------

Here are the commands to create a summary for the current Rmail file.
Once the Rmail file has a summary buffer, changes in the Rmail file
(such as deleting or expunging messages, and getting new mail)
automatically update the summary.

`h'
`C-M-h'
     Summarize all messages (`rmail-summary').

`l LABELS <RET>'
`C-M-l LABELS <RET>'
     Summarize messages that have one or more of the specified labels
     (`rmail-summary-by-labels').

`C-M-r RCPTS <RET>'
     Summarize messages that have one or more of the specified
     recipients (`rmail-summary-by-recipients').

`C-M-t TOPIC <RET>'
     Summarize messages that have a match for the specified regexp
     TOPIC in their subjects (`rmail-summary-by-topic').

`C-M-s REGEXP'
     Summarize messages whose headers and the subject line match the
     specified regular expression REGEXP (`rmail-summary-by-regexp').

   The `h' or `C-M-h' (`rmail-summary') command fills the summary buffer
for the current Rmail file with a summary of all the messages in the
file.  It then displays and selects the summary buffer in another
window.

   `C-M-l LABELS <RET>' (`rmail-summary-by-labels') makes a partial
summary mentioning only the messages that have one or more of the
labels LABELS.  LABELS should contain label names separated by commas.

   `C-M-r RCPTS <RET>' (`rmail-summary-by-recipients') makes a partial
summary mentioning only the messages that have one or more of the
recipients RCPTS.  RCPTS should contain mailing addresses separated by
commas.

   `C-M-t TOPIC <RET>' (`rmail-summary-by-topic') makes a partial
summary mentioning only the messages whose subjects have a match for
the regular expression TOPIC.

   `C-M-s REGEXP <RET>' (`rmail-summary-by-regexp') makes a partial
summary which mentions only the messages whose headers (including the
date and the subject lines) match the regular expression REGEXP.

   Note that there is only one summary buffer for any Rmail file;
making any kind of summary discards any previous summary.

   The variable `rmail-summary-window-size' says how many lines to use
for the summary window.  The variable `rmail-summary-line-count-flag'
controls whether the summary line for a message should include the line
count of the message.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Summary Edit,  Prev: Rmail Make Summary,  Up: Rmail Summary

37.11.2 Editing in Summaries
----------------------------

You can use the Rmail summary buffer to do almost anything you can do
in the Rmail buffer itself.  In fact, once you have a summary buffer,
there's no need to switch back to the Rmail buffer.

   You can select and display various messages in the Rmail buffer, from
the summary buffer, just by moving point in the summary buffer to
different lines.  It doesn't matter what Emacs command you use to move
point; whichever line point is on at the end of the command, that
message is selected in the Rmail buffer.

   Almost all Rmail commands work in the summary buffer as well as in
the Rmail buffer.  Thus, `d' in the summary buffer deletes the current
message, `u' undeletes, and `x' expunges.  (However, in the summary
buffer, a numeric argument to `d', `C-d' and `u' serves as a repeat
count.  A negative argument reverses the meaning of `d' and `C-d'.)
`o' and `C-o' output the current message to a file; `r' starts a reply
to it.  You can scroll the current message while remaining in the
summary buffer using <SPC> and <DEL>.

   The Rmail commands to move between messages also work in the summary
buffer, but with a twist: they move through the set of messages included
in the summary.  They also ensure the Rmail buffer appears on the screen
(unlike cursor motion commands, which update the contents of the Rmail
buffer but don't display it in a window unless it already appears).
Here is a list of these commands:

`n'
     Move to next line, skipping lines saying `deleted', and select its
     message.

`p'
     Move to previous line, skipping lines saying `deleted', and select
     its message.

`M-n'
     Move to next line and select its message.

`M-p'
     Move to previous line and select its message.

`>'
     Move to the last line, and select its message.

`<'
     Move to the first line, and select its message.

`j'
`<RET>'
     Select the message on the current line (ensuring that the RMAIL
     buffer appears on the screen).  With argument N, select message
     number N and move to its line in the summary buffer; this signals
     an error if the message is not listed in the summary buffer.

`M-s PATTERN <RET>'
     Search through messages for PATTERN starting with the current
     message; select the message found, and move point in the summary
     buffer to that message's line.

   Deletion, undeletion, and getting new mail, and even selection of a
different message all update the summary buffer when you do them in the
Rmail buffer.  If the variable `rmail-redisplay-summary' is non-`nil',
these actions also bring the summary buffer back onto the screen.

   When you are finished using the summary, type `Q'
(`rmail-summary-wipe') to delete the summary buffer's window.  You can
also exit Rmail while in the summary: `q' (`rmail-summary-quit')
deletes the summary window, then exits from Rmail by saving the Rmail
file and switching to another buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Sorting,  Next: Rmail Display,  Prev: Rmail Summary,  Up: Rmail

37.12 Sorting the Rmail File
============================

`M-x rmail-sort-by-date'
     Sort messages of current Rmail file by date.

`M-x rmail-sort-by-subject'
     Sort messages of current Rmail file by subject.

`M-x rmail-sort-by-author'
     Sort messages of current Rmail file by author's name.

`M-x rmail-sort-by-recipient'
     Sort messages of current Rmail file by recipient's names.

`M-x rmail-sort-by-correspondent'
     Sort messages of current Rmail file by the name of the other
     correspondent.

`M-x rmail-sort-by-lines'
     Sort messages of current Rmail file by size (number of lines).

`M-x rmail-sort-by-keywords <RET> LABELS <RET>'
     Sort messages of current Rmail file by labels.  The argument
     LABELS should be a comma-separated list of labels.  The order of
     these labels specifies the order of messages; messages with the
     first label come first, messages with the second label come
     second, and so on.  Messages which have none of these labels come
     last.

   The Rmail sort commands perform a _stable sort_: if there is no
reason to prefer either one of two messages, their order remains
unchanged.  You can use this to sort by more than one criterion.  For
example, if you use `rmail-sort-by-date' and then
`rmail-sort-by-author', messages from the same author appear in order
by date.

   With a numeric argument, all these commands reverse the order of
comparison.  This means they sort messages from newest to oldest, from
biggest to smallest, or in reverse alphabetical order.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Display,  Next: Rmail Coding,  Prev: Rmail Sorting,  Up: Rmail

37.13 Display of Messages
=========================

Rmail reformats the header of each message before displaying it for the
first time.  Reformatting hides uninteresting header fields to reduce
clutter.  You can use the `t' command to show the entire header or to
repeat the header reformatting operation.

`t'
     Toggle display of complete header (`rmail-toggle-header').

   Reformatting the header involves deleting most header fields, on the
grounds that they are not interesting.  The variable
`rmail-ignored-headers' holds a regular expression that specifies which
header fields to hide in this way--if it matches the beginning of a
header field, that whole field is hidden.  However, the variable
`rmail-nonignored-headers' provides a further override: a header
matching that regular expression is shown even if it matches
`rmail-ignored-headers' too.

   Rmail saves the complete original header before reformatting; to see
it, use the `t' command (`rmail-toggle-header').  This discards the
reformatted headers of the current message and displays it with the
original header.  Repeating `t' reformats the message again, which
shows only the interesting headers according to the current values of
those variable.  Selecting the message again also reformats it if
necessary.

   One consequence of this is that if you edit the reformatted header
(using `e'; *note Rmail Editing::), subsequent use of `t' will discard
your edits.  On the other hand, if you use `e' after `t', to edit the
original (unreformatted) header, those changes are permanent.

   When the `t' command has a prefix argument, a positive argument
means to show the reformatted header, and a zero or negative argument
means to show the full header.

   When the terminal supports multiple fonts or colors, Rmail
highlights certain header fields that are especially interesting--by
default, the `From' and `Subject' fields.  The variable
`rmail-highlighted-headers' holds a regular expression that specifies
the header fields to highlight; if it matches the beginning of a header
field, that whole field is highlighted.

   If you specify unusual colors for your text foreground and
background, the colors used for highlighting may not go well with them.
If so, specify different colors by setting the variable
`rmail-highlight-face' to a suitable face.  To turn off highlighting
entirely in Rmail, set `rmail-highlighted-headers' to `nil'.

   You can highlight and activate URLs in incoming messages by adding
the function `goto-address' to the hook `rmail-show-message-hook'.
Then you can browse these URLs by clicking on them with `Mouse-2' (or
`Mouse-1' quickly) or by moving to one and typing `C-c <RET>'.  *Note
Activating URLs: Goto-address.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Coding,  Next: Rmail Editing,  Prev: Rmail Display,  Up: Rmail

37.14 Rmail and Coding Systems
==============================

Rmail automatically decodes messages which contain non-ASCII
characters, just as Emacs does with files you visit and with subprocess
output.  Rmail uses the standard `charset=CHARSET' header in the
message, if any, to determine how the message was encoded by the
sender.  It maps CHARSET into the corresponding Emacs coding system
(*note Coding Systems::), and uses that coding system to decode message
text.  If the message header doesn't have the `charset' specification,
or if CHARSET is not recognized, Rmail chooses the coding system with
the usual Emacs heuristics and defaults (*note Recognize Coding::).

   Occasionally, a message is decoded incorrectly, either because Emacs
guessed the wrong coding system in the absence of the `charset'
specification, or because the specification was inaccurate.  For
example, a misconfigured mailer could send a message with a
`charset=iso-8859-1' header when the message is actually encoded in
`koi8-r'.  When you see the message text garbled, or some of its
characters displayed as empty boxes, this may have happened.

   You can correct the problem by decoding the message again using the
right coding system, if you can figure out or guess which one is right.
To do this, invoke the `M-x rmail-redecode-body' command.  It reads
the name of a coding system, encodes the message body using whichever
coding system was used to decode it before, then redecodes it using the
coding system you specified.  If you specified the right coding system,
the result should be readable.

   Decoding and encoding using the wrong coding system is lossless for
most encodings, in particular with 8-bit encodings such as iso-8859 or
koi8.  So, if the initial attempt to redecode the message didn't result
in a legible text, you can try other coding systems until you succeed.

   With some coding systems, notably those from the iso-2022 family,
information can be lost in decoding, so that encoding the message again
won't bring back the original incoming text.  In such a case,
`rmail-redecode-body' cannot work.  However, the problems that call for
use of `rmail-redecode-body' rarely occur with those coding systems.
So in practice the command works when you need it.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Editing,  Next: Rmail Digest,  Prev: Rmail Coding,  Up: Rmail

37.15 Editing Within a Message
==============================

Most of the usual Emacs commands are available in Rmail mode, though a
few, such as `C-M-n' and `C-M-h', are redefined by Rmail for other
purposes.  However, the Rmail buffer is normally read only, and most of
the letters are redefined as Rmail commands.  If you want to edit the
text of a message, you must use the Rmail command `e'.

`e'
     Edit the current message as ordinary text.

   The `e' command (`rmail-edit-current-message') switches from Rmail
mode into Rmail Edit mode, another major mode which is nearly the same
as Text mode.  The mode line indicates this change.

   In Rmail Edit mode, letters insert themselves as usual and the Rmail
commands are not available.  When you are finished editing the message
and are ready to go back to Rmail, type `C-c C-c', which switches back
to Rmail mode.  Alternatively, you can return to Rmail mode but cancel
all the editing that you have done, by typing `C-c C-]'.

   Entering Rmail Edit mode runs the hook `text-mode-hook'; then it
runs the hook `rmail-edit-mode-hook' (*note Hooks::).  It adds the
attribute `edited' to the message.  It also displays the full headers
of the message, so that you can edit the headers as well as the body of
the message, and your changes in the headers will be permanent.


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Digest,  Next: Out of Rmail,  Prev: Rmail Editing,  Up: Rmail

37.16 Digest Messages
=====================

A "digest message" is a message which exists to contain and carry
several other messages.  Digests are used on some moderated mailing
lists; all the messages that arrive for the list during a period of time
such as one day are put inside a single digest which is then sent to the
subscribers.  Transmitting the single digest uses much less computer
time than transmitting the individual messages even though the total
size is the same, because the per-message overhead in network mail
transmission is considerable.

   When you receive a digest message, the most convenient way to read
it is to "undigestify" it: to turn it back into many individual
messages.  Then you can read and delete the individual messages as it
suits you.  To do this, select the digest message and type the command
`M-x undigestify-rmail-message'.  This extracts the submessages as
separate Rmail messages, and inserts them following the digest.  The
digest message itself is flagged as deleted.


File: emacs,  Node: Out of Rmail,  Next: Rmail Rot13,  Prev: Rmail Digest,  Up: Rmail

37.17 Converting an Rmail File to Inbox Format
==============================================

The command `M-x unrmail' converts a file in Rmail format to inbox
format (also known as the system mailbox, or mbox, format), so that you
can use it with other mail-editing tools.  You must specify two
arguments, the name of the Rmail file and the name to use for the
converted file.  `M-x unrmail' does not alter the Rmail file itself.

   `M-x unrmail' is useful if you can run Emacs on the machine where
the Rmail file resides, or can access the Rmail file remotely (*note
Remote Files::) from a machine where Emacs is installed.  If accessing
Rmail files from Emacs is impossible, you can use the `b2m' program
instead.  `b2m' is part of the Emacs distribution, it is installed into
the same directory where all the other auxiliary programs (`etags'
etc.) are installed, and its source is available in the Emacs source
distribution, so that you could copy the source to the target machine
and compile it there.

   To convert a file `BABYL-FILE' into `MBOX-FILE', invoke `b2m' like
this:

      b2m < BABYL-FILE > MBOX-FILE


File: emacs,  Node: Rmail Rot13,  Next: Movemail,  Prev: Out of Rmail,  Up: Rmail

37.18 Reading Rot13 Messages
============================

Mailing list messages that might offend some readers are sometimes
encoded in a simple code called "rot13"--so named because it rotates
the alphabet by 13 letters.  This code is not for secrecy, as it
provides none; rather, it enables those who might be offended to avoid
seeing the real text of the message.

   To view a buffer which uses the rot13 code, use the command `M-x
rot13-other-window'.  This displays the current buffer in another window
which applies the code when displaying the text.


File: emacs,  Node: Movemail,  Next: Remote Mailboxes,  Prev: Rmail Rot13,  Up: Rmail

37.19 `movemail' program
========================

When invoked for the first time, Rmail attempts to locate the
`movemail' program and determine its version.  There are two versions
of `movemail' program: the native one, shipped with GNU Emacs (the
"emacs version") and the one included in GNU mailutils (the "mailutils
version," *note movemail: (mailutils)movemail.).  They support the same
command line syntax and the same basic subset of options.  However, the
Mailutils version offers additional features.

   The Emacs version of `movemail' is able to retrieve mail from usual
UNIX mailbox formats and from remote mailboxes using the POP3 protocol.

   The Mailutils version is able to handle a wide set of mailbox
formats, such as plain UNIX mailboxes, `maildir' and `MH' mailboxes,
etc.  It is able to retrieve remote mail using POP3 or IMAP4 protocol,
and can retrieve mail from them using a TLS encrypted channel.  It also
accepts mailbox argument in the URL form.  The detailed description of
mailbox URLs can be found in *Note URL: (mailutils)URL.  In short, a URL
is:

     PROTO://[USER[:PASSWORD]@]HOST-OR-FILE-NAME

where square brackets denote optional elements.

PROTO
     Specifies the "mailbox protocol", or "format" to use.  The exact
     semantics of the rest of URL elements depends on the actual value
     of PROTO (see below).

USER
     User name to access the remote mailbox.

PASSWORD
     User password to access the remote mailbox.

HOST-OR-FILE-NAME
     Hostname of the remote server for remote mailboxes or file name of
     a local mailbox.

PROTO can be one of:

`mbox'
     Usual UNIX mailbox format.  In this case, neither USER nor PASS
     are used, and HOST-OR-FILE-NAME denotes the file name of the
     mailbox file, e.g., `mbox://var/spool/mail/smith'.

`mh'
     A local mailbox in the MH format.  USER and PASS are not used.
     HOST-OR-FILE-NAME denotes the name of MH folder, e.g.,
     `mh://Mail/inbox'.

`maildir'
     A local mailbox in the maildir format.  USER and PASS are not
     used, and HOST-OR-FILE-NAME denotes the name of `maildir' mailbox,
     e.g., `maildir://mail/inbox'.

`file'
     Any local mailbox format.  Its actual format is detected
     automatically by `movemail'.

`pop'
     A remote mailbox to be accessed via POP3 protocol.  USER specifies
     the remote user name to use, PASS may be used to specify the user
     password, HOST-OR-FILE-NAME is the name or IP address of the
     remote mail server to connect to; e.g.,
     `pop://smith:guessme@remote.server.net'.

`imap'
     A remote mailbox to be accessed via IMAP4 protocol.  USER
     specifies the remote user name to use, PASS may be used to specify
     the user password, HOST-OR-FILE-NAME is the name or IP address of
     the remote mail server to connect to; e.g.,
     `imap://smith:guessme@remote.server.net'.

   Alternatively, you can specify the file name of the mailbox to use.
This is equivalent to specifying the `file' protocol:

     /var/spool/mail/USER == file://var/spool/mail/USER

   The variable `rmail-movemail-program' controls which version of
`movemail' to use.  If that is a string, it specifies the absolute file
name of the `movemail' executable.  If it is `nil', Rmail searches for
`movemail' in the directories listed in `rmail-movemail-search-path'
and `exec-path', then in `exec-directory'.


File: emacs,  Node: Remote Mailboxes,  Next: Other Mailbox Formats,  Prev: Movemail,  Up: Rmail

37.20 Retrieving Mail from Remote Mailboxes
===========================================

Some sites use a method called POP for accessing users' inbox data
instead of storing the data in inbox files.  The `Emacs movemail' can
work with POP if you compile it with the macro `MAIL_USE_POP' defined.
(You can achieve that by specifying `--with-pop' when you run
`configure' during the installation of Emacs.)

   The Mailutils `movemail' by default supports POP, unless it was
configured with `--disable-pop' option.

   Both versions of `movemail' only work with POP3, not with older
versions of POP.

   No matter which flavor of `movemail' you use, you can specify POP
inbox by using POP "URL" (*note Movemail::).  A POP URL is a "file
name" of the form `pop://USERNAME@HOSTNAME', where HOSTNAME is the host
name or IP address of the remote mail server and USERNAME is the user
name on that server.  Additionally, you may specify the password in the
mailbox URL: `pop://USERNAME:PASSWORD@HOSTNAME'.  In this case,
PASSWORD takes preference over the one set by `rmail-remote-password'.
This is especially useful if you have several remote mailboxes with
different passwords.

   For backward compatibility, Rmail also supports two alternative ways
of specifying remote POP mailboxes.  First, specifying an inbox name in
the form `po:USERNAME:HOSTNAME' is equivalent to
`pop://USERNAME@HOSTNAME'.  Alternatively, you may set a "file name" of
`po:USERNAME' in the inbox list of an Rmail file.  `movemail' will
handle such a name by opening a connection to the POP server.  In this
case, the `MAILHOST' environment variable specifies the machine on
which to look for the POP server.

   Another method for accessing remote mailboxes is IMAP.  This method
is supported only by the Mailutils `movemail'.  To specify an IMAP
mailbox in the inbox list, use the following mailbox URL:
`imap://USERNAME[:PASSWORD]@HOSTNAME'.  The PASSWORD part is optional,
as described above.

   Accessing a remote mailbox may require a password.  Rmail uses the
following algorithm to retrieve it:

  1. If the PASSWORD is present in mailbox URL (see above), it is used.

  2. If the variable `rmail-remote-password' is non-`nil', its value is
     used.

  3. Otherwise, if `rmail-remote-password-required' is non-`nil', then
     Rmail will ask you for the password to use.

  4. Otherwise, Rmail assumes no password is required.

   For compatibility with previous versions, the variables
`rmail-pop-password' and `rmail-pop-password-required' may be used
instead of `rmail-remote-password' and `rmail-remote-password-required'.

   If you need to pass additional command-line flags to `movemail', set
the variable `rmail-movemail-flags' a list of the flags you wish to
use.  Do not use this variable to pass the `-p' flag to preserve your
inbox contents; use `rmail-preserve-inbox' instead.

   The `movemail' program installed at your site may support Kerberos
authentication.  If it is supported, it is used by default whenever you
attempt to retrieve POP mail when `rmail-pop-password' and
`rmail-pop-password-required' are unset.

   Some POP servers store messages in reverse order.  If your server
does this, and you would rather read your mail in the order in which it
was received, you can tell `movemail' to reverse the order of
downloaded messages by adding the `-r' flag to `rmail-movemail-flags'.

   Mailutils `movemail' supports TLS encryption.  If you wish to use
it, add the `--tls' flag to `rmail-movemail-flags'.


File: emacs,  Node: Other Mailbox Formats,  Prev: Remote Mailboxes,  Up: Rmail

37.21 Retrieving Mail from Local Mailboxes in Various Formats
=============================================================

If your incoming mail is stored on a local machine in a format other
than UNIX mailbox, you will need the Mailutils `movemail' to retrieve
it.  *Note Movemail::, for the detailed description of `movemail'
versions.  For example, to access mail from a inbox in `maildir' format
located in `/var/spool/mail/in', you would include the following in the
Rmail inbox list:

     maildir://var/spool/mail/in


File: emacs,  Node: Dired,  Next: Calendar/Diary,  Prev: Rmail,  Up: Top

38 Dired, the Directory Editor
******************************

Dired makes an Emacs buffer containing a listing of a directory, and
optionally some of its subdirectories as well.  You can use the normal
Emacs commands to move around in this buffer, and special Dired commands
to operate on the files listed.

   The Dired buffer is "read-only," and inserting text in it is not
useful, so ordinary printing characters such as `d' and `x' are
redefined for special Dired commands.  Some Dired commands "mark" or
"flag" the "current file" (that is, the file on the current line);
other commands operate on the marked files or on the flagged files.
You first mark certain files in order to operate on all of them with on
command.

   The Dired-X package provides various extra features for Dired mode.
*Note Dired-X: (dired-x)Top.

* Menu:

* Enter: Dired Enter.         How to invoke Dired.
* Navigation: Dired Navigation.   Special motion commands in the Dired buffer.
* Deletion: Dired Deletion.   Deleting files with Dired.
* Flagging Many Files::       Flagging files based on their names.
* Visit: Dired Visiting.      Other file operations through Dired.
* Marks vs Flags::	      Flagging for deletion vs marking.
* Operating on Files::	      How to copy, rename, print, compress, etc.
			        either one file or several files.
* Shell Commands in Dired::   Running a shell command on the marked files.
* Transforming File Names::   Using patterns to rename multiple files.
* Comparison in Dired::	      Running `diff' by way of Dired.
* Subdirectories in Dired::   Adding subdirectories to the Dired buffer.

* Subdir Switches::           Subdirectory switches in Dired.
* Subdirectory Motion::	      Moving across subdirectories, and up and down.
* Hiding Subdirectories::     Making subdirectories visible or invisible.
* Updating: Dired Updating.   Discarding lines for files of no interest.
* Find: Dired and Find.	      Using `find' to choose the files for Dired.
* Wdired::                    Operating on files by editing the Dired buffer.
* Image-Dired::               Viewing image thumbnails in Dired
* Misc: Misc Dired Features.  Various other features.


File: emacs,  Node: Dired Enter,  Next: Dired Navigation,  Up: Dired

38.1 Entering Dired
===================

To invoke Dired, do `C-x d' or `M-x dired'.  The command reads a
directory name or wildcard file name pattern as a minibuffer argument
to specify the files to list.  `C-x C-f' given a directory name also
invokes Dired.  Where `dired' differs from `list-directory' is that it
puts the buffer into Dired mode, so that the special commands of Dired
are available.

   The variable `dired-listing-switches' specifies the options to give
to `ls' for listing the directory; this string _must_ contain `-l'.  If
you use a numeric prefix argument with the `dired' command, you can
specify the `ls' switches with the minibuffer before you enter the
directory specification.  No matter how they are specified, the `ls'
switches can include short options (that is, single characters)
requiring no arguments, and long options (starting with `--') whose
arguments are specified with `='.

   On MS-Windows and MS-DOS systems, Emacs _emulates_ `ls'; see *Note
ls in Lisp::, for options and peculiarities of that emulation.

   To display the Dired buffer in another window rather than in the
selected window, use `C-x 4 d' (`dired-other-window') instead of `C-x
d'.  `C-x 5 d' (`dired-other-frame') uses a separate frame to display
the Dired buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Dired Navigation,  Next: Dired Deletion,  Prev: Dired Enter,  Up: Dired

38.2 Navigation in the Dired Buffer
===================================

All the usual Emacs cursor motion commands are available in Dired
buffers.  The keys `C-n' and `C-p' are redefined to put the cursor at
the beginning of the file name on the line, rather than at the
beginning of the line.

   For extra convenience, <SPC> and `n' in Dired are equivalent to
`C-n'.  `p' is equivalent to `C-p'.  (Moving by lines is so common in
Dired that it deserves to be easy to type.)  <DEL> (move up and unflag)
is often useful simply for moving up.

   `j' (`dired-goto-file') moves point to the line that describes a
specified file or directory.

   Some additional navigation commands are available when the Dired
buffer includes several directories.  *Note Subdirectory Motion::.


File: emacs,  Node: Dired Deletion,  Next: Flagging Many Files,  Prev: Dired Navigation,  Up: Dired

38.3 Deleting Files with Dired
==============================

One of the most frequent uses of Dired is to first "flag" files for
deletion, then delete the files that were flagged.

`d'
     Flag this file for deletion.

`u'
     Remove deletion flag on this line.

`<DEL>'
     Move point to previous line and remove the deletion flag on that
     line.

`x'
     Delete the files that are flagged for deletion.

   You can flag a file for deletion by moving to the line describing
the file and typing `d' (`dired-flag-file-deletion').  The deletion
flag is visible as a `D' at the beginning of the line.  This command
moves point to the next line, so that repeated `d' commands flag
successive files.  A numeric argument serves as a repeat count.

   The reason for flagging files for deletion, rather than deleting
files immediately, is to reduce the danger of deleting a file
accidentally.  Until you direct Dired to delete the flagged files, you
can remove deletion flags using the commands `u' and <DEL>.  `u'
(`dired-unmark') works just like `d', but removes flags rather than
making flags.  <DEL> (`dired-unmark-backward') moves upward, removing
flags; it is like `u' with argument -1.

   To delete the flagged files, type `x' (`dired-do-flagged-delete').
(This is also known as "expunging".)  This command first displays a
list of all the file names flagged for deletion, and requests
confirmation with `yes'.  If you confirm, Dired deletes the flagged
files, then deletes their lines from the text of the Dired buffer.  The
Dired buffer, with somewhat fewer lines, remains selected.

   If you answer `no' or quit with `C-g' when asked to confirm, you
return immediately to Dired, with the deletion flags still present in
the buffer, and no files actually deleted.

   You can delete empty directories just like other files, but normally
Dired cannot delete directories that are nonempty.  If the variable
`dired-recursive-deletes' is non-`nil', then Dired can delete nonempty
directories including all their contents.  That can be somewhat risky.


File: emacs,  Node: Flagging Many Files,  Next: Dired Visiting,  Prev: Dired Deletion,  Up: Dired

38.4 Flagging Many Files at Once
================================

`#'
     Flag all auto-save files (files whose names start and end with `#')
     for deletion (*note Auto Save::).

`~'
     Flag all backup files (files whose names end with `~') for deletion
     (*note Backup::).

`&'
     Flag for deletion all files with certain kinds of names which
     suggest you could easily create those files again.

`. (Period)'
     Flag excess numeric backup files for deletion.  The oldest and
     newest few backup files of any one file are exempt; the middle
     ones are flagged.

`% d REGEXP <RET>'
     Flag for deletion all files whose names match the regular
     expression REGEXP.

   The `#', `~', `&', and `.' commands flag many files for deletion,
based on their file names.  These commands are useful precisely because
they do not themselves delete any files; you can remove the deletion
flags from any flagged files that you really wish to keep.

   `&' (`dired-flag-garbage-files') flags files whose names match the
regular expression specified by the variable
`dired-garbage-files-regexp'.  By default, this matches certain files
produced by TeX, `.bak' files, and the `.orig' and `.rej' files
produced by `patch'.

   `#' (`dired-flag-auto-save-files') flags for deletion all files
whose names look like auto-save files--that is, files whose names begin
and end with `#'.  *Note Auto Save::.

   `~' (`dired-flag-backup-files') flags for deletion all files whose
names say they are backup files--that is, files whose names end in `~'.
*Note Backup::.

   `.' (period, `dired-clean-directory') flags just some of the backup
files for deletion: all but the oldest few and newest few backups of
any one file.  Normally `dired-kept-versions' (*not*
`kept-new-versions'; that applies only when saving) specifies the
number of newest versions of each file to keep, and `kept-old-versions'
specifies the number of oldest versions to keep.

   Period with a positive numeric argument, as in `C-u 3 .', specifies
the number of newest versions to keep, overriding
`dired-kept-versions'.  A negative numeric argument overrides
`kept-old-versions', using minus the value of the argument to specify
the number of oldest versions of each file to keep.

   The `% d' command flags all files whose names match a specified
regular expression (`dired-flag-files-regexp').  Only the non-directory
part of the file name is used in matching.  You can use `^' and `$' to
anchor matches.  You can exclude certain subdirectories from marking by
hiding them while you use `% d'.  *Note Hiding Subdirectories::.


File: emacs,  Node: Dired Visiting,  Next: Marks vs Flags,  Prev: Flagging Many Files,  Up: Dired

38.5 Visiting Files in Dired
============================

There are several Dired commands for visiting or examining the files
listed in the Dired buffer.  All of them apply to the current line's
file; if that file is really a directory, these commands invoke Dired on
that subdirectory (making a separate Dired buffer).

`f'
     Visit the file described on the current line, like typing `C-x C-f'
     and supplying that file name (`dired-find-file').  *Note
     Visiting::.

`<RET>'
`e'
     Equivalent to `f'.

`o'
     Like `f', but uses another window to display the file's buffer
     (`dired-find-file-other-window').  The Dired buffer remains visible
     in the first window.  This is like using `C-x 4 C-f' to visit the
     file.  *Note Windows::.

`C-o'
     Visit the file described on the current line, and display the
     buffer in another window, but do not select that window
     (`dired-display-file').

`Mouse-1'
`Mouse-2'
     Visit the file named by the line you click on
     (`dired-mouse-find-file-other-window').  This uses another window
     to display the file, like the `o' command.

`v'
     View the file described on the current line, using `M-x view-file'
     (`dired-view-file').  Viewing a file with `view-file' is like
     visiting it, but is slanted toward moving around in the file
     conveniently and does not allow changing the file.  *Note View
     File: Misc File Ops.

`^'
     Visit the parent directory of the current directory
     (`dired-up-directory').  This is equivalent to moving to the line
     for `..' and typing `f' there.


File: emacs,  Node: Marks vs Flags,  Next: Operating on Files,  Prev: Dired Visiting,  Up: Dired

38.6 Dired Marks vs. Flags
==========================

Instead of flagging a file with `D', you can "mark" the file with some
other character (usually `*').  Most Dired commands to operate on files
use the files marked with `*'.  The only command that operates on
flagged files is `x', which expunges them.

   Here are some commands for marking with `*', for unmarking, and for
operating on marks.  (*Note Dired Deletion::, for commands to flag and
unflag files.)

`m'
`* m'
     Mark the current file with `*' (`dired-mark').  With a numeric
     argument N, mark the next N files starting with the current file.
     (If N is negative, mark the previous -N files.)

`* *'
     Mark all executable files with `*' (`dired-mark-executables').
     With a numeric argument, unmark all those files.

`* @'
     Mark all symbolic links with `*' (`dired-mark-symlinks').  With a
     numeric argument, unmark all those files.

`* /'
     Mark with `*' all files which are directories, except for `.' and
     `..' (`dired-mark-directories').  With a numeric argument, unmark
     all those files.

`* s'
     Mark all the files in the current subdirectory, aside from `.' and
     `..' (`dired-mark-subdir-files').

`u'
`* u'
     Remove any mark on this line (`dired-unmark').

`<DEL>'
`* <DEL>'
     Move point to previous line and remove any mark on that line
     (`dired-unmark-backward').

`* !'
`U'
     Remove all marks from all the files in this Dired buffer
     (`dired-unmark-all-marks').

`* ? MARKCHAR'
`M-<DEL>'
     Remove all marks that use the character MARKCHAR
     (`dired-unmark-all-files').  The argument is a single
     character--do not use <RET> to terminate it.  See the description
     of the `* c' command below, which lets you replace one mark
     character with another.

     With a numeric argument, this command queries about each marked
     file, asking whether to remove its mark.  You can answer `y'
     meaning yes, `n' meaning no, or `!' to remove the marks from the
     remaining files without asking about them.

`* C-n'
`M-}'
     Move down to the next marked file (`dired-next-marked-file') A
     file is "marked" if it has any kind of mark.

`* C-p'
`M-{'
     Move up to the previous marked file (`dired-prev-marked-file')

`t'
`* t'
     Toggle all marks (`dired-toggle-marks'): files marked with `*'
     become unmarked, and unmarked files are marked with `*'.  Files
     marked in any other way are not affected.

`* c OLD-MARKCHAR NEW-MARKCHAR'
     Replace all marks that use the character OLD-MARKCHAR with marks
     that use the character NEW-MARKCHAR (`dired-change-marks').  This
     command is the primary way to create or use marks other than `*'
     or `D'.  The arguments are single characters--do not use <RET> to
     terminate them.

     You can use almost any character as a mark character by means of
     this command, to distinguish various classes of files.  If
     OLD-MARKCHAR is a space (` '), then the command operates on all
     unmarked files; if NEW-MARKCHAR is a space, then the command
     unmarks the files it acts on.

     To illustrate the power of this command, here is how to put `D'
     flags on all the files that have no marks, while unflagging all
     those that already have `D' flags:

          * c D t  * c SPC D  * c t SPC

     This assumes that no files were already marked with `t'.

`% m REGEXP <RET>'
`* % REGEXP <RET>'
     Mark (with `*') all files whose names match the regular expression
     REGEXP (`dired-mark-files-regexp').  This command is like `% d',
     except that it marks files with `*' instead of flagging with `D'.

     Only the non-directory part of the file name is used in matching.
     Use `^' and `$' to anchor matches.  You can exclude subdirectories
     by temporarily hiding them (*note Hiding Subdirectories::).

`% g REGEXP <RET>'
     Mark (with `*') all files whose _contents_ contain a match for the
     regular expression REGEXP (`dired-mark-files-containing-regexp').
     This command is like `% m', except that it searches the file
     contents instead of the file name.

`C-x u'
`C-_'
`C-/'
     Undo changes in the Dired buffer, such as adding or removing marks
     (`dired-undo').  _This command does not revert the actual file
     operations, nor recover lost files!_  It just undoes changes in
     the buffer itself.

     In some cases, using this after commands that operate on files can
     cause trouble.  For example, after renaming one or more files,
     `dired-undo' restores the original names in the Dired buffer,
     which gets the Dired buffer out of sync with the actual contents of
     the directory.


File: emacs,  Node: Operating on Files,  Next: Shell Commands in Dired,  Prev: Marks vs Flags,  Up: Dired

38.7 Operating on Files
=======================

This section describes the basic Dired commands to operate on one file
or several files.  All of these commands are capital letters; all of
them use the minibuffer, either to read an argument or to ask for
confirmation, before they act.  All of them let you specify the files
to manipulate in these ways:

   * If you give the command a numeric prefix argument N, it operates
     on the next N files, starting with the current file.  (If N is
     negative, the command operates on the -N files preceding the
     current line.)

   * Otherwise, if some files are marked with `*', the command operates
     on all those files.

   * Otherwise, the command operates on the current file only.

Certain other Dired commands, such as `!' and the `%' commands, use the
same conventions to decide which files to work on.

   Commands which ask for a destination directory, such as those which
copy and rename files or create links for them, try to guess the default
target directory for the operation.  Normally, they suggest the Dired
buffer's default directory, but if the variable `dired-dwim-target' is
non-`nil', and if there is another Dired buffer displayed in the next
window, that other buffer's directory is suggested instead.

   Here are the file-manipulating Dired commands that operate on files.

`C NEW <RET>'
     Copy the specified files (`dired-do-copy').  The argument NEW is
     the directory to copy into, or (if copying a single file) the new
     name.  This is like the shell command `cp'.

     If `dired-copy-preserve-time' is non-`nil', then copying with this
     command preserves the modification time of the old file in the
     copy, like `cp -p'.

     The variable `dired-recursive-copies' controls whether to copy
     directories recursively (like `cp -r').  The default is `nil',
     which means that directories cannot be copied.

`D'
     Delete the specified files (`dired-do-delete').  This is like the
     shell command `rm'.

     Like the other commands in this section, this command operates on
     the _marked_ files, or the next N files.  By contrast, `x'
     (`dired-do-flagged-delete') deletes all "flagged" files.

`R NEW <RET>'
     Rename the specified files (`dired-do-rename').  If you rename a
     single file, the argument NEW is the new name of the file.  If you
     rename several files, the argument NEW is the directory into which
     to move the files (this is like the shell command `mv').

     Dired automatically changes the visited file name of buffers
     associated with renamed files so that they refer to the new names.

`H NEW <RET>'
     Make hard links to the specified files (`dired-do-hardlink').
     This is like the shell command `ln'.  The argument NEW is the
     directory to make the links in, or (if making just one link) the
     name to give the link.

`S NEW <RET>'
     Make symbolic links to the specified files (`dired-do-symlink').
     This is like `ln -s'.  The argument NEW is the directory to make
     the links in, or (if making just one link) the name to give the
     link.

`M MODESPEC <RET>'
     Change the mode (also called "permission bits") of the specified
     files (`dired-do-chmod').  This uses the `chmod' program, so
     MODESPEC can be any argument that `chmod' can handle.

`G NEWGROUP <RET>'
     Change the group of the specified files to NEWGROUP
     (`dired-do-chgrp').

`O NEWOWNER <RET>'
     Change the owner of the specified files to NEWOWNER
     (`dired-do-chown').  (On most systems, only the superuser can do
     this.)

     The variable `dired-chown-program' specifies the name of the
     program to use to do the work (different systems put `chown' in
     different places).

`T TIMESTAMP <RET>'
     Touch the specified files (`dired-do-touch').  This means updating
     their modification times to the present time.  This is like the
     shell command `touch'.

`P COMMAND <RET>'
     Print the specified files (`dired-do-print').  You must specify the
     command to print them with, but the minibuffer starts out with a
     suitable guess made using the variables `lpr-command' and
     `lpr-switches' (the same variables that `lpr-buffer' uses; *note
     Printing::).

`Z'
     Compress the specified files (`dired-do-compress').  If the file
     appears to be a compressed file already, uncompress it instead.

`L'
     Load the specified Emacs Lisp files (`dired-do-load').  *Note Lisp
     Libraries::.

`B'
     Byte compile the specified Emacs Lisp files
     (`dired-do-byte-compile').  *Note Byte Compilation: (elisp)Byte
     Compilation.

`A REGEXP <RET>'
     Search all the specified files for the regular expression REGEXP
     (`dired-do-search').

     This command is a variant of `tags-search'.  The search stops at
     the first match it finds; use `M-,' to resume the search and find
     the next match.  *Note Tags Search::.

`Q REGEXP <RET> TO <RET>'
     Perform `query-replace-regexp' on each of the specified files,
     replacing matches for REGEXP with the string TO
     (`dired-do-query-replace-regexp').

     This command is a variant of `tags-query-replace'.  If you exit the
     query replace loop, you can use `M-,' to resume the scan and
     replace more matches.  *Note Tags Search::.


File: emacs,  Node: Shell Commands in Dired,  Next: Transforming File Names,  Prev: Operating on Files,  Up: Dired

38.8 Shell Commands in Dired
============================

The Dired command `!' (`dired-do-shell-command') reads a shell command
string in the minibuffer and runs that shell command on all the
specified files.  (`X' is a synonym for `!'.)  You can specify the
files to operate on in the usual ways for Dired commands (*note
Operating on Files::).

   The working directory for the shell command is the top-level
directory of the Dired buffer.

   There are two ways of applying a shell command to multiple files:

   * If you use `*' surrounded by whitespace in the shell command, then
     the command runs just once, with the list of file names
     substituted for the `*'.  The order of file names is the order of
     appearance in the Dired buffer.

     Thus, `! tar cf foo.tar * <RET>' runs `tar' on the entire list of
     file names, putting them into one tar file `foo.tar'.

     If you want to use `*' as a shell wildcard with whitespace around
     it, write `*""'.  In the shell, this is equivalent to `*'; but
     since the `*' is not surrounded by whitespace, Dired does not
     treat it specially.

   * If the command string doesn't contain `*' surrounded by
     whitespace, then it runs once _for each file_.  Normally the file
     name is added at the end.

     For example, `! uudecode <RET>' runs `uudecode' on each file.

   * However, if the command string contains `?' surrounded by
     whitespace, the current file name is substituted for `?' (rather
     than added at the end).  You can use `?' this way more than once
     in the command, and the same file name replaces each occurrence.

   To iterate over the file names in a more complicated fashion, use an
explicit shell loop.  For example, here is how to uuencode each file,
making the output file name by appending `.uu' to the input file name:

     for file in * ; do uuencode "$file" "$file" >"$file".uu; done

   The `!' command does not attempt to update the Dired buffer to show
new or modified files, because it doesn't understand shell commands,
and does not know what files the shell command changed.  Use the `g'
command to update the Dired buffer (*note Dired Updating::).


File: emacs,  Node: Transforming File Names,  Next: Comparison in Dired,  Prev: Shell Commands in Dired,  Up: Dired

38.9 Transforming File Names in Dired
=====================================

This section describes Dired commands which alter file names in a
systematic way.  Each command operates on some or all of the marked
files, using a new name made by transforming the existing name.

   Like the basic Dired file-manipulation commands (*note Operating on
Files::), the commands described here operate either on the next N
files, or on all files marked with `*', or on the current file.  (To
mark files, use the commands described in *Note Marks vs Flags::.)

   All of the commands described in this section work _interactively_:
they ask you to confirm the operation for each candidate file.  Thus,
you can select more files than you actually need to operate on (e.g.,
with a regexp that matches many files), and then filter the selected
names by typing `y' or `n' when the command prompts for confirmation.

`% u'
     Rename each of the selected files to an upper-case name
     (`dired-upcase').  If the old file names are `Foo' and `bar', the
     new names are `FOO' and `BAR'.

`% l'
     Rename each of the selected files to a lower-case name
     (`dired-downcase').  If the old file names are `Foo' and `bar',
     the new names are `foo' and `bar'.

`% R FROM <RET> TO <RET>'
`% C FROM <RET> TO <RET>'
`% H FROM <RET> TO <RET>'
`% S FROM <RET> TO <RET>'
     These four commands rename, copy, make hard links and make soft
     links, in each case computing the new name by regular-expression
     substitution from the name of the old file.

   The four regular-expression substitution commands effectively
perform a search-and-replace on the selected file names.  They read two
arguments: a regular expression FROM, and a substitution pattern TO;
they match each "old" file name against FROM, and then replace the
matching part with TO.  You can use `\&' and `\DIGIT' in TO to refer to
all or part of what the pattern matched in the old file name, as in
`replace-regexp' (*note Regexp Replace::).  If the regular expression
matches more than once in a file name, only the first match is replaced.

   For example, `% R ^.*$ <RET> x-\& <RET>' renames each selected file
by prepending `x-' to its name.  The inverse of this, removing `x-'
from the front of each file name, is also possible: one method is `% R
^x-\(.*\)$ <RET> \1 <RET>'; another is `% R ^x- <RET> <RET>'.  (Use `^'
and `$' to anchor matches that should span the whole file name.)

   Normally, the replacement process does not consider the files'
directory names; it operates on the file name within the directory.  If
you specify a numeric argument of zero, then replacement affects the
entire absolute file name including directory name.  (A non-zero
argument specifies the number of files to operate on.)

   You may want to select the set of files to operate on using the same
regexp FROM that you will use to operate on them.  To do this, mark
those files with `% m FROM <RET>', then use the same regular expression
in the command to operate on the files.  To make this more convenient,
the `%' commands to operate on files use the last regular expression
specified in any `%' command as a default.


File: emacs,  Node: Comparison in Dired,  Next: Subdirectories in Dired,  Prev: Transforming File Names,  Up: Dired

38.10 File Comparison with Dired
================================

Here are two Dired commands that compare specified files using `diff'.
They show the output in a buffer using Diff mode (*note Comparing
Files::).

`='
     Compare the current file (the file at point) with another file (the
     file at the mark) using the `diff' program (`dired-diff').  The
     file at the mark is the first argument of `diff', and the file at
     point is the second argument.  This refers to the ordinary Emacs
     mark, not Dired marks; use `C-<SPC>' (`set-mark-command') to set
     the mark at the first file's line (*note Setting Mark::).

`M-='
     Compare the current file with its latest backup file
     (`dired-backup-diff').  If the current file is itself a backup,
     compare it with the file it is a backup of; this way, you can
     compare a file with any one of its backups.

     The backup file is the first file given to `diff'.


File: emacs,  Node: Subdirectories in Dired,  Next: Subdir Switches,  Prev: Comparison in Dired,  Up: Dired

38.11 Subdirectories in Dired
=============================

A Dired buffer displays just one directory in the normal case; but you
can optionally include its subdirectories as well.

   The simplest way to include multiple directories in one Dired buffer
is to specify the options `-lR' for running `ls'.  (If you give a
numeric argument when you run Dired, then you can specify these options
in the minibuffer.)  That produces a recursive directory listing showing
all subdirectories at all levels.

   More often, you will want to show only specific subdirectories.  You
can do this with the `i' command:

`i'
     Insert the contents of a subdirectory later in the buffer.

   Use the `i' (`dired-maybe-insert-subdir') command on a line that
describes a file which is a directory.  It inserts the contents of that
directory into the same Dired buffer, and moves there.  Inserted
subdirectory contents follow the top-level directory of the Dired
buffer, just as they do in `ls -lR' output.

   If the subdirectory's contents are already present in the buffer, the
`i' command just moves to it.

   In either case, `i' sets the Emacs mark before moving, so `C-u
C-<SPC>' takes you back to the old position in the buffer (the line
describing that subdirectory).

   Use the `l' command (`dired-do-redisplay') to update the
subdirectory's contents.  Use `C-u k' on the subdirectory header line
to delete the subdirectory.  *Note Dired Updating::.


File: emacs,  Node: Subdir Switches,  Next: Subdirectory Motion,  Prev: Subdirectories in Dired,  Up: Dired

38.12 Subdirectory Switches in Dired
====================================

You can insert subdirectories with specified `ls' switches in Dired
buffers, using `C-u i'.  You can change the `ls' switches of an already
inserted subdirectory using `C-u l'.

   In Emacs versions 22.1 and later, Dired remembers the switches, so
that reverting the buffer will not change them back to the main
directory's switches.  Deleting a subdirectory forgets about its
switches.

   Using `dired-undo' (usually bound to `C-_' and `C-x u') to reinsert
or delete subdirectories, that were inserted with explicit switches,
can bypass Dired's machinery for remembering (or forgetting) switches.
Deleting a subdirectory using `dired-undo' does not forget its
switches.  When later reinserted using `i', it will be reinserted using
its old switches.  Using `dired-undo' to reinsert a subdirectory that
was deleted using the regular Dired commands (not `dired-undo') will
originally insert it with its old switches.  However, reverting the
buffer will relist it using the buffer's default switches.  If any of
this yields problems, you can easily correct the situation using `C-u
i' or `C-u l'.

   Dired does not remember the `R' switch.  Inserting a subdirectory
with switches that include the `R' switch is equivalent with inserting
each of its subdirectories using all remaining switches.  For instance,
updating or killing a subdirectory that was inserted with the `R'
switch will not update or kill its subdirectories.

   The buffer's default switches do not affect subdirectories that were
inserted using explicitly specified switches.  In particular, commands
such as `s', that change the buffer's switches do not affect such
subdirectories.  (They do affect subdirectories without explicitly
assigned switches, however.)

   You can make Dired forget about all subdirectory switches and relist
all subdirectories with the buffer's default switches using `M-x
dired-reset-subdir-switches'.  This also reverts the Dired buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Subdirectory Motion,  Next: Hiding Subdirectories,  Prev: Subdir Switches,  Up: Dired

38.13 Moving Over Subdirectories
================================

When a Dired buffer lists subdirectories, you can use the page motion
commands `C-x [' and `C-x ]' to move by entire directories (*note
Pages::).

   The following commands move across, up and down in the tree of
directories within one Dired buffer.  They move to "directory header
lines", which are the lines that give a directory's name, at the
beginning of the directory's contents.

`C-M-n'
     Go to next subdirectory header line, regardless of level
     (`dired-next-subdir').

`C-M-p'
     Go to previous subdirectory header line, regardless of level
     (`dired-prev-subdir').

`C-M-u'
     Go up to the parent directory's header line (`dired-tree-up').

`C-M-d'
     Go down in the directory tree, to the first subdirectory's header
     line (`dired-tree-down').

`<'
     Move up to the previous directory-file line (`dired-prev-dirline').
     These lines are the ones that describe a directory as a file in its
     parent directory.

`>'
     Move down to the next directory-file line (`dired-prev-dirline').


File: emacs,  Node: Hiding Subdirectories,  Next: Dired Updating,  Prev: Subdirectory Motion,  Up: Dired

38.14 Hiding Subdirectories
===========================

"Hiding" a subdirectory means to make it invisible, except for its
header line.

`$'
     Hide or reveal the subdirectory that point is in, and move point
     to the next subdirectory (`dired-hide-subdir').  A numeric
     argument serves as a repeat count.

`M-$'
     Hide all subdirectories in this Dired buffer, leaving only their
     header lines (`dired-hide-all').  Or, if any subdirectory is
     currently hidden, make all subdirectories visible again.  You can
     use this command to get an overview in very deep directory trees
     or to move quickly to subdirectories far away.

   Ordinary Dired commands never consider files inside a hidden
subdirectory.  For example, the commands to operate on marked files
ignore files in hidden directories even if they are marked.  Thus you
can use hiding to temporarily exclude subdirectories from operations
without having to remove the Dired marks on files in those
subdirectories.


File: emacs,  Node: Dired Updating,  Next: Dired and Find,  Prev: Hiding Subdirectories,  Up: Dired

38.15 Updating the Dired Buffer
===============================

This section describes commands to update the Dired buffer to reflect
outside (non-Dired) changes in the directories and files, and to delete
part of the Dired buffer.

`g'
     Update the entire contents of the Dired buffer (`revert-buffer').

`l'
     Update the specified files (`dired-do-redisplay').  You specify the
     files for `l' in the same way as for file operations.

`k'
     Delete the specified _file lines_--not the files, just the lines
     (`dired-do-kill-lines').

`s'
     Toggle between alphabetical order and date/time order
     (`dired-sort-toggle-or-edit').

`C-u s SWITCHES <RET>'
     Refresh the Dired buffer using SWITCHES as
     `dired-listing-switches'.

   Type `g' (`revert-buffer') to update the contents of the Dired
buffer, based on changes in the files and directories listed.  This
preserves all marks except for those on files that have vanished.
Hidden subdirectories are updated but remain hidden.

   To update only some of the files, type `l' (`dired-do-redisplay').
Like the Dired file-operating commands, this command operates on the
next N files (or previous -N files), or on the marked files if any, or
on the current file.  Updating the files means reading their current
status, then updating their lines in the buffer to indicate that status.

   If you use `l' on a subdirectory header line, it updates the
contents of the corresponding subdirectory.

   To delete the specified _file lines_ from the buffer--not delete the
files--type `k' (`dired-do-kill-lines').  Like the file-operating
commands, this command operates on the next N files, or on the marked
files if any; but it does not operate on the current file as a last
resort.

   If you use `k' with a numeric prefix argument to kill the line for a
file that is a directory, which you have inserted in the Dired buffer
as a subdirectory, it deletes that subdirectory from the buffer as
well.  Typing `C-u k' on the header line for a subdirectory also
deletes the subdirectory from the Dired buffer.

   The `g' command brings back any individual lines that you have
killed in this way, but not subdirectories--you must use `i' to
reinsert a subdirectory.

   The files in a Dired buffers are normally listed in alphabetical
order by file names.  Alternatively Dired can sort them by date/time.
The Dired command `s' (`dired-sort-toggle-or-edit') switches between
these two sorting modes.  The mode line in a Dired buffer indicates
which way it is currently sorted--by name, or by date.

   `C-u s SWITCHES <RET>' lets you specify a new value for
`dired-listing-switches'.


File: emacs,  Node: Dired and Find,  Next: Wdired,  Prev: Dired Updating,  Up: Dired

38.16 Dired and `find'
======================

You can select a set of files for display in a Dired buffer more
flexibly by using the `find' utility to choose the files.

   To search for files with names matching a wildcard pattern use `M-x
find-name-dired'.  It reads arguments DIRECTORY and PATTERN, and
chooses all the files in DIRECTORY or its subdirectories whose
individual names match PATTERN.

   The files thus chosen are displayed in a Dired buffer, in which the
ordinary Dired commands are available.

   If you want to test the contents of files, rather than their names,
use `M-x find-grep-dired'.  This command reads two minibuffer
arguments, DIRECTORY and REGEXP; it chooses all the files in DIRECTORY
or its subdirectories that contain a match for REGEXP.  It works by
running the programs `find' and `grep'.  See also `M-x grep-find', in
*Note Grep Searching::.  Remember to write the regular expression for
`grep', not for Emacs.  (An alternative method of showing files whose
contents match a given regexp is the `% g REGEXP' command, see *Note
Marks vs Flags::.)

   The most general command in this series is `M-x find-dired', which
lets you specify any condition that `find' can test.  It takes two
minibuffer arguments, DIRECTORY and FIND-ARGS; it runs `find' in
DIRECTORY, passing FIND-ARGS to tell `find' what condition to test.  To
use this command, you need to know how to use `find'.

   The format of listing produced by these commands is controlled by the
variable `find-ls-option', whose default value specifies using options
`-ld' for `ls'.  If your listings are corrupted, you may need to change
the value of this variable.

   The command `M-x locate' provides a similar interface to the
`locate' program.  `M-x locate-with-filter' is similar, but keeps only
files whose names match a given regular expression.

   These buffers don't work entirely like ordinary Dired buffers: file
operations work, but do not always automatically update the buffer.
Reverting the buffer with `g' deletes all inserted subdirectories, and
erases all flags and marks.


File: emacs,  Node: Wdired,  Next: Image-Dired,  Prev: Dired and Find,  Up: Dired

38.17 Editing the Dired Buffer
==============================

Wdired is a special mode that allows you to perform file operations by
editing the Dired buffer directly (the "W" in "Wdired" stands for
"writable.")  To enter Wdired mode, type `M-x
wdired-change-to-wdired-mode' while in a Dired buffer.  Alternatively,
use `Edit File Names' in the `Immediate' menu bar menu.

   While in Wdired mode, you can rename files by editing the file names
displayed in the Dired buffer.  All the ordinary Emacs editing
commands, including rectangle operations and `query-replace', are
available for this.  Once you are done editing, type `C-c C-c'
(`wdired-finish-edit').  This applies your changes and switches back to
ordinary Dired mode.

   Apart from simply renaming files, you can move a file to another
directory by typing in the new file name (either absolute or relative).
To mark a file for deletion, delete the entire file name.  To change
the target of a symbolic link, edit the link target name which appears
next to the link name.

   The rest of the text in the buffer, such as the file sizes and
modification dates, is marked read-only, so you can't edit it.
However, if you set `wdired-allow-to-change-permissions' to `t', you
can edit the file permissions.  For example, you can change
`-rw-r--r--' to `-rw-rw-rw-' to make a file world-writable.  These
changes also take effect when you type `C-c C-c'.


File: emacs,  Node: Image-Dired,  Next: Misc Dired Features,  Prev: Wdired,  Up: Dired

38.18 Viewing Image Thumbnails in Dired
=======================================

Image-Dired is a facility for browsing image files.  It provides viewing
the images either as thumbnails or in full size, either inside Emacs or
through an external viewer.

   To enter Image-Dired, mark the image files you want to look at in
the Dired buffer, using `m' as usual.  Then type `C-t d'
(`image-dired-display-thumbs').  This creates and switches to a buffer
containing image-dired, corresponding to the marked files.

   You can also enter Image-Dired directly by typing `M-x image-dired'.
This prompts for a directory; specify one that has images files.  This
creates thumbnails for all the images in that directory, and displays
them all in the "thumbnail buffer."  This takes a long time if the
directory contains many image files, and it asks for confirmation if
the number of image files exceeds
`image-dired-show-all-from-dir-max-files'.

   With point in the thumbnail buffer, type `RET'
(`image-dired-display-thumbnail-original-image') to display a sized
version of it in another window.  This sizes the image to fit the
window.  Use the arrow keys to move around in the buffer.  For easy
browsing, type `SPC' (`image-dired-display-next-thumbnail-original') to
advance and display the next image.  Typing `DEL'
(`image-dired-display-previous-thumbnail-original') backs up to the
previous thumbnail and displays that instead.

   To view and the image in its original size, either provide a prefix
argument (`C-u') before pressing `RET', or type `C-<RET>'
(`image-dired-thumbnail-display-external') to display the image in an
external viewer.  You must first configure
`image-dired-external-viewer'.

   You can delete images through Image-Dired also.  Type `d'
(`image-dired-flag-thumb-original-file') to flag the image file for
deletion in the Dired buffer.  You can also delete the thumbnail image
from the thumbnail buffer with `C-d' (`image-dired-delete-char').

   More advanced features include "image tags", which are metadata used
to categorize image files.  The tags are stored in a plain text file
configured by `image-dired-db-file'.

   To tag image files, mark them in the dired buffer (you can also mark
files in Dired from the thumbnail buffer by typing `m') and type `C-t
t' (`image-dired-tag-files').  You will be prompted for a tag.  To mark
files having a certain tag, type `C-t f'
(`image-dired-mark-tagged-files').  After marking image files with a
certain tag, you can use `C-t d' to view them.

   You can also tag a file directly from the thumbnail buffer by typing
`t t' and you can remove a tag by typing `t r'.  There is also a
special "tag" called "comment" for each file (it is not a tag in the
exact same sense as the other tags, it is handled slightly different).
That is used to enter a comment or description about the image.  You
comment a file from the thumbnail buffer by typing `c'.  You will be
prompted for a comment.  Type `C-t c' to add a comment from Dired
(`image-dired-dired-comment-files').

   Image-Dired also provides simple image manipulation.  In the
thumbnail buffer, type `L' to rotate the original image 90 degrees anti
clockwise, and `R' to rotate it 90 degrees clockwise.  This rotation is
lossless, and uses an external utility called JpegTRAN.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc Dired Features,  Prev: Image-Dired,  Up: Dired

38.19 Other Dired Features
==========================

An unusual Dired file-operation command is `+'
(`dired-create-directory').  This command reads a directory name, and
creates the directory if it does not already exist.

   The `w' command (`dired-copy-filename-as-kill') puts the names of
the marked (or next N) files into the kill ring, as if you had killed
them with `C-w'.  The names are separated by a space.

   With a zero prefix argument, this uses the absolute file name of
each marked file.  With just `C-u' as the prefix argument, it uses file
names relative to the Dired buffer's default directory.  (This can
still contain slashes if in a subdirectory.)  As a special case, if
point is on a directory headerline, `w' gives you the absolute name of
that directory.  Any prefix argument or marked files are ignored in
this case.

   The main purpose of this command is so that you can yank the file
names into arguments for other Emacs commands.  It also displays what
it added to the kill ring, so you can use it to display the list of
currently marked files in the echo area.

   The command `M-x dired-compare-directories' is used to compare the
current Dired buffer with another directory.  It marks all the files
that are "different" between the two directories.  It puts these marks
in all Dired buffers where these files are listed, which of course
includes the current buffer.

   The default comparison method (used if you type <RET> at the prompt)
is to compare just the file names--each file name that does not appear
in the other directory is "different."  You can specify more stringent
comparisons by entering a Lisp expression, which can refer to the
variables `size1' and `size2', the respective file sizes; `mtime1' and
`mtime2', the last modification times in seconds, as floating point
numbers; and `fa1' and `fa2', the respective file attribute lists (as
returned by the function `file-attributes').  This expression is
evaluated for each pair of like-named files, and if the expression's
value is non-`nil', those files are considered "different."

   For instance, the sequence `M-x dired-compare-directories <RET> (>
mtime1 mtime2) <RET>' marks files newer in this directory than in the
other, and marks files older in the other directory than in this one.
It also marks files with no counterpart, in both directories, as always.

   On the X window system, Emacs supports the "drag and drop" protocol.
You can drag a file object from another program, and drop it onto a
Dired buffer; this either moves, copies, or creates a link to the file
in that directory.  Precisely which action is taken is determined by
the originating program.  Dragging files out of a Dired buffer is
currently not supported.


File: emacs,  Node: Calendar/Diary,  Next: Gnus,  Prev: Dired,  Up: Top

39 The Calendar and the Diary
*****************************

Emacs provides the functions of a desk calendar, with a diary of
planned or past events.  It also has facilities for managing your
appointments, and keeping track of how much time you spend working on
certain projects.

   To enter the calendar, type `M-x calendar'; this displays a
three-month calendar centered on the current month, with point on the
current date.  With a numeric argument, as in `C-u M-x calendar', it
prompts you for the month and year to be the center of the three-month
calendar.  The calendar uses its own buffer, whose major mode is
Calendar mode.

   `Mouse-2' in the calendar brings up a menu of operations on a
particular date; `Mouse-3' brings up a menu of commonly used calendar
features that are independent of any particular date.  To exit the
calendar, type `q'.

* Menu:

* Calendar Motion::     Moving through the calendar; selecting a date.
* Scroll Calendar::     Bringing earlier or later months onto the screen.
* Counting Days::       How many days are there between two dates?
* General Calendar::    Exiting or recomputing the calendar.
* Writing Calendar Files:: Writing calendars to files of various formats.
* Holidays::            Displaying dates of holidays.
* Sunrise/Sunset::      Displaying local times of sunrise and sunset.
* Lunar Phases::        Displaying phases of the moon.
* Other Calendars::     Converting dates to other calendar systems.
* Diary::               Displaying events from your diary.
* Appointments::	Reminders when it's time to do something.
* Importing Diary::     Converting diary events to/from other formats.
* Daylight Saving::     How to specify when daylight saving time is active.
* Time Intervals::      Keeping track of time intervals.

* Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage:: Advanced Calendar/Diary customization.


File: emacs,  Node: Calendar Motion,  Next: Scroll Calendar,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.1 Movement in the Calendar
=============================

Calendar mode provides commands to move through the calendar in logical
units of time such as days, weeks, months, and years.  If you move
outside the three months originally displayed, the calendar display
"scrolls" automatically through time to make the selected date visible.
Moving to a date lets you view its holidays or diary entries, or
convert it to other calendars; moving by long time periods is also
useful simply to scroll the calendar.

* Menu:

* Calendar Unit Motion::      Moving by days, weeks, months, and years.
* Move to Beginning or End::  Moving to start/end of weeks, months, and years.
* Specified Dates::           Moving to the current date or another
                                specific date.


File: emacs,  Node: Calendar Unit Motion,  Next: Move to Beginning or End,  Up: Calendar Motion

39.1.1 Motion by Standard Lengths of Time
-----------------------------------------

The commands for movement in the calendar buffer parallel the commands
for movement in text.  You can move forward and backward by days,
weeks, months, and years.

`C-f'
     Move point one day forward (`calendar-forward-day').

`C-b'
     Move point one day backward (`calendar-backward-day').

`C-n'
     Move point one week forward (`calendar-forward-week').

`C-p'
     Move point one week backward (`calendar-backward-week').

`M-}'
     Move point one month forward (`calendar-forward-month').

`M-{'
     Move point one month backward (`calendar-backward-month').

`C-x ]'
     Move point one year forward (`calendar-forward-year').

`C-x ['
     Move point one year backward (`calendar-backward-year').

   The day and week commands are natural analogues of the usual Emacs
commands for moving by characters and by lines.  Just as `C-n' usually
moves to the same column in the following line, in Calendar mode it
moves to the same day in the following week.  And `C-p' moves to the
same day in the previous week.

   The arrow keys are equivalent to `C-f', `C-b', `C-n' and `C-p', just
as they normally are in other modes.

   The commands for motion by months and years work like those for
weeks, but move a larger distance.  The month commands `M-}' and `M-{'
move forward or backward by an entire month.  The year commands `C-x ]'
and `C-x [' move forward or backward a whole year.

   The easiest way to remember these commands is to consider months and
years analogous to paragraphs and pages of text, respectively.  But the
commands themselves are not quite analogous.  The ordinary Emacs
paragraph commands move to the beginning or end of a paragraph, whereas
these month and year commands move by an entire month or an entire
year, keeping the same date within the month or year.

   All these commands accept a numeric argument as a repeat count.  For
convenience, the digit keys and the minus sign specify numeric
arguments in Calendar mode even without the Meta modifier.  For example,
`100 C-f' moves point 100 days forward from its present location.


File: emacs,  Node: Move to Beginning or End,  Next: Specified Dates,  Prev: Calendar Unit Motion,  Up: Calendar Motion

39.1.2 Beginning or End of Week, Month or Year
----------------------------------------------

A week (or month, or year) is not just a quantity of days; we think of
weeks (months, years) as starting on particular dates.  So Calendar mode
provides commands to move to the beginning or end of a week, month or
year:

`C-a'
     Move point to start of week (`calendar-beginning-of-week').  

`C-e'
     Move point to end of week (`calendar-end-of-week').  

`M-a'
     Move point to start of month (`calendar-beginning-of-month').  

`M-e'
     Move point to end of month (`calendar-end-of-month').  

`M-<'
     Move point to start of year (`calendar-beginning-of-year').  

`M->'
     Move point to end of year (`calendar-end-of-year').

   These commands also take numeric arguments as repeat counts, with the
repeat count indicating how many weeks, months, or years to move
backward or forward.

   By default, weeks begin on Sunday.  To make them begin on Monday
instead, set the variable `calendar-week-start-day' to 1.


File: emacs,  Node: Specified Dates,  Prev: Move to Beginning or End,  Up: Calendar Motion

39.1.3 Specified Dates
----------------------

Calendar mode provides commands for moving to a particular date
specified in various ways.

`g d'
     Move point to specified date (`calendar-goto-date').

`g D'
     Move point to specified day of year (`calendar-goto-day-of-year').

`g w'
     Move point to specified week of year (`calendar-goto-iso-week').

`o'
     Center calendar around specified month (`calendar-other-month').

`.'
     Move point to today's date (`calendar-goto-today').

   `g d' (`calendar-goto-date') prompts for a year, a month, and a day
of the month, and then moves to that date.  Because the calendar
includes all dates from the beginning of the current era, you must type
the year in its entirety; that is, type `1990', not `90'.

   `g D' (`calendar-goto-day-of-year') prompts for a year and day
number, and moves to that date.  Negative day numbers count backward
from the end of the year.  `g w' (`calendar-goto-iso-week') prompts for
a year and week number, and moves to that week.

   `o' (`calendar-other-month') prompts for a month and year, then
centers the three-month calendar around that month.

   You can return to today's date with `.' (`calendar-goto-today').


File: emacs,  Node: Scroll Calendar,  Next: Counting Days,  Prev: Calendar Motion,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.2 Scrolling in the Calendar
==============================

The calendar display scrolls automatically through time when you move
out of the visible portion.  You can also scroll it manually.  Imagine
that the calendar window contains a long strip of paper with the months
on it.  Scrolling the calendar means moving the strip horizontally, so
that new months become visible in the window.

`>'
     Scroll calendar one month forward (`scroll-calendar-left').

`<'
     Scroll calendar one month backward (`scroll-calendar-right').

`C-v'
`<NEXT>'
     Scroll calendar three months forward
     (`scroll-calendar-left-three-months').

`M-v'
`<PRIOR>'
     Scroll calendar three months backward
     (`scroll-calendar-right-three-months').

   The most basic calendar scroll commands scroll by one month at a
time.  This means that there are two months of overlap between the
display before the command and the display after.  `>' scrolls the
calendar contents one month forward in time.  `<' scrolls the contents
one month backwards in time.

   The commands `C-v' and `M-v' scroll the calendar by an entire
"screenful"--three months--in analogy with the usual meaning of these
commands.  `C-v' makes later dates visible and `M-v' makes earlier
dates visible.  These commands take a numeric argument as a repeat
count; in particular, since `C-u' multiplies the next command by four,
typing `C-u C-v' scrolls the calendar forward by a year and typing `C-u
M-v' scrolls the calendar backward by a year.

   The function keys <NEXT> and <PRIOR> are equivalent to `C-v' and
`M-v', just as they are in other modes.


File: emacs,  Node: Counting Days,  Next: General Calendar,  Prev: Scroll Calendar,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.3 Counting Days
==================

`M-='
     Display the number of days in the current region
     (`calendar-count-days-region').

   To determine the number of days in the region, type `M-='
(`calendar-count-days-region').  The numbers of days shown is
_inclusive_; that is, it includes the days specified by mark and point.


File: emacs,  Node: General Calendar,  Next: Writing Calendar Files,  Prev: Counting Days,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.4 Miscellaneous Calendar Commands
====================================

`p d'
     Display day-in-year (`calendar-print-day-of-year').

`C-c C-l'
     Regenerate the calendar window (`redraw-calendar').

`SPC'
     Scroll the next window up (`scroll-other-window').

`DEL'
     Scroll the next window down (`scroll-other-window-down').

`q'
     Exit from calendar (`exit-calendar').

   To display the number of days elapsed since the start of the year, or
the number of days remaining in the year, type the `p d' command
(`calendar-print-day-of-year').  This displays both of those numbers in
the echo area.  The count of days elapsed includes the selected date.
The count of days remaining does not include that date.

   If the calendar window text gets corrupted, type `C-c C-l'
(`redraw-calendar') to redraw it.  (This can only happen if you use
non-Calendar-mode editing commands.)

   In Calendar mode, you can use `SPC' (`scroll-other-window') and
`DEL' (`scroll-other-window-down') to scroll the other window up or
down, respectively.  This is handy when you display a list of holidays
or diary entries in another window.

   To exit from the calendar, type `q' (`exit-calendar').  This buries
all buffers related to the calendar, selecting other buffers.  (If a
frame contains a dedicated calendar window, exiting from the calendar
iconifies that frame.)


File: emacs,  Node: Writing Calendar Files,  Next: Holidays,  Prev: General Calendar,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.5 Writing Calendar Files
===========================

These packages produce files of various formats containing calendar and
diary entries, for display purposes.

   The Calendar HTML commands produce files of HTML code that contain
calendar and diary entries.  Each file applies to one month, and has a
name of the format `YYYY-MM.html', where YYYY and MM are the four-digit
year and two-digit month, respectively.  The variable
`cal-html-directory' specifies the default output directory for the
HTML files.

   Diary entries enclosed by `<' and `>' are interpreted as HTML tags
(for example: this is a diary entry with <font color="red">some red
text</font>).  You can change the overall appearance of the displayed
HTML pages (for example, the color of various page elements, header
styles) via a stylesheet `cal.css' in the directory containing the HTML
files (see the value of the variable `cal-html-css-default' for
relevant style settings).

`H m'
     Generate a one-month calendar (`cal-html-cursor-month').

`H y'
     Generate a calendar file for each month of a year, as well as an
     index page (`cal-html-cursor-year').  By default, this command
     writes files to a YYYY subdirectory - if this is altered some
     hyperlinks between years will not work.

   If the variable `cal-html-print-day-number-flag' is non-`nil', then
the monthly calendars show the day-of-the-year number. The variable
`cal-html-year-index-cols' specifies the number of columns in the
yearly index page.

   The Calendar LaTeX commands produce a buffer of LaTeX code that
prints as a calendar.  Depending on the command you use, the printed
calendar covers the day, week, month or year that point is in.

`t m'
     Generate a one-month calendar (`cal-tex-cursor-month').

`t M'
     Generate a sideways-printing one-month calendar
     (`cal-tex-cursor-month-landscape').

`t d'
     Generate a one-day calendar (`cal-tex-cursor-day').

`t w 1'
     Generate a one-page calendar for one week (`cal-tex-cursor-week').

`t w 2'
     Generate a two-page calendar for one week (`cal-tex-cursor-week2').

`t w 3'
     Generate an ISO-style calendar for one week
     (`cal-tex-cursor-week-iso').

`t w 4'
     Generate a calendar for one Monday-starting week
     (`cal-tex-cursor-week-monday').

`t f w'
     Generate a Filofax-style two-weeks-at-a-glance calendar
     (`cal-tex-cursor-filofax-2week').

`t f W'
     Generate a Filofax-style one-week-at-a-glance calendar
     (`cal-tex-cursor-filofax-week').

`t y'
     Generate a calendar for one year (`cal-tex-cursor-year').

`t Y'
     Generate a sideways-printing calendar for one year
     (`cal-tex-cursor-year-landscape').

`t f y'
     Generate a Filofax-style calendar for one year
     (`cal-tex-cursor-filofax-year').

   Some of these commands print the calendar sideways (in "landscape
mode"), so it can be wider than it is long.  Some of them use Filofax
paper size (3.75in x 6.75in).  All of these commands accept a prefix
argument which specifies how many days, weeks, months or years to print
(starting always with the selected one).

   If the variable `cal-tex-holidays' is non-`nil' (the default), then
the printed calendars show the holidays in `calendar-holidays'.  If the
variable `cal-tex-diary' is non-`nil' (the default is `nil'), diary
entries are included also (in weekly and monthly calendars only).  If
the variable `cal-tex-rules' is non-`nil' (the default is `nil'), the
calendar displays ruled pages in styles that have sufficient room.  You
can use the variable `cal-tex-preamble-extra' to insert extra LaTeX
commands in the preamble of the generated document if you need to.


File: emacs,  Node: Holidays,  Next: Sunrise/Sunset,  Prev: Writing Calendar Files,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.6 Holidays
=============

The Emacs calendar knows about all major and many minor holidays, and
can display them.

`h'
     Display holidays for the selected date
     (`calendar-cursor-holidays').

`Mouse-2 Holidays'
     Display any holidays for the date you click on.

`x'
     Mark holidays in the calendar window (`mark-calendar-holidays').

`u'
     Unmark calendar window (`calendar-unmark').

`a'
     List all holidays for the displayed three months in another window
     (`list-calendar-holidays').

`M-x holidays'
     List all holidays for three months around today's date in another
     window.

`M-x list-holidays'
     List holidays in another window for a specified range of years.

   To see if any holidays fall on a given date, position point on that
date in the calendar window and use the `h' command.  Alternatively,
click on that date with `Mouse-2' and then choose `Holidays' from the
menu that appears.  Either way, this displays the holidays for that
date, in the echo area if they fit there, otherwise in a separate
window.

   To view the distribution of holidays for all the dates shown in the
calendar, use the `x' command.  This displays the dates that are
holidays in a different face (or places a `*' after these dates, if
display with multiple faces is not available).  *Note
calendar-holiday-marker: Calendar Customizing.    The command applies
both to the currently visible months and to other months that
subsequently become visible by scrolling.  To turn marking off and
erase the current marks, type `u', which also erases any diary marks
(*note Diary::).  If the variable `mark-holidays-in-calendar' is
non-`nil', creating or updating the calendar marks holidays
automatically.

   To get even more detailed information, use the `a' command, which
displays a separate buffer containing a list of all holidays in the
current three-month range.  You can use <SPC> and <DEL> in the calendar
window to scroll that list up and down, respectively.

   The command `M-x holidays' displays the list of holidays for the
current month and the preceding and succeeding months; this works even
if you don't have a calendar window.  If the variable
`view-calendar-holidays-initially' is non-`nil', creating the calendar
displays holidays in this way.  If you want the list of holidays
centered around a different month, use `C-u M-x holidays', which
prompts for the month and year.

   The holidays known to Emacs include United States holidays and the
major Christian, Jewish, and Islamic holidays; also the solstices and
equinoxes.

   The command `M-x list-holidays' displays the list of holidays for a
range of years.  This function asks you for the starting and stopping
years, and allows you to choose all the holidays or one of several
categories of holidays.  You can use this command even if you don't have
a calendar window.

   The dates used by Emacs for holidays are based on _current
practice_, not historical fact.  For example Veteran's Day began in
1919, but is shown in earlier years.


File: emacs,  Node: Sunrise/Sunset,  Next: Lunar Phases,  Prev: Holidays,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.7 Times of Sunrise and Sunset
================================

Special calendar commands can tell you, to within a minute or two, the
times of sunrise and sunset for any date.

`S'
     Display times of sunrise and sunset for the selected date
     (`calendar-sunrise-sunset').

`Mouse-2 Sunrise/sunset'
     Display times of sunrise and sunset for the date you click on.

`M-x sunrise-sunset'
     Display times of sunrise and sunset for today's date.

`C-u M-x sunrise-sunset'
     Display times of sunrise and sunset for a specified date.

   Within the calendar, to display the _local times_ of sunrise and
sunset in the echo area, move point to the date you want, and type `S'.
Alternatively, click `Mouse-2' on the date, then choose
`Sunrise/sunset' from the menu that appears.  The command `M-x
sunrise-sunset' is available outside the calendar to display this
information for today's date or a specified date.  To specify a date
other than today, use `C-u M-x sunrise-sunset', which prompts for the
year, month, and day.

   You can display the times of sunrise and sunset for any location and
any date with `C-u C-u M-x sunrise-sunset'.  This asks you for a
longitude, latitude, number of minutes difference from Coordinated
Universal Time, and date, and then tells you the times of sunrise and
sunset for that location on that date.

   Because the times of sunrise and sunset depend on the location on
earth, you need to tell Emacs your latitude, longitude, and location
name before using these commands.  Here is an example of what to set:

     (setq calendar-latitude 40.1)
     (setq calendar-longitude -88.2)
     (setq calendar-location-name "Urbana, IL")

Use one decimal place in the values of `calendar-latitude' and
`calendar-longitude'.

   Your time zone also affects the local time of sunrise and sunset.
Emacs usually gets time zone information from the operating system, but
if these values are not what you want (or if the operating system does
not supply them), you must set them yourself.  Here is an example:

     (setq calendar-time-zone -360)
     (setq calendar-standard-time-zone-name "CST")
     (setq calendar-daylight-time-zone-name "CDT")

The value of `calendar-time-zone' is the number of minutes difference
between your local standard time and Coordinated Universal Time
(Greenwich time).  The values of `calendar-standard-time-zone-name' and
`calendar-daylight-time-zone-name' are the abbreviations used in your
time zone.  Emacs displays the times of sunrise and sunset _corrected
for daylight saving time_.  *Note Daylight Saving::, for how daylight
saving time is determined.

   As a user, you might find it convenient to set the calendar location
variables for your usual physical location in your `.emacs' file.  And
when you install Emacs on a machine, you can create a `default.el' file
which sets them properly for the typical location of most users of that
machine.  *Note Init File::.


File: emacs,  Node: Lunar Phases,  Next: Other Calendars,  Prev: Sunrise/Sunset,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.8 Phases of the Moon
=======================

These calendar commands display the dates and times of the phases of
the moon (new moon, first quarter, full moon, last quarter).  This
feature is useful for debugging problems that "depend on the phase of
the moon."

`M'
     Display the dates and times for all the quarters of the moon for
     the three-month period shown (`calendar-phases-of-moon').

`M-x phases-of-moon'
     Display dates and times of the quarters of the moon for three
     months around today's date.

   Within the calendar, use the `M' command to display a separate
buffer of the phases of the moon for the current three-month range.  The
dates and times listed are accurate to within a few minutes.

   Outside the calendar, use the command `M-x phases-of-moon' to
display the list of the phases of the moon for the current month and the
preceding and succeeding months.  For information about a different
month, use `C-u M-x phases-of-moon', which prompts for the month and
year.

   The dates and times given for the phases of the moon are given in
local time (corrected for daylight saving, when appropriate); but if
the variable `calendar-time-zone' is void, Coordinated Universal Time
(the Greenwich time zone) is used.  *Note Daylight Saving::.


File: emacs,  Node: Other Calendars,  Next: Diary,  Prev: Lunar Phases,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.9 Conversion To and From Other Calendars
===========================================

The Emacs calendar displayed is _always_ the Gregorian calendar,
sometimes called the "new style" calendar, which is used in most of the
world today.  However, this calendar did not exist before the sixteenth
century and was not widely used before the eighteenth century; it did
not fully displace the Julian calendar and gain universal acceptance
until the early twentieth century.  The Emacs calendar can display any
month since January, year 1 of the current era, but the calendar
displayed is the Gregorian, even for a date at which the Gregorian
calendar did not exist.

   While Emacs cannot display other calendars, it can convert dates to
and from several other calendars.

* Menu:

* Calendar Systems::	   The calendars Emacs understands
			     (aside from Gregorian).
* To Other Calendar::	   Converting the selected date to various calendars.
* From Other Calendar::	   Moving to a date specified in another calendar.
* Mayan Calendar::	   Moving to a date specified in a Mayan calendar.


File: emacs,  Node: Calendar Systems,  Next: To Other Calendar,  Up: Other Calendars

39.9.1 Supported Calendar Systems
---------------------------------

The ISO commercial calendar is used largely in Europe.

   The Julian calendar, named after Julius Caesar, was the one used in
Europe throughout medieval times, and in many countries up until the
nineteenth century.

   Astronomers use a simple counting of days elapsed since noon, Monday,
January 1, 4713 B.C. on the Julian calendar.  The number of days elapsed
is called the "Julian day number" or the "Astronomical day number".

   The Hebrew calendar is used by tradition in the Jewish religion.  The
Emacs calendar program uses the Hebrew calendar to determine the dates
of Jewish holidays.  Hebrew calendar dates begin and end at sunset.

   The Islamic calendar is used in many predominantly Islamic countries.
Emacs uses it to determine the dates of Islamic holidays.  There is no
universal agreement in the Islamic world about the calendar; Emacs uses
a widely accepted version, but the precise dates of Islamic holidays
often depend on proclamation by religious authorities, not on
calculations.  As a consequence, the actual dates of observance can vary
slightly from the dates computed by Emacs.  Islamic calendar dates begin
and end at sunset.

   The French Revolutionary calendar was created by the Jacobins after
the 1789 revolution, to represent a more secular and nature-based view
of the annual cycle, and to install a 10-day week in a rationalization
measure similar to the metric system.  The French government officially
abandoned this calendar at the end of 1805.

   The Maya of Central America used three separate, overlapping calendar
systems, the _long count_, the _tzolkin_, and the _haab_.  Emacs knows
about all three of these calendars.  Experts dispute the exact
correlation between the Mayan calendar and our calendar; Emacs uses the
Goodman-Martinez-Thompson correlation in its calculations.

   The Copts use a calendar based on the ancient Egyptian solar
calendar.  Their calendar consists of twelve 30-day months followed by
an extra five-day period.  Once every fourth year they add a leap day
to this extra period to make it six days.  The Ethiopic calendar is
identical in structure, but has different year numbers and month names.

   The Persians use a solar calendar based on a design of Omar Khayyam.
Their calendar consists of twelve months of which the first six have 31
days, the next five have 30 days, and the last has 29 in ordinary years
and 30 in leap years.  Leap years occur in a complicated pattern every
four or five years.  The calendar implemented here is the arithmetical
Persian calendar championed by Birashk, based on a 2,820-year cycle.
It differs from the astronomical Persian calendar, which is based on
astronomical events.  As of this writing the first future discrepancy
is projected to occur on March 20, 2025.  It is currently not clear
what the official calendar of Iran will be that far into the future.

   The Chinese calendar is a complicated system of lunar months arranged
into solar years.  The years go in cycles of sixty, each year containing
either twelve months in an ordinary year or thirteen months in a leap
year; each month has either 29 or 30 days.  Years, ordinary months, and
days are named by combining one of ten "celestial stems" with one of
twelve "terrestrial branches" for a total of sixty names that are
repeated in a cycle of sixty.


File: emacs,  Node: To Other Calendar,  Next: From Other Calendar,  Prev: Calendar Systems,  Up: Other Calendars

39.9.2 Converting To Other Calendars
------------------------------------

The following commands describe the selected date (the date at point)
in various other calendar systems:

`Mouse-2  Other calendars'
     Display the date that you click on, expressed in various other
     calendars.  

`p c'
     Display ISO commercial calendar equivalent for selected day
     (`calendar-print-iso-date').  

`p j'
     Display Julian date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-julian-date').  

`p a'
     Display astronomical (Julian) day number for selected day
     (`calendar-print-astro-day-number').  

`p h'
     Display Hebrew date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-hebrew-date').  

`p i'
     Display Islamic date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-islamic-date').  

`p f'
     Display French Revolutionary date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-french-date').  

`p C'
     Display Chinese date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-chinese-date').  

`p k'
     Display Coptic date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-coptic-date').  

`p e'
     Display Ethiopic date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-ethiopic-date').  

`p p'
     Display Persian date for selected day
     (`calendar-print-persian-date').  

`p m'
     Display Mayan date for selected day (`calendar-print-mayan-date').

   If you are using X, the easiest way to translate a date into other
calendars is to click on it with `Mouse-2', then choose `Other
calendars' from the menu that appears.  This displays the equivalent
forms of the date in all the calendars Emacs understands, in the form of
a menu.  (Choosing an alternative from this menu doesn't actually do
anything--the menu is used only for display.)

   Otherwise, move point to the date you want to convert, then type the
appropriate command starting with `p' from the table above.  The prefix
`p' is a mnemonic for "print," since Emacs "prints" the equivalent date
in the echo area.


File: emacs,  Node: From Other Calendar,  Next: Mayan Calendar,  Prev: To Other Calendar,  Up: Other Calendars

39.9.3 Converting From Other Calendars
--------------------------------------

You can use the other supported calendars to specify a date to move to.
This section describes the commands for doing this using calendars
other than Mayan; for the Mayan calendar, see the following section.

`g c'
     Move to a date specified in the ISO commercial calendar
     (`calendar-goto-iso-date').

`g w'
     Move to a week specified in the ISO commercial calendar
     (`calendar-goto-iso-week').

`g j'
     Move to a date specified in the Julian calendar
     (`calendar-goto-julian-date').

`g a'
     Move to a date specified with an astronomical (Julian) day number
     (`calendar-goto-astro-day-number').

`g h'
     Move to a date specified in the Hebrew calendar
     (`calendar-goto-hebrew-date').

`g i'
     Move to a date specified in the Islamic calendar
     (`calendar-goto-islamic-date').

`g f'
     Move to a date specified in the French Revolutionary calendar
     (`calendar-goto-french-date').

`g C'
     Move to a date specified in the Chinese calendar
     (`calendar-goto-chinese-date').

`g p'
     Move to a date specified in the Persian calendar
     (`calendar-goto-persian-date').

`g k'
     Move to a date specified in the Coptic calendar
     (`calendar-goto-coptic-date').

`g e'
     Move to a date specified in the Ethiopic calendar
     (`calendar-goto-ethiopic-date').

   These commands ask you for a date on the other calendar, move point
to the Gregorian calendar date equivalent to that date, and display the
other calendar's date in the echo area.  Emacs uses strict completion
(*note Completion::) whenever it asks you to type a month name, so you
don't have to worry about the spelling of Hebrew, Islamic, or French
names.

   One common question concerning the Hebrew calendar is the computation
of the anniversary of a date of death, called a "yahrzeit."  The Emacs
calendar includes a facility for such calculations.  If you are in the
calendar, the command `M-x list-yahrzeit-dates' asks you for a range of
years and then displays a list of the yahrzeit dates for those years
for the date given by point.  If you are not in the calendar, this
command first asks you for the date of death and the range of years,
and then displays the list of yahrzeit dates.


File: emacs,  Node: Mayan Calendar,  Prev: From Other Calendar,  Up: Other Calendars

39.9.4 Converting from the Mayan Calendar
-----------------------------------------

Here are the commands to select dates based on the Mayan calendar:

`g m l'
     Move to a date specified by the long count calendar
     (`calendar-goto-mayan-long-count-date').

`g m n t'
     Move to the next occurrence of a place in the tzolkin calendar
     (`calendar-next-tzolkin-date').

`g m p t'
     Move to the previous occurrence of a place in the tzolkin calendar
     (`calendar-previous-tzolkin-date').

`g m n h'
     Move to the next occurrence of a place in the haab calendar
     (`calendar-next-haab-date').

`g m p h'
     Move to the previous occurrence of a place in the haab calendar
     (`calendar-previous-haab-date').

`g m n c'
     Move to the next occurrence of a place in the calendar round
     (`calendar-next-calendar-round-date').

`g m p c'
     Move to the previous occurrence of a place in the calendar round
     (`calendar-previous-calendar-round-date').

   To understand these commands, you need to understand the Mayan
calendars.  The "long count" is a counting of days with these units:

     1 kin = 1 day   1 uinal = 20 kin   1 tun = 18 uinal
     1 katun = 20 tun   1 baktun = 20 katun

Thus, the long count date 12.16.11.16.6 means 12 baktun, 16 katun, 11
tun, 16 uinal, and 6 kin.  The Emacs calendar can handle Mayan long
count dates as early as 7.17.18.13.3, but no earlier.  When you use the
`g m l' command, type the Mayan long count date with the baktun, katun,
tun, uinal, and kin separated by periods.

   The Mayan tzolkin calendar is a cycle of 260 days formed by a pair of
independent cycles of 13 and 20 days.  Since this cycle repeats
endlessly, Emacs provides commands to move backward and forward to the
previous or next point in the cycle.  Type `g m p t' to go to the
previous tzolkin date; Emacs asks you for a tzolkin date and moves point
to the previous occurrence of that date.  Similarly, type `g m n t' to
go to the next occurrence of a tzolkin date.

   The Mayan haab calendar is a cycle of 365 days arranged as 18 months
of 20 days each, followed a 5-day monthless period.  Like the tzolkin
cycle, this cycle repeats endlessly, and there are commands to move
backward and forward to the previous or next point in the cycle.  Type
`g m p h' to go to the previous haab date; Emacs asks you for a haab
date and moves point to the previous occurrence of that date.
Similarly, type `g m n h' to go to the next occurrence of a haab date.

   The Maya also used the combination of the tzolkin date and the haab
date.  This combination is a cycle of about 52 years called a _calendar
round_.  If you type `g m p c', Emacs asks you for both a haab and a
tzolkin date and then moves point to the previous occurrence of that
combination.  Use `g m n c' to move point to the next occurrence of a
combination.  These commands signal an error if the haab/tzolkin date
combination you have typed is impossible.

   Emacs uses strict completion (*note Strict Completion::) whenever it
asks you to type a Mayan name, so you don't have to worry about
spelling.


File: emacs,  Node: Diary,  Next: Appointments,  Prev: Other Calendars,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.10 The Diary
===============

The Emacs diary keeps track of appointments or other events on a daily
basis, in conjunction with the calendar.  To use the diary feature, you
must first create a "diary file" containing a list of events and their
dates.  Then Emacs can automatically pick out and display the events
for today, for the immediate future, or for any specified date.

   The name of the diary file is specified by the variable
`diary-file'; `~/diary' is the default.  A sample diary file is (note
that the file format is essentially the same as that used by the
external shell utility `calendar'):

     12/22/1988  Twentieth wedding anniversary!!
     &1/1.       Happy New Year!
     10/22       Ruth's birthday.
     * 21, *:    Payday
     Tuesday--weekly meeting with grad students at 10am
              Supowit, Shen, Bitner, and Kapoor to attend.
     1/13/89     Friday the thirteenth!!
     &thu 4pm    squash game with Lloyd.
     mar 16      Dad's birthday
     April 15, 1989 Income tax due.
     &* 15       time cards due.

This example uses extra spaces to align the event descriptions of most
of the entries.  Such formatting is purely a matter of taste.

   Although you probably will start by creating a diary manually, Emacs
provides a number of commands to let you view, add, and change diary
entries.

* Menu:

* Displaying the Diary::   Viewing diary entries and associated calendar dates.
* Format of Diary File::   Entering events in your diary.
* Date Formats::	   Various ways you can specify dates.
* Adding to Diary::	   Commands to create diary entries.
* Special Diary Entries::  Anniversaries, blocks of dates, cyclic entries, etc.


File: emacs,  Node: Displaying the Diary,  Next: Format of Diary File,  Up: Diary

39.10.1 Displaying the Diary
----------------------------

Once you have created a diary file, you can use the calendar to view
it.  You can also view today's events outside of Calendar mode.

`d'
     Display all diary entries for the selected date
     (`diary-view-entries').

`Mouse-2 Diary'
     Display all diary entries for the date you click on.

`s'
     Display the entire diary file (`diary-show-all-entries').

`m'
     Mark all visible dates that have diary entries
     (`mark-diary-entries').

`u'
     Unmark the calendar window (`calendar-unmark').

`M-x print-diary-entries'
     Print hard copy of the diary display as it appears.

`M-x diary'
     Display all diary entries for today's date.

`M-x diary-mail-entries'
     Mail yourself email reminders about upcoming diary entries.

   Displaying the diary entries with `d' shows in a separate window the
diary entries for the selected date in the calendar.  The mode line of
the new window shows the date of the diary entries and any holidays
that fall on that date.  If you specify a numeric argument with `d', it
shows all the diary entries for that many successive days.  Thus, `2 d'
displays all the entries for the selected date and for the following
day.

   Another way to display the diary entries for a date is to click
`Mouse-2' on the date, and then choose `Diary entries' from the menu
that appears.  If the variable `view-diary-entries-initially' is
non-`nil', creating the calendar lists the diary entries for the
current date (provided the current date is visible).

   To get a broader view of which days are mentioned in the diary, use
the `m' command.  This displays the dates that have diary entries in a
different face (or places a `+' after these dates, if display with
multiple faces is not available).  *Note diary-entry-marker: Calendar
Customizing.    The command applies both to the currently visible
months and to other months that subsequently become visible by
scrolling.  To turn marking off and erase the current marks, type `u',
which also turns off holiday marks (*note Holidays::).  If the variable
`mark-diary-entries-in-calendar' is non-`nil', creating or updating the
calendar marks diary dates automatically.

   To see the full diary file, rather than just some of the entries, use
the `s' command.

   Display of selected diary entries uses the selective display feature
to hide entries that don't apply.  The diary buffer as you see it is an
illusion, so simply printing the buffer does not print what you see on
your screen.  There is a special command to print hard copy of the
diary buffer _as it appears_; this command is `M-x
print-diary-entries'.  It sends the data directly to the printer.  You
can customize it like `lpr-region' (*note Printing::).

   The command `M-x diary' displays the diary entries for the current
date, independently of the calendar display, and optionally for the next
few days as well; the variable `number-of-diary-entries' specifies how
many days to include.  *Note number-of-diary-entries: Diary Customizing.

   If you put `(diary)' in your `.emacs' file, this automatically
displays a window with the day's diary entries, when you enter Emacs.
The mode line of the displayed window shows the date and any holidays
that fall on that date.

   Many users like to receive notice of events in their diary as email.
To send such mail to yourself, use the command `M-x
diary-mail-entries'.  A prefix argument specifies how many days
(starting with today) to check; otherwise, the variable
`diary-mail-days' says how many days.


File: emacs,  Node: Format of Diary File,  Next: Date Formats,  Prev: Displaying the Diary,  Up: Diary

39.10.2 The Diary File
----------------------

Your "diary file" is a file that records events associated with
particular dates.  The name of the diary file is specified by the
variable `diary-file'; `~/diary' is the default.  The `calendar'
utility program supports a subset of the format allowed by the Emacs
diary facilities, so you can use that utility to view the diary file,
with reasonable results aside from the entries it cannot understand.

   Each entry in the diary file describes one event and consists of one
or more lines.  An entry always begins with a date specification at the
left margin.  The rest of the entry is simply text to describe the
event.  If the entry has more than one line, then the lines after the
first must begin with whitespace to indicate they continue a previous
entry.  Lines that do not begin with valid dates and do not continue a
preceding entry are ignored.

   You can inhibit the marking of certain diary entries in the calendar
window; to do this, insert an ampersand (`&') at the beginning of the
entry, before the date.  This has no effect on display of the entry in
the diary window; it affects only marks on dates in the calendar
window.  Nonmarking entries are especially useful for generic entries
that would otherwise mark many different dates.

   If the first line of a diary entry consists only of the date or day
name with no following blanks or punctuation, then the diary window
display doesn't include that line; only the continuation lines appear.
For example, this entry:

     02/11/1989
           Bill B. visits Princeton today
           2pm Cognitive Studies Committee meeting
           2:30-5:30 Liz at Lawrenceville
           4:00pm Dentist appt
           7:30pm Dinner at George's
           8:00-10:00pm concert

appears in the diary window without the date line at the beginning.
This style of entry looks neater when you display just a single day's
entries, but can cause confusion if you ask for more than one day's
entries.

   You can edit the diary entries as they appear in the window, but it
is important to remember that the buffer displayed contains the _entire_
diary file, with portions of it concealed from view.  This means, for
instance, that the `C-f' (`forward-char') command can put point at what
appears to be the end of the line, but what is in reality the middle of
some concealed line.

   _Be careful when editing the diary entries!_  Inserting additional
lines or adding/deleting characters in the middle of a visible line
cannot cause problems, but editing at the end of a line may not do what
you expect.  Deleting a line may delete other invisible entries that
follow it.  Before editing the diary, it is best to display the entire
file with `s' (`diary-show-all-entries').


File: emacs,  Node: Date Formats,  Next: Adding to Diary,  Prev: Format of Diary File,  Up: Diary

39.10.3 Date Formats
--------------------

Here are some sample diary entries, illustrating different ways of
formatting a date.  The examples all show dates in American order
(month, day, year), but Calendar mode supports European order (day,
month, year) as an option.

     4/20/93  Switch-over to new tabulation system
     apr. 25  Start tabulating annual results
     4/30  Results for April are due
     */25  Monthly cycle finishes
     Friday  Don't leave without backing up files

   The first entry appears only once, on April 20, 1993.  The second and
third appear every year on the specified dates, and the fourth uses a
wildcard (asterisk) for the month, so it appears on the 25th of every
month.  The final entry appears every week on Friday.

   You can use just numbers to express a date, as in `MONTH/DAY' or
`MONTH/DAY/YEAR'.  This must be followed by a nondigit.  In the date
itself, MONTH and DAY are numbers of one or two digits.  The optional
YEAR is also a number, and may be abbreviated to the last two digits;
that is, you can use `11/12/1989' or `11/12/89'.

   Dates can also have the form `MONTHNAME DAY' or `MONTHNAME DAY,
YEAR', where the month's name can be spelled in full or abbreviated
(with or without a period).  The preferred abbreviations can be
controlled using the variables `calendar-abbrev-length',
`calendar-month-abbrev-array', and `calendar-day-abbrev-array'.  The
default is to use the first three letters of a name as its
abbreviation.  Case is not significant.

   A date may be "generic"; that is, partially unspecified.  Then the
entry applies to all dates that match the specification.  If the date
does not contain a year, it is generic and applies to any year.
Alternatively, MONTH, DAY, or YEAR can be a `*'; this matches any
month, day, or year, respectively.  Thus, a diary entry `3/*/*' matches
any day in March of any year; so does `march *'.

   If you prefer the European style of writing dates--in which the day
comes before the month--type `M-x european-calendar' while in the
calendar, or set the variable `european-calendar-style' to `t' with
`M-x customize', or _before_ using any calendar or diary command.  This
mode interprets all dates in the diary in the European manner, and also
uses European style for displaying diary dates.  (Note that there is no
comma after the MONTHNAME in the European style.)  To go back to the
(default) American style of writing dates, type `M-x american-calendar'.

   You can use the name of a day of the week as a generic date which
applies to any date falling on that day of the week.  You can abbreviate
the day of the week to three letters (with or without a period) or spell
it in full; case is not significant.


File: emacs,  Node: Adding to Diary,  Next: Special Diary Entries,  Prev: Date Formats,  Up: Diary

39.10.4 Commands to Add to the Diary
------------------------------------

While in the calendar, there are several commands to create diary
entries:

`i d'
     Add a diary entry for the selected date (`insert-diary-entry').

`i w'
     Add a diary entry for the selected day of the week
     (`insert-weekly-diary-entry').

`i m'
     Add a diary entry for the selected day of the month
     (`insert-monthly-diary-entry').

`i y'
     Add a diary entry for the selected day of the year
     (`insert-yearly-diary-entry').

   You can make a diary entry for a specific date by selecting that date
in the calendar window and typing the `i d' command.  This command
displays the end of your diary file in another window and inserts the
date; you can then type the rest of the diary entry.

   If you want to make a diary entry that applies to a specific day of
the week, select that day of the week (any occurrence will do) and type
`i w'.  This inserts the day-of-week as a generic date; you can then
type the rest of the diary entry.  You can make a monthly diary entry in
the same fashion: select the day of the month, use the `i m' command,
and type the rest of the entry.  Similarly, you can insert a yearly
diary entry with the `i y' command.

   All of the above commands make marking diary entries by default.  To
make a nonmarking diary entry, give a numeric argument to the command.
For example, `C-u i w' makes a nonmarking weekly diary entry.

   When you modify the diary file, be sure to save the file before
exiting Emacs.  Saving the diary file after using any of the above
insertion commands will automatically update the diary marks in the
calendar window, if appropriate.  You can use the command
`redraw-calendar' to force an update at any time.


File: emacs,  Node: Special Diary Entries,  Prev: Adding to Diary,  Up: Diary

39.10.5 Special Diary Entries
-----------------------------

In addition to entries based on calendar dates, the diary file can
contain "sexp entries" for regular events such as anniversaries.  These
entries are based on Lisp expressions (sexps) that Emacs evaluates as
it scans the diary file.  Instead of a date, a sexp entry contains `%%'
followed by a Lisp expression which must begin and end with
parentheses.  The Lisp expression determines which dates the entry
applies to.

   Calendar mode provides commands to insert certain commonly used sexp
entries:

`i a'
     Add an anniversary diary entry for the selected date
     (`insert-anniversary-diary-entry').

`i b'
     Add a block diary entry for the current region
     (`insert-block-diary-entry').

`i c'
     Add a cyclic diary entry starting at the date
     (`insert-cyclic-diary-entry').

   If you want to make a diary entry that applies to the anniversary of
a specific date, move point to that date and use the `i a' command.
This displays the end of your diary file in another window and inserts
the anniversary description; you can then type the rest of the diary
entry.  The entry looks like this:

     %%(diary-anniversary 10 31 1948) Arthur's birthday

This entry applies to October 31 in any year after 1948; `10 31 1948'
specifies the date.  (If you are using the European calendar style, the
month and day are interchanged.)  The reason this expression requires a
beginning year is that advanced diary functions can use it to calculate
the number of elapsed years.

   A "block" diary entry applies to a specified range of consecutive
dates.  Here is a block diary entry that applies to all dates from June
24, 1990 through July 10, 1990:

     %%(diary-block 6 24 1990 7 10 1990) Vacation

The `6 24 1990' indicates the starting date and the `7 10 1990'
indicates the stopping date.  (Again, if you are using the European
calendar style, the month and day are interchanged.)

   To insert a block entry, place point and the mark on the two dates
that begin and end the range, and type `i b'.  This command displays
the end of your diary file in another window and inserts the block
description; you can then type the diary entry.

   "Cyclic" diary entries repeat after a fixed interval of days.  To
create one, select the starting date and use the `i c' command.  The
command prompts for the length of interval, then inserts the entry,
which looks like this:

     %%(diary-cyclic 50 3 1 1990) Renew medication

This entry applies to March 1, 1990 and every 50th day following; `3 1
1990' specifies the starting date.  (If you are using the European
calendar style, the month and day are interchanged.)

   All three of these commands make marking diary entries.  To insert a
nonmarking entry, give a numeric argument to the command.  For example,
`C-u i a' makes a nonmarking anniversary diary entry.

   Marking sexp diary entries in the calendar is _extremely_
time-consuming, since every date visible in the calendar window must be
individually checked.  So it's a good idea to make sexp diary entries
nonmarking (with `&') when possible.

   Another sophisticated kind of sexp entry, a "floating" diary entry,
specifies a regularly occurring event by offsets specified in days,
weeks, and months.  It is comparable to a crontab entry interpreted by
the `cron' utility.  Here is a nonmarking, floating diary entry that
applies to the last Thursday in November:

     &%%(diary-float 11 4 -1) American Thanksgiving

The 11 specifies November (the eleventh month), the 4 specifies Thursday
(the fourth day of the week, where Sunday is numbered zero), and the -1
specifies "last" (1 would mean "first," 2 would mean "second," -2 would
mean "second-to-last," and so on).  The month can be a single month or
a list of months.  Thus you could change the 11 above to `'(1 2 3)' and
have the entry apply to the last Thursday of January, February, and
March.  If the month is `t', the entry applies to all months of the
year.

   Each of the standard sexp diary entries takes an optional parameter
specifying the name of a face or a single-character string to use when
marking the entry in the calendar.  Most generally, sexp diary entries
can perform arbitrary computations to determine when they apply.  *note
()Sexp Diary Entries::.


File: emacs,  Node: Appointments,  Next: Importing Diary,  Prev: Diary,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.11 Appointments
==================

If you have a diary entry for an appointment, and that diary entry
begins with a recognizable time of day, Emacs can warn you several
minutes beforehand that that appointment is pending.  Emacs alerts you
to the appointment by displaying a message in your chosen format, as
specified by the variable `appt-display-format'.  If the value of
`appt-audible' is non-`nil', the warning includes an audible reminder.
In addition, if `appt-display-mode-line' is non-`nil', Emacs displays
the number of minutes to the appointment on the mode line.

   If `appt-display-format' has the value `window', then the variable
`appt-display-duration' controls how long the reminder window is
visible for; and the variables `appt-disp-window-function' and
`appt-delete-window-function' give the names of functions used to
create and destroy the window, respectively.

   To enable appointment notification, use the command `M-x
appt-activate'.  With a positive argument, it enables notification;
with a negative argument, it disables notification; with no argument,
it toggles.  Enabling notification also sets up an appointment list for
today from the diary file, giving all diary entries found with
recognizable times of day, and reminds you just before each of them.

   For example, suppose the diary file contains these lines:

     Monday
       9:30am Coffee break
      12:00pm Lunch

Then on Mondays, you will be reminded at around 9:20am about your
coffee break and at around 11:50am about lunch.  The variable
`appt-message-warning-time' specifies how many minutes in advance to
warn you; its default value is 12 (12 minutes).

   You can write times in am/pm style (with `12:00am' standing for
midnight and `12:00pm' standing for noon), or 24-hour European/military
style.  You need not be consistent; your diary file can have a mixture
of the two styles.  Times must be at the beginning of lines if they are
to be recognized.

   Emacs updates the appointments list from the diary file
automatically just after midnight.  You can force an update at any time
by re-enabling appointment notification.  Both these actions also
display the day's diary buffer, unless you set `appt-display-diary' to
`nil'.  The appointments list is also updated whenever the diary file
is saved.

   You can also use the appointment notification facility like an alarm
clock.  The command `M-x appt-add' adds entries to the appointment list
without affecting your diary file.  You delete entries from the
appointment list with `M-x appt-delete'.


File: emacs,  Node: Importing Diary,  Next: Daylight Saving,  Prev: Appointments,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.12 Importing and Exporting Diary Entries
===========================================

You can transfer diary entries between Emacs diary files and a variety
of other formats.

   You can import diary entries from Outlook-generated appointment
messages.  While viewing such a message in Rmail or Gnus, do `M-x
diary-from-outlook' to import the entry.  You can make this command
recognize additional appointment message formats by customizing the
variable `diary-outlook-formats'.

   The icalendar package allows you to transfer data between your Emacs
diary file and iCalendar files, which are defined in "RFC
2445--Internet Calendaring and Scheduling Core Object Specification
(iCalendar)" (as well as the earlier vCalendar format).

   Importing works for "ordinary" (i.e. non-recurring) events, but (at
present) may not work correctly (if at all) for recurring events.
Exporting of diary files into iCalendar files should work correctly for
most diary entries.  This feature is a work in progress, so the
commands may evolve in future.

   The command `icalendar-import-buffer' extracts iCalendar data from
the current buffer and adds it to your (default) diary file.  This
function is also suitable for automatic extraction of iCalendar data;
for example with the Rmail mail client one could use:

     (add-hook 'rmail-show-message-hook 'icalendar-import-buffer)

   The command `icalendar-import-file' imports an iCalendar file and
adds the results to an Emacs diary file.  For example:

     (icalendar-import-file "/here/is/calendar.ics"
                            "/there/goes/ical-diary")

You can use an `#include' directive to add the import file contents to
the main diary file, if these are different files.  *Note Fancy Diary
Display::.

   Use `icalendar-export-file' to interactively export an entire Emacs
diary file to iCalendar format.  To export only a part of a diary file,
mark the relevant area, and call `icalendar-export-region'.  In both
cases the result is appended to the target file.


File: emacs,  Node: Daylight Saving,  Next: Time Intervals,  Prev: Importing Diary,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.13 Daylight Saving Time
==========================

Emacs understands the difference between standard time and daylight
saving time--the times given for sunrise, sunset, solstices, equinoxes,
and the phases of the moon take that into account.  The rules for
daylight saving time vary from place to place and have also varied
historically from year to year.  To do the job properly, Emacs needs to
know which rules to use.

   Some operating systems keep track of the rules that apply to the
place where you are; on these systems, Emacs gets the information it
needs from the system automatically.  If some or all of this
information is missing, Emacs fills in the gaps with the rules
currently used in Cambridge, Massachusetts.  If the resulting rules are
not what you want, you can tell Emacs the rules to use by setting
certain variables: `calendar-daylight-savings-starts' and
`calendar-daylight-savings-ends'.

   These values should be Lisp expressions that refer to the variable
`year', and evaluate to the Gregorian date on which daylight saving
time starts or (respectively) ends, in the form of a list `(MONTH DAY
YEAR)'.  The values should be `nil' if your area does not use daylight
saving time.

   Emacs uses these expressions to determine the starting date of
daylight saving time for the holiday list and for correcting times of
day in the solar and lunar calculations.

   The values for Cambridge, Massachusetts are as follows:

     (calendar-nth-named-day 2 0 3 year)
     (calendar-nth-named-day 1 0 11 year)

That is, the second 0th day (Sunday) of the third month (March) in the
year specified by `year', and the first Sunday of the eleventh month
(November) of that year.  If daylight saving time were changed to start
on October 1, you would set `calendar-daylight-savings-starts' to this:

     (list 10 1 year)

   If there is no daylight saving time at your location, or if you want
all times in standard time, set `calendar-daylight-savings-starts' and
`calendar-daylight-savings-ends' to `nil'.

   The variable `calendar-daylight-time-offset' specifies the
difference between daylight saving time and standard time, measured in
minutes.  The value for Cambridge, Massachusetts is 60.

   Finally, the two variables `calendar-daylight-savings-starts-time'
and `calendar-daylight-savings-ends-time' specify the number of minutes
after midnight local time when the transition to and from daylight
saving time should occur.  For Cambridge, Massachusetts both variables'
values are 120.


File: emacs,  Node: Time Intervals,  Next: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage,  Prev: Daylight Saving,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.14 Summing Time Intervals
============================

The timeclock feature adds up time intervals, so you can (for instance)
keep track of how much time you spend working on particular projects.

   Use the `M-x timeclock-in' command when you start working on a
project, and `M-x timeclock-out' command when you're done.  Each time
you do this, it adds one time interval to the record of the project.
You can change to working on a different project with `M-x
timeclock-change'.

   Once you've collected data from a number of time intervals, you can
use `M-x timeclock-workday-remaining' to see how much time is left to
work today (assuming a typical average of 8 hours a day), and `M-x
timeclock-when-to-leave' which will calculate when you're "done."

   If you want Emacs to display the amount of time "left" of your
workday in the mode line, either customize the
`timeclock-modeline-display' variable and set its value to `t', or
invoke the `M-x timeclock-modeline-display' command.

   Terminating the current Emacs session might or might not mean that
you have stopped working on the project and, by default, Emacs asks
you.  You can, however, set the value of the variable
`timeclock-ask-before-exiting' to `nil' (via `M-x customize') to avoid
the question; then, only an explicit `M-x timeclock-out' or `M-x
timeclock-change' will tell Emacs that the current interval is over.

   The timeclock functions work by accumulating the data in a file
called `.timelog' in your home directory.  You can specify a different
name for this file by customizing the variable `timeclock-file'.  If
you edit the timeclock file manually, or if you change the value of any
of timeclock's customizable variables, you should run the command `M-x
timeclock-reread-log' to update the data in Emacs from the file.


File: emacs,  Node: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage,  Prev: Time Intervals,  Up: Calendar/Diary

39.15 Customizing the Calendar and Diary
========================================

There are many customizations that you can use to make the calendar and
diary suit your personal tastes.

* Menu:

* Calendar Customizing::   Defaults you can set.
* Holiday Customizing::    Defining your own holidays.
* Date Display Format::    Changing the format.
* Time Display Format::    Changing the format.
* Diary Customizing::      Defaults you can set.
* Hebrew/Islamic Entries:: How to obtain them.
* Fancy Diary Display::    Enhancing the diary display, sorting entries,
                             using included diary files.
* Sexp Diary Entries::     Fancy things you can do.


File: emacs,  Node: Calendar Customizing,  Next: Holiday Customizing,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.1 Customizing the Calendar
--------------------------------

The variable `calendar-holiday-marker' specifies how to mark a date as
being a holiday.  Its value may be a single-character string to insert
next to the date, or a face name to use for displaying the date.
Likewise, the variable `diary-entry-marker' specifies how to mark a
date that has diary entries.  The calendar creates faces named
`holiday-face' and `diary-face' for these purposes; those symbols are
the default values of these variables.

   The variable `calendar-load-hook' is a normal hook run when the
calendar package is first loaded (before actually starting to display
the calendar).

   Starting the calendar runs the normal hook
`initial-calendar-window-hook'.  Recomputation of the calendar display
does not run this hook.  But if you leave the calendar with the `q'
command and reenter it, the hook runs again.

   The variable `today-visible-calendar-hook' is a normal hook run
after the calendar buffer has been prepared with the calendar when the
current date is visible in the window.  One use of this hook is to
replace today's date with asterisks; to do that, use the hook function
`calendar-star-date'.

     (add-hook 'today-visible-calendar-hook 'calendar-star-date)

Another standard hook function marks the current date, either by
changing its face or by adding an asterisk.  Here's how to use it:

     (add-hook 'today-visible-calendar-hook 'calendar-mark-today)

The variable `calendar-today-marker' specifies how to mark today's
date.  Its value should be a single-character string to insert next to
the date or a face name to use for displaying the date.  A face named
`calendar-today-face' is provided for this purpose; that symbol is the
default for this variable.

A similar normal hook, `today-invisible-calendar-hook' is run if the
current date is _not_ visible in the window.

   Each of the calendar cursor motion commands runs the hook
`calendar-move-hook' after it moves the cursor.


File: emacs,  Node: Holiday Customizing,  Next: Date Display Format,  Prev: Calendar Customizing,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.2 Customizing the Holidays
--------------------------------

Emacs knows about holidays defined by entries on one of several lists.
You can customize these lists of holidays to your own needs, adding or
deleting holidays.  The lists of holidays that Emacs uses are for
general holidays (`general-holidays'), local holidays
(`local-holidays'), Christian holidays (`christian-holidays'), Hebrew
(Jewish) holidays (`hebrew-holidays'), Islamic (Muslim) holidays
(`islamic-holidays'), and other holidays (`other-holidays').

   The general holidays are, by default, holidays common throughout the
United States.  To eliminate these holidays, set `general-holidays' to
`nil'.

   There are no default local holidays (but sites may supply some).  You
can set the variable `local-holidays' to any list of holidays, as
described below.

   By default, Emacs does not include all the holidays of the religions
that it knows, only those commonly found in secular calendars.  For a
more extensive collection of religious holidays, you can set any (or
all) of the variables `all-christian-calendar-holidays',
`all-hebrew-calendar-holidays', or `all-islamic-calendar-holidays' to
`t'.  If you want to eliminate the religious holidays, set any or all
of the corresponding variables `christian-holidays', `hebrew-holidays',
and `islamic-holidays' to `nil'.

   You can set the variable `other-holidays' to any list of holidays.
This list, normally empty, is intended for individual use.

   Each of the lists (`general-holidays', `local-holidays',
`christian-holidays', `hebrew-holidays', `islamic-holidays', and
`other-holidays') is a list of "holiday forms", each holiday form
describing a holiday (or sometimes a list of holidays).

   Here is a table of the possible kinds of holiday form.  Day numbers
and month numbers count starting from 1, but "dayname" numbers count
Sunday as 0.  The element STRING is always the name of the holiday, as
a string.

`(holiday-fixed MONTH DAY STRING)'
     A fixed date on the Gregorian calendar.

`(holiday-float MONTH DAYNAME K STRING)'
     The Kth DAYNAME in MONTH on the Gregorian calendar (DAYNAME=0 for
     Sunday, and so on); negative K means count back from the end of
     the month.

`(holiday-hebrew MONTH DAY STRING)'
     A fixed date on the Hebrew calendar.

`(holiday-islamic MONTH DAY STRING)'
     A fixed date on the Islamic calendar.

`(holiday-julian MONTH DAY STRING)'
     A fixed date on the Julian calendar.

`(holiday-sexp SEXP STRING)'
     A date calculated by the Lisp expression SEXP.  The expression
     should use the variable `year' to compute and return the date of a
     holiday, or `nil' if the holiday doesn't happen this year.  The
     value of SEXP must represent the date as a list of the form
     `(MONTH DAY YEAR)'.

`(if CONDITION HOLIDAY-FORM)'
     A holiday that happens only if CONDITION is true.

`(FUNCTION [ARGS])'
     A list of dates calculated by the function FUNCTION, called with
     arguments ARGS.

   For example, suppose you want to add Bastille Day, celebrated in
France on July 14.  You can do this as follows:

     (setq other-holidays '((holiday-fixed 7 14 "Bastille Day")))

The holiday form `(holiday-fixed 7 14 "Bastille Day")' specifies the
fourteenth day of the seventh month (July).

   Many holidays occur on a specific day of the week, at a specific time
of month.  Here is a holiday form describing Hurricane Supplication Day,
celebrated in the Virgin Islands on the fourth Monday in August:

     (holiday-float 8 1 4 "Hurricane Supplication Day")

Here the 8 specifies August, the 1 specifies Monday (Sunday is 0,
Tuesday is 2, and so on), and the 4 specifies the fourth occurrence in
the month (1 specifies the first occurrence, 2 the second occurrence,
-1 the last occurrence, -2 the second-to-last occurrence, and so on).

   You can specify holidays that occur on fixed days of the Hebrew,
Islamic, and Julian calendars too.  For example,

     (setq other-holidays
           '((holiday-hebrew 10 2 "Last day of Hanukkah")
             (holiday-islamic 3 12 "Mohammed's Birthday")
             (holiday-julian 4 2 "Jefferson's Birthday")))

adds the last day of Hanukkah (since the Hebrew months are numbered with
1 starting from Nisan), the Islamic feast celebrating Mohammed's
birthday (since the Islamic months are numbered from 1 starting with
Muharram), and Thomas Jefferson's birthday, which is 2 April 1743 on the
Julian calendar.

   To include a holiday conditionally, use either Emacs Lisp's `if' or
the `holiday-sexp' form.  For example, American presidential elections
occur on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of years
divisible by 4:

     (holiday-sexp '(if (= 0 (% year 4))
                        (calendar-gregorian-from-absolute
                         (1+ (calendar-dayname-on-or-before
                               1 (+ 6 (calendar-absolute-from-gregorian
                                       (list 11 1 year)))))))
                   "US Presidential Election")

or

     (if (= 0 (% displayed-year 4))
         (fixed 11
                (extract-calendar-day
                  (calendar-gregorian-from-absolute
                    (1+ (calendar-dayname-on-or-before
                          1 (+ 6 (calendar-absolute-from-gregorian
                                   (list 11 1 displayed-year)))))))
                "US Presidential Election"))

   Some holidays just don't fit into any of these forms because special
calculations are involved in their determination.  In such cases you
must write a Lisp function to do the calculation.  To include eclipses,
for example, add `(eclipses)' to `other-holidays' and write an Emacs
Lisp function `eclipses' that returns a (possibly empty) list of the
relevant Gregorian dates among the range visible in the calendar
window, with descriptive strings, like this:

     (((6 27 1991) "Lunar Eclipse") ((7 11 1991) "Solar Eclipse") ... )


File: emacs,  Node: Date Display Format,  Next: Time Display Format,  Prev: Holiday Customizing,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.3 Date Display Format
---------------------------

You can customize the manner of displaying dates in the diary, in mode
lines, and in messages by setting `calendar-date-display-form'.  This
variable holds a list of expressions that can involve the variables
`month', `day', and `year', which are all numbers in string form, and
`monthname' and `dayname', which are both alphabetic strings.  In the
American style, the default value of this list is as follows:

     ((if dayname (concat dayname ", ")) monthname " " day ", " year)

while in the European style this value is the default:

     ((if dayname (concat dayname ", ")) day " " monthname " " year)

The ISO standard date representation is this:

     (year "-" month "-" day)

This specifies a typical American format:

     (month "/" day "/" (substring year -2))


File: emacs,  Node: Time Display Format,  Next: Diary Customizing,  Prev: Date Display Format,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.4 Time Display Format
---------------------------

The calendar and diary by default display times of day in the
conventional American style with the hours from 1 through 12, minutes,
and either `am' or `pm'.  If you prefer the European style, also known
in the US as military, in which the hours go from 00 to 23, you can
alter the variable `calendar-time-display-form'.  This variable is a
list of expressions that can involve the variables `12-hours',
`24-hours', and `minutes', which are all numbers in string form, and
`am-pm' and `time-zone', which are both alphabetic strings.  The
default value of `calendar-time-display-form' is as follows:

     (12-hours ":" minutes am-pm
               (if time-zone " (") time-zone (if time-zone ")"))

Here is a value that provides European style times:

     (24-hours ":" minutes
               (if time-zone " (") time-zone (if time-zone ")"))


File: emacs,  Node: Diary Customizing,  Next: Hebrew/Islamic Entries,  Prev: Time Display Format,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.5 Customizing the Diary
-----------------------------

Ordinarily, the mode line of the diary buffer window indicates any
holidays that fall on the date of the diary entries.  The process of
checking for holidays can take several seconds, so including holiday
information delays the display of the diary buffer noticeably.  If you'd
prefer to have a faster display of the diary buffer but without the
holiday information, set the variable `holidays-in-diary-buffer' to
`nil'.

   The variable `number-of-diary-entries' controls the number of days
of diary entries to be displayed at one time.  It affects the initial
display when `view-diary-entries-initially' is `t', as well as the
command `M-x diary'.  For example, the default value is 1, which says
to display only the current day's diary entries.  If the value is 2,
both the current day's and the next day's entries are displayed.  The
value can also be a vector of seven elements: for example, if the value
is `[0 2 2 2 2 4 1]' then no diary entries appear on Sunday, the
current date's and the next day's diary entries appear Monday through
Thursday, Friday through Monday's entries appear on Friday, while on
Saturday only that day's entries appear.

   The variable `print-diary-entries-hook' is a normal hook run after
preparation of a temporary buffer containing just the diary entries
currently visible in the diary buffer.  (The other, irrelevant diary
entries are really absent from the temporary buffer; in the diary
buffer, they are merely hidden.)  The default value of this hook does
the printing with the command `lpr-buffer'.  If you want to use a
different command to do the printing, just change the value of this
hook.  Other uses might include, for example, rearranging the lines into
order by day and time.

   You can customize the form of dates in your diary file, if neither
the standard American nor European styles suits your needs, by setting
the variable `diary-date-forms'.  This variable is a list of patterns
for recognizing a date.  Each date pattern is a list whose elements may
be regular expressions (*note Regular Expressions: (elisp)Regular
Expressions.) or the symbols `month', `day', `year', `monthname', and
`dayname'.  All these elements serve as patterns that match certain
kinds of text in the diary file.  In order for the date pattern, as a
whole, to match, all of its elements must match consecutively.

   A regular expression in a date pattern matches in its usual fashion,
using the standard syntax table altered so that `*' is a word
constituent.

   The symbols `month', `day', `year', `monthname', and `dayname' match
the month number, day number, year number, month name, and day name of
the date being considered.  The symbols that match numbers allow
leading zeros; those that match names allow three-letter abbreviations
and capitalization.  All the symbols can match `*'; since `*' in a
diary entry means "any day", "any month", and so on, it should match
regardless of the date being considered.

   The default value of `diary-date-forms' in the American style is
this:

     ((month "/" day "[^/0-9]")
      (month "/" day "/" year "[^0-9]")
      (monthname " *" day "[^,0-9]")
      (monthname " *" day ", *" year "[^0-9]")
      (dayname "\\W"))

   The date patterns in the list must be _mutually exclusive_ and must
not match any portion of the diary entry itself, just the date and one
character of whitespace.  If, to be mutually exclusive, the pattern
must match a portion of the diary entry text--beyond the whitespace
that ends the date--then the first element of the date pattern _must_
be `backup'.  This causes the date recognizer to back up to the
beginning of the current word of the diary entry, after finishing the
match.  Even if you use `backup', the date pattern must absolutely not
match more than a portion of the first word of the diary entry.  The
default value of `diary-date-forms' in the European style is this list:

     ((day "/" month "[^/0-9]")
      (day "/" month "/" year "[^0-9]")
      (backup day " *" monthname "\\W+\\<[^*0-9]")
      (day " *" monthname " *" year "[^0-9]")
      (dayname "\\W"))

Notice the use of `backup' in the third pattern, because it needs to
match part of a word beyond the date itself to distinguish it from the
fourth pattern.


File: emacs,  Node: Hebrew/Islamic Entries,  Next: Fancy Diary Display,  Prev: Diary Customizing,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.6 Hebrew- and Islamic-Date Diary Entries
----------------------------------------------

Your diary file can have entries based on Hebrew or Islamic dates, as
well as entries based on the world-standard Gregorian calendar.
However, because recognition of such entries is time-consuming and most
people don't use them, you must explicitly enable their use.  If you
want the diary to recognize Hebrew-date diary entries, for example, you
must do this:

     (add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-listing-hook 'list-hebrew-diary-entries)
     (add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-marking-hook 'mark-hebrew-diary-entries)

If you want Islamic-date entries, do this:

     (add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-listing-hook 'list-islamic-diary-entries)
     (add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-marking-hook 'mark-islamic-diary-entries)

   Hebrew- and Islamic-date diary entries have the same formats as
Gregorian-date diary entries, except that `H' precedes a Hebrew date
and `I' precedes an Islamic date.  Moreover, because the Hebrew and
Islamic month names are not uniquely specified by the first three
letters, you may not abbreviate them.  For example, a diary entry for
the Hebrew date Heshvan 25 could look like this:

     HHeshvan 25 Happy Hebrew birthday!

and would appear in the diary for any date that corresponds to Heshvan
25 on the Hebrew calendar.  And here is an Islamic-date diary entry
that matches Dhu al-Qada 25:

     IDhu al-Qada 25 Happy Islamic birthday!

   As with Gregorian-date diary entries, Hebrew- and Islamic-date
entries are nonmarking if they are preceded with an ampersand (`&').

   Here is a table of commands used in the calendar to create diary
entries that match the selected date and other dates that are similar
in the Hebrew or Islamic calendar:

`i h d'
     Add a diary entry for the Hebrew date corresponding to the
     selected date (`insert-hebrew-diary-entry').

`i h m'
     Add a diary entry for the day of the Hebrew month corresponding to
     the selected date (`insert-monthly-hebrew-diary-entry').  This
     diary entry matches any date that has the same Hebrew
     day-within-month as the selected date.

`i h y'
     Add a diary entry for the day of the Hebrew year corresponding to
     the selected date (`insert-yearly-hebrew-diary-entry').  This diary
     entry matches any date which has the same Hebrew month and
     day-within-month as the selected date.

`i i d'
     Add a diary entry for the Islamic date corresponding to the
     selected date (`insert-islamic-diary-entry').

`i i m'
     Add a diary entry for the day of the Islamic month corresponding
     to the selected date (`insert-monthly-islamic-diary-entry').

`i i y'
     Add a diary entry for the day of the Islamic year corresponding to
     the selected date (`insert-yearly-islamic-diary-entry').

   These commands work much like the corresponding commands for ordinary
diary entries: they apply to the date that point is on in the calendar
window, and what they do is insert just the date portion of a diary
entry at the end of your diary file.  You must then insert the rest of
the diary entry.


File: emacs,  Node: Fancy Diary Display,  Next: Sexp Diary Entries,  Prev: Hebrew/Islamic Entries,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.7 Fancy Diary Display
---------------------------

Diary display works by preparing the diary buffer and then running the
hook `diary-display-hook'.  The default value of this hook
(`simple-diary-display') hides the irrelevant diary entries and then
displays the buffer.  However, if you specify the hook as follows,

     (add-hook 'diary-display-hook 'fancy-diary-display)

this enables fancy diary display.  It displays diary entries and
holidays by copying them into a special buffer that exists only for the
sake of display.  Copying to a separate buffer provides an opportunity
to change the displayed text to make it prettier--for example, to sort
the entries by the dates they apply to.

   As with simple diary display, you can print a hard copy of the buffer
with `print-diary-entries'.  To print a hard copy of a day-by-day diary
for a week, position point on Sunday of that week, type `7 d', and then
do `M-x print-diary-entries'.  As usual, the inclusion of the holidays
slows down the display slightly; you can speed things up by setting the
variable `holidays-in-diary-buffer' to `nil'.

   Ordinarily, the fancy diary buffer does not show days for which
there are no diary entries, even if that day is a holiday.  If you want
such days to be shown in the fancy diary buffer, set the variable
`diary-list-include-blanks' to `t'.

   If you use the fancy diary display, you can use the normal hook
`list-diary-entries-hook' to sort each day's diary entries by their
time of day.  Here's how:

     (add-hook 'list-diary-entries-hook 'sort-diary-entries t)

For each day, this sorts diary entries that begin with a recognizable
time of day according to their times.  Diary entries without times come
first within each day.

   Fancy diary display also has the ability to process included diary
files.  This permits a group of people to share a diary file for events
that apply to all of them.  Lines in the diary file of this form:

     #include "FILENAME"

includes the diary entries from the file FILENAME in the fancy diary
buffer.  The include mechanism is recursive, so that included files can
include other files, and so on; you must be careful not to have a cycle
of inclusions, of course.  Here is how to enable the include facility:

     (add-hook 'list-diary-entries-hook 'include-other-diary-files)
     (add-hook 'mark-diary-entries-hook 'mark-included-diary-files)

   The include mechanism works only with the fancy diary display,
because ordinary diary display shows the entries directly from your
diary file.


File: emacs,  Node: Sexp Diary Entries,  Prev: Fancy Diary Display,  Up: Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage

39.15.8 Sexp Entries and the Fancy Diary Display
------------------------------------------------

Sexp diary entries allow you to do more than just have complicated
conditions under which a diary entry applies.  If you use the fancy
diary display, sexp entries can generate the text of the entry depending
on the date itself.  For example, an anniversary diary entry can insert
the number of years since the anniversary date into the text of the
diary entry.  Thus the `%d' in this diary entry:

     %%(diary-anniversary 10 31 1948) Arthur's birthday (%d years old)

gets replaced by the age, so on October 31, 1990 the entry appears in
the fancy diary buffer like this:

     Arthur's birthday (42 years old)

If the diary file instead contains this entry:

     %%(diary-anniversary 10 31 1948) Arthur's %d%s birthday

the entry in the fancy diary buffer for October 31, 1990 appears like
this:

     Arthur's 42nd birthday

   Similarly, cyclic diary entries can interpolate the number of
repetitions that have occurred:

     %%(diary-cyclic 50 1 1 1990) Renew medication (%d%s time)

looks like this:

     Renew medication (5th time)

in the fancy diary display on September 8, 1990.

   There is an early reminder diary sexp that includes its entry in the
diary not only on the date of occurrence, but also on earlier dates.
For example, if you want a reminder a week before your anniversary, you
can use

     %%(diary-remind '(diary-anniversary 12 22 1968) 7) Ed's anniversary

and the fancy diary will show
     Ed's anniversary
   both on December 15 and on December 22.

   The function `diary-date' applies to dates described by a month,
day, year combination, each of which can be an integer, a list of
integers, or `t'. The value `t' means all values.  For example,

     %%(diary-date '(10 11 12) 22 t) Rake leaves

causes the fancy diary to show

     Rake leaves

on October 22, November 22, and December 22 of every year.

   The function `diary-float' allows you to describe diary entries that
apply to dates like the third Friday of November, or the last Tuesday
in April.  The parameters are the MONTH, DAYNAME, and an index N. The
entry appears on the Nth DAYNAME of MONTH, where DAYNAME=0 means
Sunday, 1 means Monday, and so on.  If N is negative it counts backward
from the end of MONTH.  The value of MONTH can be a list of months, a
single month, or `t' to specify all months.  You can also use an
optional parameter DAY to specify the Nth DAYNAME of MONTH on or
after/before DAY; the value of DAY defaults to 1 if N is positive and
to the last day of MONTH if N is negative.  For example,

     %%(diary-float t 1 -1) Pay rent

causes the fancy diary to show

     Pay rent

on the last Monday of every month.

   The generality of sexp diary entries lets you specify any diary
entry that you can describe algorithmically.  A sexp diary entry
contains an expression that computes whether the entry applies to any
given date.  If its value is non-`nil', the entry applies to that date;
otherwise, it does not.  The expression can use the variable `date' to
find the date being considered; its value is a list (MONTH DAY YEAR)
that refers to the Gregorian calendar.

   The sexp diary entry applies to a date when the expression's value
is non-`nil', but some values have more specific meanings.  If the
value is a string, that string is a description of the event which
occurs on that date.  The value can also have the form `(MARK .
STRING)'; then MARK specifies how to mark the date in the calendar, and
STRING is the description of the event.  If MARK is a single-character
string, that character appears next to the date in the calendar.  If
MARK is a face name, the date is displayed in that face.  If MARK is
`nil', that specifies no particular highlighting for the date.

   Suppose you get paid on the 21st of the month if it is a weekday, and
on the Friday before if the 21st is on a weekend.  Here is how to write
a sexp diary entry that matches those dates:

     &%%(let ((dayname (calendar-day-of-week date))
              (day (car (cdr date))))
           (or (and (= day 21) (memq dayname '(1 2 3 4 5)))
               (and (memq day '(19 20)) (= dayname 5)))
              ) Pay check deposited

   The following sexp diary entries take advantage of the ability (in
the fancy diary display) to concoct diary entries whose text varies
based on the date:

`%%(diary-sunrise-sunset)'
     Make a diary entry for the local times of today's sunrise and
     sunset.

`%%(diary-phases-of-moon)'
     Make a diary entry for the phases (quarters) of the moon.

`%%(diary-day-of-year)'
     Make a diary entry with today's day number in the current year and
     the number of days remaining in the current year.

`%%(diary-iso-date)'
     Make a diary entry with today's equivalent ISO commercial date.

`%%(diary-julian-date)'
     Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Julian
     calendar.

`%%(diary-astro-day-number)'
     Make a diary entry with today's equivalent astronomical (Julian)
     day number.

`%%(diary-hebrew-date)'
     Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Hebrew
     calendar.

`%%(diary-islamic-date)'
     Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Islamic
     calendar.

`%%(diary-french-date)'
     Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the French
     Revolutionary calendar.

`%%(diary-mayan-date)'
     Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Mayan
     calendar.

Thus including the diary entry

     &%%(diary-hebrew-date)

causes every day's diary display to contain the equivalent date on the
Hebrew calendar, if you are using the fancy diary display.  (With simple
diary display, the line `&%%(diary-hebrew-date)' appears in the diary
for any date, but does nothing particularly useful.)

   These functions can be used to construct sexp diary entries based on
the Hebrew calendar in certain standard ways:

`%%(diary-rosh-hodesh)'
     Make a diary entry that tells the occurrence and ritual
     announcement of each new Hebrew month.

`%%(diary-parasha)'
     Make a Saturday diary entry that tells the weekly synagogue
     scripture reading.

`%%(diary-sabbath-candles)'
     Make a Friday diary entry that tells the _local time_ of Sabbath
     candle lighting.

`%%(diary-omer)'
     Make a diary entry that gives the omer count, when appropriate.

`%%(diary-yahrzeit MONTH DAY YEAR) NAME'
     Make a diary entry marking the anniversary of a date of death.
     The date is the _Gregorian_ (civil) date of death.  The diary
     entry appears on the proper Hebrew calendar anniversary and on the
     day before.  (In the European style, the order of the parameters
     is changed to DAY, MONTH, YEAR.)

   All the functions documented above take an optional argument MARK
which specifies how to mark the date in the calendar display.  If one
of these functions decides that it applies to a certain date, it
returns a value that contains MARK.


File: emacs,  Node: Gnus,  Next: Shell,  Prev: Calendar/Diary,  Up: Top

40 Gnus
*******

Gnus is an Emacs package primarily designed for reading and posting
Usenet news.  It can also be used to read and respond to messages from a
number of other sources--mail, remote directories, digests, and so on.

   Here we introduce Gnus and describe several basic features.  For
full details, see *Note Gnus: (gnus)Top.

   To start Gnus, type `M-x gnus <RET>'.

* Menu:

* Buffers of Gnus::	The group, summary, and article buffers.
* Gnus Startup::	What you should know about starting Gnus.
* Summary of Gnus::	A short description of the basic Gnus commands.


File: emacs,  Node: Buffers of Gnus,  Next: Gnus Startup,  Up: Gnus

40.1 Gnus Buffers
=================

Unlike most Emacs packages, Gnus uses several buffers to display
information and to receive commands.  The three Gnus buffers users use
most are the "group buffer", the "summary buffer" and the "article
buffer".

   The "group buffer" contains a list of newsgroups.  This is the first
buffer Gnus displays when it starts up.  It normally displays only the
groups to which you subscribe and that contain unread articles.  Use
this buffer to select a specific group.

   The "summary buffer" lists one line for each article in a single
group.  By default, the author, the subject and the line number are
displayed for each article, but this is customizable, like most aspects
of Gnus display.  The summary buffer is created when you select a group
in the group buffer, and is killed when you exit the group.  Use this
buffer to select an article.

   The "article buffer" displays the article.  In normal Gnus usage,
you see this buffer but you don't select it--all useful
article-oriented commands work in the summary buffer.  But you can
select the article buffer, and execute all Gnus commands from that
buffer, if you want to.


File: emacs,  Node: Gnus Startup,  Next: Summary of Gnus,  Prev: Buffers of Gnus,  Up: Gnus

40.2 When Gnus Starts Up
========================

At startup, Gnus reads your `.newsrc' news initialization file and
attempts to communicate with the local news server, which is a
repository of news articles.  The news server need not be the same
computer you are logged in on.

   If you start Gnus and connect to the server, but do not see any
newsgroups listed in the group buffer, type `L' or `A k' to get a
listing of all the groups.  Then type `u' to toggle subscription to
groups.

   The first time you start Gnus, Gnus subscribes you to a few selected
groups.  All other groups start out as "killed groups" for you; you can
list them with `A k'.  All new groups that subsequently come to exist
at the news server become "zombie groups" for you; type `A z' to list
them.  You can subscribe to a group shown in these lists using the `u'
command.

   When you quit Gnus with `q', it automatically records in your
`.newsrc' and `.newsrc.eld' initialization files the subscribed or
unsubscribed status of all groups.  You should normally not edit these
files manually, but you may if you know how.


File: emacs,  Node: Summary of Gnus,  Prev: Gnus Startup,  Up: Gnus

40.3 Summary of Gnus Commands
=============================

Reading news is a two-step process:

  1. Choose a group in the group buffer.

  2. Select articles from the summary buffer.  Each article selected is
     displayed in the article buffer in a large window, below the
     summary buffer in its small window.

   Each Gnus buffer has its own special commands; the meanings of any
given key in the various Gnus buffers are usually analogous, even if
not identical.  Here are commands for the group and summary buffers:

`q'
     In the group buffer, update your `.newsrc' initialization file and
     quit Gnus.

     In the summary buffer, exit the current group and return to the
     group buffer.  Thus, typing `q' twice quits Gnus.

`L'
     In the group buffer, list all the groups available on your news
     server (except those you have killed).  This may be a long list!

`l'
     In the group buffer, list only the groups to which you subscribe
     and which contain unread articles.

`u'
     In the group buffer, unsubscribe from (or subscribe to) the group
     listed in the line that point is on.  When you quit Gnus by typing
     `q', Gnus lists in your `.newsrc' file which groups you have
     subscribed to.  The next time you start Gnus, you won't see this
     group, because Gnus normally displays only subscribed-to groups.

`C-k'
     In the group buffer, "kill" the current line's group--don't even
     list it in `.newsrc' from now on.  This affects future Gnus
     sessions as well as the present session.

     When you quit Gnus by typing `q', Gnus writes information in the
     file `.newsrc' describing all newsgroups except those you have
     "killed."

`<SPC>'
     In the group buffer, select the group on the line under the cursor
     and display the first unread article in that group.

     In the summary buffer,

        * Select the article on the line under the cursor if none is
          selected.

        * Scroll the text of the selected article (if there is one).

        * Select the next unread article if at the end of the current
          article.

     Thus, you can move through all the articles by repeatedly typing
     <SPC>.

`<DEL>'
     In the group buffer, move point to the previous group containing
     unread articles.

     In the summary buffer, scroll the text of the article backwards.

`n'
     Move point to the next unread group, or select the next unread
     article.

`p'
     Move point to the previous unread group, or select the previous
     unread article.

`C-n'
`C-p'
     Move point to the next or previous item, even if it is marked as
     read.  This does not select the article or group on that line.

`s'
     In the summary buffer, do an incremental search of the current
     text in the article buffer, just as if you switched to the article
     buffer and typed `C-s'.

`M-s REGEXP <RET>'
     In the summary buffer, search forward for articles containing a
     match for REGEXP.



File: emacs,  Node: Shell,  Next: Emacs Server,  Prev: Gnus,  Up: Top

41 Running Shell Commands from Emacs
************************************

Emacs has commands for passing single command lines to inferior shell
processes; it can also run a shell interactively with input and output
to an Emacs buffer named `*shell*' or run a shell inside a terminal
emulator window.

`M-! CMD <RET>'
     Run the shell command line CMD and display the output
     (`shell-command').

`M-| CMD <RET>'
     Run the shell command line CMD with region contents as input;
     optionally replace the region with the output
     (`shell-command-on-region').

`M-x shell'
     Run a subshell with input and output through an Emacs buffer.  You
     can then give commands interactively.

`M-x term'
     Run a subshell with input and output through an Emacs buffer.  You
     can then give commands interactively.  Full terminal emulation is
     available.

   `M-x eshell' invokes a shell implemented entirely in Emacs.  It is
documented in a separate manual.  *Note Eshell: (eshell)Top.

* Menu:

* Single Shell::           How to run one shell command and return.
* Interactive Shell::      Permanent shell taking input via Emacs.
* Shell Mode::             Special Emacs commands used with permanent shell.
* Shell Prompts::          Two ways to recognize shell prompts.
* History: Shell History.  Repeating previous commands in a shell buffer.
* Directory Tracking::     Keeping track when the subshell changes directory.
* Options: Shell Options.  Options for customizing Shell mode.
* Terminal emulator::      An Emacs window as a terminal emulator.
* Term Mode::              Special Emacs commands used in Term mode.
* Paging in Term::         Paging in the terminal emulator.
* Remote Host::            Connecting to another computer.


File: emacs,  Node: Single Shell,  Next: Interactive Shell,  Up: Shell

41.1 Single Shell Commands
==========================

`M-!' (`shell-command') reads a line of text using the minibuffer and
executes it as a shell command in a subshell made just for that
command.  Standard input for the command comes from the null device.
If the shell command produces any output, the output appears either in
the echo area (if it is short), or in an Emacs buffer named `*Shell
Command Output*', which is displayed in another window but not selected
(if the output is long).

   For instance, one way to decompress a file `foo.gz' from Emacs is to
type `M-! gunzip foo.gz <RET>'.  That shell command normally creates
the file `foo' and produces no terminal output.

   A numeric argument, as in `M-1 M-!', says to insert terminal output
into the current buffer instead of a separate buffer.  It puts point
before the output, and sets the mark after the output.  For instance,
`M-1 M-! gunzip < foo.gz <RET>' would insert the uncompressed
equivalent of `foo.gz' into the current buffer.

   If the shell command line ends in `&', it runs asynchronously.  For
a synchronous shell command, `shell-command' returns the command's exit
status (0 means success), when it is called from a Lisp program.  You
do not get any status information for an asynchronous command, since it
hasn't finished yet when `shell-command' returns.

   `M-|' (`shell-command-on-region') is like `M-!' but passes the
contents of the region as the standard input to the shell command,
instead of no input.  With a numeric argument, meaning insert the
output in the current buffer, it deletes the old region and the output
replaces it as the contents of the region.  It returns the command's
exit status, like `M-!'.

   One use for `M-|' is to run `gpg' to see what keys are in the
buffer.  For instance, if the buffer contains a GPG key, type `C-x h
M-| gpg <RET>' to feed the entire buffer contents to the `gpg' program.
That program will ignore everything except the encoded keys, and will
output a list of the keys the buffer contains.

   Both `M-!' and `M-|' use `shell-file-name' to specify the shell to
use.  This variable is initialized based on your `SHELL' environment
variable when Emacs is started.  If the file name is relative, Emacs
searches the directories in the list `exec-path'; this list is
initialized based on the environment variable `PATH' when Emacs is
started.  Your `.emacs' file can override either or both of these
default initializations.

   Both `M-!' and `M-|' wait for the shell command to complete, unless
you end the command with `&' to make it asynchronous.  To stop waiting,
type `C-g' to quit; that terminates the shell command with the signal
`SIGINT'--the same signal that `C-c' normally generates in the shell.
Emacs then waits until the command actually terminates.  If the shell
command doesn't stop (because it ignores the `SIGINT' signal), type
`C-g' again; this sends the command a `SIGKILL' signal which is
impossible to ignore.

   Asynchronous commands ending in `&' feed their output into the
buffer `*Async Shell Command*'.  Output arrives in that buffer
regardless of whether it is visible in a window.

   To specify a coding system for `M-!' or `M-|', use the command `C-x
<RET> c' immediately beforehand.  *Note Communication Coding::.

   Error output from these commands is normally intermixed with the
regular output.  But if the variable
`shell-command-default-error-buffer' has a string as value, and it's
the name of a buffer, `M-!' and `M-|' insert error output before point
in that buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Interactive Shell,  Next: Shell Mode,  Prev: Single Shell,  Up: Shell

41.2 Interactive Inferior Shell
===============================

To run a subshell interactively, putting its typescript in an Emacs
buffer, use `M-x shell'.  This creates (or reuses) a buffer named
`*shell*' and runs a subshell with input coming from and output going
to that buffer.  That is to say, any "terminal output" from the subshell
goes into the buffer, advancing point, and any "terminal input" for the
subshell comes from text in the buffer.  To give input to the subshell,
go to the end of the buffer and type the input, terminated by <RET>.

   Emacs does not wait for the subshell to do anything.  You can switch
windows or buffers and edit them while the shell is waiting, or while
it is running a command.  Output from the subshell waits until Emacs
has time to process it; this happens whenever Emacs is waiting for
keyboard input or for time to elapse.

   Input lines, once you submit them, are displayed using the face
`comint-highlight-input', and prompts are displayed using the face
`comint-highlight-prompt'.  This makes it easier to see previous input
lines in the buffer.  *Note Faces::.

   To make multiple subshells, you can invoke `M-x shell' with a prefix
argument (e.g. `C-u M-x shell'), which will read a buffer name and
create (or reuse) a subshell in that buffer.  You can also rename the
`*shell*' buffer using `M-x rename-uniquely', then create a new
`*shell*' buffer using plain `M-x shell'.  Subshells in different
buffers run independently and in parallel.

   The file name used to load the subshell is the value of the variable
`explicit-shell-file-name', if that is non-`nil'.  Otherwise, the
environment variable `ESHELL' is used, or the environment variable
`SHELL' if there is no `ESHELL'.  If the file name specified is
relative, the directories in the list `exec-path' are searched; this
list is initialized based on the environment variable `PATH' when Emacs
is started.  Your `.emacs' file can override either or both of these
default initializations.

   Emacs sends the new shell the contents of the file
`~/.emacs_SHELLNAME' as input, if it exists, where SHELLNAME is the
name of the file that the shell was loaded from.  For example, if you
use bash, the file sent to it is `~/.emacs_bash'.  If this file is not
found, Emacs tries to fallback on `~/.emacs.d/init_SHELLNAME.sh'.

   To specify a coding system for the shell, you can use the command
`C-x <RET> c' immediately before `M-x shell'.  You can also change the
coding system for a running subshell by typing `C-x <RET> p' in the
shell buffer.  *Note Communication Coding::.

   Emacs sets the envitonment variable `INSIDE_EMACS' to `t' in the
subshell.  Programs can check this variable to determine whether they
are running inside an Emacs subshell.

   Emacs also sets the `EMACS' environment variable to `t' if it is not
already defined.  *Warning:* This environment variable is deprecated.
Programs that check this variable should be changed to check
`INSIDE_EMACS' instead.


File: emacs,  Node: Shell Mode,  Next: Shell Prompts,  Prev: Interactive Shell,  Up: Shell

41.3 Shell Mode
===============

Shell buffers use Shell mode, which defines several special keys
attached to the `C-c' prefix.  They are chosen to resemble the usual
editing and job control characters present in shells that are not under
Emacs, except that you must type `C-c' first.  Here is a complete list
of the special key bindings of Shell mode:

`<RET>'
     At end of buffer send line as input; otherwise, copy current line
     to end of buffer and send it (`comint-send-input').  Copying a line
     in this way omits any prompt at the beginning of the line (text
     output by programs preceding your input).  *Note Shell Prompts::,
     for how Shell mode recognizes prompts.

`<TAB>'
     Complete the command name or file name before point in the shell
     buffer (`comint-dynamic-complete').  <TAB> also completes history
     references (*note History References::) and environment variable
     names.

     The variable `shell-completion-fignore' specifies a list of file
     name extensions to ignore in Shell mode completion.  The default
     setting is `nil', but some users prefer `("~" "#" "%")' to ignore
     file names ending in `~', `#' or `%'.  Other related Comint modes
     use the variable `comint-completion-fignore' instead.

`M-?'
     Display temporarily a list of the possible completions of the file
     name before point in the shell buffer
     (`comint-dynamic-list-filename-completions').

`C-d'
     Either delete a character or send EOF
     (`comint-delchar-or-maybe-eof').  Typed at the end of the shell
     buffer, `C-d' sends EOF to the subshell.  Typed at any other
     position in the buffer, `C-d' deletes a character as usual.

`C-c C-a'
     Move to the beginning of the line, but after the prompt if any
     (`comint-bol-or-process-mark').  If you repeat this command twice
     in a row, the second time it moves back to the process mark, which
     is the beginning of the input that you have not yet sent to the
     subshell.  (Normally that is the same place--the end of the prompt
     on this line--but after `C-c <SPC>' the process mark may be in a
     previous line.)

`C-c <SPC>'
     Accumulate multiple lines of input, then send them together.  This
     command inserts a newline before point, but does not send the
     preceding text as input to the subshell--at least, not yet.  Both
     lines, the one before this newline and the one after, will be sent
     together (along with the newline that separates them), when you
     type <RET>.

`C-c C-u'
     Kill all text pending at end of buffer to be sent as input
     (`comint-kill-input').  If point is not at end of buffer, this
     only kills the part of this text that precedes point.

`C-c C-w'
     Kill a word before point (`backward-kill-word').

`C-c C-c'
     Interrupt the shell or its current subjob if any
     (`comint-interrupt-subjob').  This command also kills any shell
     input pending in the shell buffer and not yet sent.

`C-c C-z'
     Stop the shell or its current subjob if any (`comint-stop-subjob').
     This command also kills any shell input pending in the shell
     buffer and not yet sent.

`C-c C-\'
     Send quit signal to the shell or its current subjob if any
     (`comint-quit-subjob').  This command also kills any shell input
     pending in the shell buffer and not yet sent.

`C-c C-o'
     Delete the last batch of output from a shell command
     (`comint-delete-output').  This is useful if a shell command spews
     out lots of output that just gets in the way.  This command used
     to be called `comint-kill-output'.

`C-c C-s'
     Write the last batch of output from a shell command to a file
     (`comint-write-output').  With a prefix argument, the file is
     appended to instead.  Any prompt at the end of the output is not
     written.

`C-c C-r'
`C-M-l'
     Scroll to display the beginning of the last batch of output at the
     top of the window; also move the cursor there
     (`comint-show-output').

`C-c C-e'
     Scroll to put the end of the buffer at the bottom of the window
     (`comint-show-maximum-output').

`C-c C-f'
     Move forward across one shell command, but not beyond the current
     line (`shell-forward-command').  The variable
     `shell-command-regexp' specifies how to recognize the end of a
     command.

`C-c C-b'
     Move backward across one shell command, but not beyond the current
     line (`shell-backward-command').

`M-x dirs'
     Ask the shell what its current directory is, so that Emacs can
     agree with the shell.

`M-x send-invisible <RET> TEXT <RET>'
     Send TEXT as input to the shell, after reading it without echoing.
     This is useful when a shell command runs a program that asks for
     a password.

     Please note that Emacs will not echo passwords by default.  If you
     really want them to be echoed, evaluate the following Lisp
     expression:

          (remove-hook 'comint-output-filter-functions
                       'comint-watch-for-password-prompt)

`M-x comint-continue-subjob'
     Continue the shell process.  This is useful if you accidentally
     suspend the shell process.(1)

`M-x comint-strip-ctrl-m'
     Discard all control-M characters from the current group of shell
     output.  The most convenient way to use this command is to make it
     run automatically when you get output from the subshell.  To do
     that, evaluate this Lisp expression:

          (add-hook 'comint-output-filter-functions
                    'comint-strip-ctrl-m)

`M-x comint-truncate-buffer'
     This command truncates the shell buffer to a certain maximum
     number of lines, specified by the variable
     `comint-buffer-maximum-size'.  Here's how to do this automatically
     each time you get output from the subshell:

          (add-hook 'comint-output-filter-functions
                    'comint-truncate-buffer)

   Shell mode is a derivative of Comint mode, a general-purpose mode for
communicating with interactive subprocesses.  Most of the features of
Shell mode actually come from Comint mode, as you can see from the
command names listed above.  The special features of Shell mode include
the directory tracking feature, and a few user commands.

   Other Emacs features that use variants of Comint mode include GUD
(*note Debuggers::) and `M-x run-lisp' (*note External Lisp::).

   You can use `M-x comint-run' to execute any program of your choice
in a subprocess using unmodified Comint mode--without the
specializations of Shell mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) You should not suspend the shell process.  Suspending a subjob
of the shell is a completely different matter--that is normal practice,
but you must use the shell to continue the subjob; this command won't
do it.


File: emacs,  Node: Shell Prompts,  Next: Shell History,  Prev: Shell Mode,  Up: Shell

41.4 Shell Prompts
==================

A prompt is text output by a program to show that it is ready to accept
new user input.  Normally, Comint mode (and thus Shell mode) considers
the prompt to be any text output by a program at the beginning of an
input line.  However, if the variable `comint-use-prompt-regexp' is
non-`nil', then Comint mode uses a regular expression to recognize
prompts.  In Shell mode, `shell-prompt-pattern' specifies the regular
expression.

   The value of `comint-use-prompt-regexp' also affects many motion and
paragraph commands.  If the value is non-`nil', the general Emacs
motion commands behave as they normally do in buffers without special
text properties.  However, if the value is `nil', the default, then
Comint mode divides the buffer into two types of "fields" (ranges of
consecutive characters having the same `field' text property): input
and output.  Prompts are part of the output.  Most Emacs motion
commands do not cross field boundaries, unless they move over multiple
lines.  For instance, when point is in input on the same line as a
prompt, `C-a' puts point at the beginning of the input if
`comint-use-prompt-regexp' is `nil' and at the beginning of the line
otherwise.

   In Shell mode, only shell prompts start new paragraphs.  Thus, a
paragraph consists of a prompt and the input and output that follow it.
However, if `comint-use-prompt-regexp' is `nil', the default, most
paragraph commands do not cross field boundaries.  This means that
prompts, ranges of input, and ranges of non-prompt output behave mostly
like separate paragraphs; with this setting, numeric arguments to most
paragraph commands yield essentially undefined behavior.  For the
purpose of finding paragraph boundaries, Shell mode uses
`shell-prompt-pattern', regardless of `comint-use-prompt-regexp'.


File: emacs,  Node: Shell History,  Next: Directory Tracking,  Prev: Shell Prompts,  Up: Shell

41.5 Shell Command History
==========================

Shell buffers support three ways of repeating earlier commands.  You
can use keys like those used for the minibuffer history; these work
much as they do in the minibuffer, inserting text from prior commands
while point remains always at the end of the buffer.  You can move
through the buffer to previous inputs in their original place, then
resubmit them or copy them to the end.  Or you can use a `!'-style
history reference.

* Menu:

* Ring: Shell Ring.             Fetching commands from the history list.
* Copy: Shell History Copying.  Moving to a command and then copying it.
* History References::          Expanding `!'-style history references.


File: emacs,  Node: Shell Ring,  Next: Shell History Copying,  Up: Shell History

41.5.1 Shell History Ring
-------------------------

`M-p'
`C-<UP>'
     Fetch the next earlier old shell command.

`M-n'
`C-<DOWN>'
     Fetch the next later old shell command.

`M-r REGEXP <RET>'
`M-s REGEXP <RET>'
     Search backwards or forwards for old shell commands that match
     REGEXP.

`C-c C-x'
     Fetch the next subsequent command from the history.

`C-c .'
     Fetch one argument from an old shell command.

`C-c C-l'
     Display the buffer's history of shell commands in another window
     (`comint-dynamic-list-input-ring').

   Shell buffers provide a history of previously entered shell
commands.  To reuse shell commands from the history, use the editing
commands `M-p', `M-n', `M-r' and `M-s'.  These work just like the
minibuffer history commands except that they operate on the text at the
end of the shell buffer, where you would normally insert text to send
to the shell.

   `M-p' fetches an earlier shell command to the end of the shell
buffer.  Successive use of `M-p' fetches successively earlier shell
commands, each replacing any text that was already present as potential
shell input.  `M-n' does likewise except that it finds successively
more recent shell commands from the buffer.  `C-<UP>' works like `M-p',
and `C-<DOWN>' like `M-n'.

   The history search commands `M-r' and `M-s' read a regular
expression and search through the history for a matching command.  Aside
from the choice of which command to fetch, they work just like `M-p'
and `M-n'.  If you enter an empty regexp, these commands reuse the same
regexp used last time.

   When you find the previous input you want, you can resubmit it by
typing <RET>, or you can edit it first and then resubmit it if you
wish.  Any partial input you were composing before navigating the
history list is restored when you go to the beginning or end of the
history ring.

   Often it is useful to reexecute several successive shell commands
that were previously executed in sequence.  To do this, first find and
reexecute the first command of the sequence.  Then type `C-c C-x'; that
will fetch the following command--the one that follows the command you
just repeated.  Then type <RET> to reexecute this command.  You can
reexecute several successive commands by typing `C-c C-x <RET>' over
and over.

   The command `C-c .' (`comint-input-previous-argument') copies an
individual argument from a previous command, like `ESC .' in Bash.  The
simplest use copies the last argument from the previous shell command.
With a prefix argument N, it copies the Nth argument instead.
Repeating `C-c .' copies from an earlier shell command instead, always
using the same value of N (don't give a prefix argument when you repeat
the `C-c .' command).

   These commands get the text of previous shell commands from a special
history list, not from the shell buffer itself.  Thus, editing the shell
buffer, or even killing large parts of it, does not affect the history
that these commands access.

   Some shells store their command histories in files so that you can
refer to commands from previous shell sessions.  Emacs reads the
command history file for your chosen shell, to initialize its own
command history.  The file name is `~/.bash_history' for bash,
`~/.sh_history' for ksh, and `~/.history' for other shells.


File: emacs,  Node: Shell History Copying,  Next: History References,  Prev: Shell Ring,  Up: Shell History

41.5.2 Shell History Copying
----------------------------

`C-c C-p'
     Move point to the previous prompt (`comint-previous-prompt').

`C-c C-n'
     Move point to the following prompt (`comint-next-prompt').

`C-c <RET>'
     Copy the input command which point is in, inserting the copy at
     the end of the buffer (`comint-copy-old-input').  This is useful
     if you move point back to a previous command.  After you copy the
     command, you can submit the copy as input with <RET>.  If you
     wish, you can edit the copy before resubmitting it.  If you use
     this command on an output line, it copies that line to the end of
     the buffer.

`Mouse-2'
     If `comint-use-prompt-regexp' is `nil' (the default), copy the old
     input command that you click on, inserting the copy at the end of
     the buffer (`comint-insert-input').  If `comint-use-prompt-regexp'
     is non-`nil', or if the click is not over old input, just yank as
     usual.

   Moving to a previous input and then copying it with `C-c <RET>' or
`Mouse-2' produces the same results--the same buffer contents--that you
would get by using `M-p' enough times to fetch that previous input from
the history list.  However, `C-c <RET>' copies the text from the
buffer, which can be different from what is in the history list if you
edit the input text in the buffer after it has been sent.


File: emacs,  Node: History References,  Prev: Shell History Copying,  Up: Shell History

41.5.3 Shell History References
-------------------------------

Various shells including csh and bash support "history references" that
begin with `!' and `^'.  Shell mode recognizes these constructs, and
can perform the history substitution for you.

   If you insert a history reference and type <TAB>, this searches the
input history for a matching command, performs substitution if
necessary, and places the result in the buffer in place of the history
reference.  For example, you can fetch the most recent command
beginning with `mv' with `! m v <TAB>'.  You can edit the command if
you wish, and then resubmit the command to the shell by typing <RET>.

   Shell mode can optionally expand history references in the buffer
when you send them to the shell.  To request this, set the variable
`comint-input-autoexpand' to `input'.  You can make <SPC> perform
history expansion by binding <SPC> to the command `comint-magic-space'.

   Shell mode recognizes history references when they follow a prompt.
*Note Shell Prompts::, for how Shell mode recognizes prompts.


File: emacs,  Node: Directory Tracking,  Next: Shell Options,  Prev: Shell History,  Up: Shell

41.6 Directory Tracking
=======================

Shell mode keeps track of `cd', `pushd' and `popd' commands given to
the inferior shell, so it can keep the `*shell*' buffer's default
directory the same as the shell's working directory.  It recognizes
these commands syntactically, by examining lines of input that are sent.

   If you use aliases for these commands, you can tell Emacs to
recognize them also.  For example, if the value of the variable
`shell-pushd-regexp' matches the beginning of a shell command line,
that line is regarded as a `pushd' command.  Change this variable when
you add aliases for `pushd'.  Likewise, `shell-popd-regexp' and
`shell-cd-regexp' are used to recognize commands with the meaning of
`popd' and `cd'.  These commands are recognized only at the beginning
of a shell command line.

   If Emacs gets confused about changes in the current directory of the
subshell, use the command `M-x dirs' to ask the shell what its current
directory is.  This command works for shells that support the most
common command syntax; it may not work for unusual shells.

   You can also use `M-x dirtrack-mode' to enable (or disable) an
alternative and more aggressive method of tracking changes in the
current directory.


File: emacs,  Node: Shell Options,  Next: Terminal emulator,  Prev: Directory Tracking,  Up: Shell

41.7 Shell Mode Options
=======================

If the variable `comint-scroll-to-bottom-on-input' is non-`nil',
insertion and yank commands scroll the selected window to the bottom
before inserting.  The default is `nil'.

   If `comint-scroll-show-maximum-output' is non-`nil', then arrival of
output when point is at the end tries to scroll the last line of text
to the bottom line of the window, showing as much useful text as
possible.  (This mimics the scrolling behavior of most terminals.)  The
default is `t'.

   By setting `comint-move-point-for-output', you can opt for having
point jump to the end of the buffer whenever output arrives--no matter
where in the buffer point was before.  If the value is `this', point
jumps in the selected window.  If the value is `all', point jumps in
each window that shows the Comint buffer.  If the value is `other',
point jumps in all nonselected windows that show the current buffer.
The default value is `nil', which means point does not jump to the end.

   If you set `comint-prompt-read-only', the prompts in the Comint
buffer are read-only.

   The variable `comint-input-ignoredups' controls whether successive
identical inputs are stored in the input history.  A non-`nil' value
means to omit an input that is the same as the previous input.  The
default is `nil', which means to store each input even if it is equal
to the previous input.

   Three variables customize file name completion.  The variable
`comint-completion-addsuffix' controls whether completion inserts a
space or a slash to indicate a fully completed file or directory name
(non-`nil' means do insert a space or slash).
`comint-completion-recexact', if non-`nil', directs <TAB> to choose the
shortest possible completion if the usual Emacs completion algorithm
cannot add even a single character.  `comint-completion-autolist', if
non-`nil', says to list all the possible completions whenever
completion is not exact.

   Command completion normally considers only executable files.  If you
set `shell-completion-execonly' to `nil', it considers nonexecutable
files as well.

   You can configure the behavior of `pushd'.  Variables control
whether `pushd' behaves like `cd' if no argument is given
(`shell-pushd-tohome'), pop rather than rotate with a numeric argument
(`shell-pushd-dextract'), and only add directories to the directory
stack if they are not already on it (`shell-pushd-dunique').  The
values you choose should match the underlying shell, of course.

   If you want Shell mode to handle color output from shell commands,
you can enable ANSI Color mode.  Here is how to do this:

     (add-hook 'shell-mode-hook 'ansi-color-for-comint-mode-on)


File: emacs,  Node: Terminal emulator,  Next: Term Mode,  Prev: Shell Options,  Up: Shell

41.8 Emacs Terminal Emulator
============================

To run a subshell in a terminal emulator, putting its typescript in an
Emacs buffer, use `M-x term'.  This creates (or reuses) a buffer named
`*terminal*', and runs a subshell with input coming from your keyboard,
and output going to that buffer.

   The terminal emulator uses Term mode, which has two input modes.  In
line mode, Term basically acts like Shell mode; see *Note Shell Mode::.

   In char mode, each character is sent directly to the inferior
subshell, as "terminal input."  Any "echoing" of your input is the
responsibility of the subshell.  The sole exception is the terminal
escape character, which by default is `C-c' (*note Term Mode::).  Any
"terminal output" from the subshell goes into the buffer, advancing
point.

   Some programs (such as Emacs itself) need to control the appearance
on the terminal screen in detail.  They do this by sending special
control codes.  The exact control codes needed vary from terminal to
terminal, but nowadays most terminals and terminal emulators (including
`xterm') understand the ANSI-standard (VT100-style) escape sequences.
Term mode recognizes these escape sequences, and handles each one
appropriately, changing the buffer so that the appearance of the window
matches what it would be on a real terminal.  You can actually run
Emacs inside an Emacs Term window.

   The file name used to load the subshell is determined the same way
as for Shell mode.  To make multiple terminal emulators, rename the
buffer `*terminal*' to something different using `M-x rename-uniquely',
just as with Shell mode.

   Unlike Shell mode, Term mode does not track the current directory by
examining your input.  But some shells can tell Term what the current
directory is.  This is done automatically by `bash' version 1.15 and
later.


File: emacs,  Node: Term Mode,  Next: Paging in Term,  Prev: Terminal emulator,  Up: Shell

41.9 Term Mode
==============

The terminal emulator uses Term mode, which has two input modes.  In
line mode, Term basically acts like Shell mode; see *Note Shell Mode::.
In char mode, each character is sent directly to the inferior subshell,
except for the Term escape character, normally `C-c'.

   To switch between line and char mode, use these commands:

`C-c C-j'
     Switch to line mode.  Do nothing if already in line mode.

`C-c C-k'
     Switch to char mode.  Do nothing if already in char mode.

   The following commands are only available in char mode:

`C-c C-c'
     Send a literal <C-c> to the sub-shell.

`C-c CHAR'
     This is equivalent to `C-x CHAR' in normal Emacs.  For example,
     `C-c o' invokes the global binding of `C-x o', which is normally
     `other-window'.


File: emacs,  Node: Paging in Term,  Next: Remote Host,  Prev: Term Mode,  Up: Shell

41.10 Page-At-A-Time Output
===========================

Term mode has a page-at-a-time feature.  When enabled it makes output
pause at the end of each screenful.

`C-c C-q'
     Toggle the page-at-a-time feature.  This command works in both line
     and char modes.  When page-at-a-time is enabled, the mode-line
     displays the word `page'.

   With page-at-a-time enabled, whenever Term receives more than a
screenful of output since your last input, it pauses, displaying
`**MORE**' in the mode-line.  Type <SPC> to display the next screenful
of output.  Type `?' to see your other options.  The interface is
similar to the `more' program.


File: emacs,  Node: Remote Host,  Prev: Paging in Term,  Up: Shell

41.11 Remote Host Shell
=======================

You can login to a remote computer, using whatever commands you would
from a regular terminal (e.g. using the `telnet' or `rlogin' commands),
from a Term window.

   A program that asks you for a password will normally suppress
echoing of the password, so the password will not show up in the
buffer.  This will happen just as if you were using a real terminal, if
the buffer is in char mode.  If it is in line mode, the password is
temporarily visible, but will be erased when you hit return.  (This
happens automatically; there is no special password processing.)

   When you log in to a different machine, you need to specify the type
of terminal you're using, by setting the `TERM' environment variable in
the environment for the remote login command.  (If you use bash, you do
that by writing the variable assignment before the remote login
command, without separating comma.)  Terminal types `ansi' or `vt100'
will work on most systems.


File: emacs,  Node: Emacs Server,  Next: Printing,  Prev: Shell,  Up: Top

42 Using Emacs as a Server
**************************

Various programs such as `mail' can invoke your choice of editor to
edit a particular piece of text, such as a message that you are
sending.  By convention, most of these programs use the environment
variable `EDITOR' to specify which editor to run.  If you set `EDITOR'
to `emacs', they invoke Emacs--but in an inconvenient fashion, by
starting a new, separate Emacs process.  This is inconvenient because
it takes time and because the new Emacs process doesn't share the
buffers with any existing Emacs process.

   You can arrange to use your existing Emacs process as the editor for
programs like `mail' by using the Emacs client program and the server
that is part of Emacs.  Here is how.

   First, the preparations.  Within Emacs, call the function
`server-start'.  (Your `.emacs' init file can do this automatically if
you add the expression `(server-start)' to it, see *Note Init File::.)
Then, outside Emacs, set the `EDITOR' environment variable to
`emacsclient'.  (Note that some programs use a different environment
variable; for example, to make TeX use `emacsclient', you should set
the `TEXEDIT' environment variable to `emacsclient +%d %s'.)

   As an alternative to using `emacsclient', the file `etc/emacs.bash'
defines a Bash command `edit' which will communicate with a running
Emacs session, or start one if none exist.

   Now, whenever any program invokes your specified `EDITOR' program,
the effect is to send a message to your principal Emacs telling it to
visit a file.  (That's what the program `emacsclient' does.)  Emacs
displays the buffer immediately and you can immediately begin editing
it in the already running Emacs session.

   When you've finished editing that buffer, type `C-x #'
(`server-edit').  This saves the file and sends a message back to the
`emacsclient' program telling it to exit.  The programs that use
`EDITOR' wait for the "editor" (actually, `emacsclient') to exit.  `C-x
#' also checks for other pending external requests to edit various
files, and selects the next such file.

   You can switch to a server buffer manually if you wish; you don't
have to arrive at it with `C-x #'.  But `C-x #' is the way to say that
you are finished with one.

   Finishing with a server buffer also kills the buffer, unless it
already existed in the Emacs session before the server asked to create
it.  However, if you set `server-kill-new-buffers' to `nil', then a
different criterion is used: finishing with a server buffer kills it if
the file name matches the regular expression `server-temp-file-regexp'.
This is set up to distinguish certain "temporary" files.

   If you set the variable `server-window' to a window or a frame, `C-x
#' displays the server buffer in that window or in that frame.

   You can run multiple Emacs servers on the same machine by giving
each one a unique "server name", using the variable `server-name'.  For
example, `M-x set-variable <RET> server-name <RET> foo <RET>' sets the
server name to `foo'.  The `emacsclient' program can specify a server by
name using the `-s' option.  *Note Invoking emacsclient::.

   While `mail' or another application is waiting for `emacsclient' to
finish, `emacsclient' does not read terminal input.  So the terminal
that `mail' was using is effectively blocked for the duration.  In
order to edit with your principal Emacs, you need to be able to use it
without using that terminal.  There are three ways to do this:

   * Using a window system, run `mail' and the principal Emacs in two
     separate windows.  While `mail' is waiting for `emacsclient', the
     window where it was running is blocked, but you can use Emacs by
     switching windows.

   * Using virtual terminals, run `mail' in one virtual terminal and
     run Emacs in another.

   * Use Shell mode or Term mode in Emacs to run the other program such
     as `mail'; then, `emacsclient' blocks only the subshell under
     Emacs, and you can still use Emacs to edit the file.

   If you run `emacsclient' with the option `--no-wait', it returns
immediately without waiting for you to "finish" the buffer in Emacs.
Note that server buffers created in this way are not killed
automatically when you finish with them.

* Menu:

* Invoking emacsclient:: Emacs client startup options.


File: emacs,  Node: Invoking emacsclient,  Prev: Emacs Server,  Up: Emacs Server

42.1 Invoking `emacsclient'
===========================

To run the `emacsclient' program, specify file names as arguments, and
optionally line numbers as well, like this:

     emacsclient {[+LINE[COLUMN]] FILENAME}...

This tells Emacs to visit each of the specified files; if you specify a
line number for a certain file, Emacs moves to that line in the file.
If you specify a column number as well, Emacs puts point on that column
in the line.

   Ordinarily, `emacsclient' does not return until you use the `C-x #'
command on each of these buffers.  When that happens, Emacs sends a
message to the `emacsclient' program telling it to return.

   If you invoke `emacsclient' for more than one file, the additional
client buffers are buried at the bottom of the buffer list (*note
Buffers::).  If you call `C-x #' after you are done editing a client
buffer, the next client buffer is automatically selected.

   But if you use the option `-n' or `--no-wait' when running
`emacsclient', then it returns immediately.  (You can take as long as
you like to edit the files in Emacs.)

   The option `-a COMMAND' or `--alternate-editor=COMMAND' specifies a
command to run if `emacsclient' fails to contact Emacs.  This is useful
when running `emacsclient' in a script.  For example, the following
setting for the `EDITOR' environment variable will always give you an
editor, even if no Emacs server is running:

     EDITOR="emacsclient --alternate-editor emacs +%d %s"

The environment variable `ALTERNATE_EDITOR' has the same effect, with
the value of the `--alternate-editor' option taking precedence.

   If you use several displays, you can tell Emacs on which display to
open the given files with the `-d DISPLAY' or `--display=DISPLAY'
option to `emacsclient'.  This is handy when connecting from home to an
Emacs session running on your machine at your workplace.

   If there is more than one Emacs server running, you can specify a
server name with the `-s NAME' or `--socket-name=NAME' option to
`emacsclient'.  (This option is not supported on MS-Windows.)

   You can also use `emacsclient' to execute any piece of Emacs Lisp
code, using the `-e' or `--eval' option.  When this option is given,
the rest of the arguments is interpreted as a list of expressions to
evaluate, not a list of files to visit.

   When you start the Emacs server (by calling `server-start'), Emacs
creates a file with information about TCP connection to the server: the
host where Emacs is running, the port where it is listening, and an
authentication string.  `emacsclient' uses this information if it needs
to connect to the server via TCP.  By default, the file goes in the
`~/.emacs.d/server/' directory(1).  You can specify the file name to
use with the `-f FILE' or `--server-file=FILE' options, or by setting
`EMACS_SERVER_FILE' environment variable to the file name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) On MS-Windows, if `HOME' is not set or the TCP configuration file
cannot be found there, Emacs also looks for the file in the
`.emacs.d/server/' subdirectory of the directory pointed to by the
`APPDATA' environment variable.


File: emacs,  Node: Printing,  Next: Sorting,  Prev: Emacs Server,  Up: Top

43 Printing Hard Copies
***********************

Emacs provides commands for printing hard copies of either an entire
buffer or just part of one, with or without page headers.  You can
invoke the printing commands directly, as detailed in the following
section, or using the `File' menu on the menu bar.  See also the
hardcopy commands of Dired (*note Misc File Ops::) and the diary (*note
Displaying the Diary::).

`M-x print-buffer'
     Print hardcopy of current buffer with page headings containing the
     file name and page number.

`M-x lpr-buffer'
     Print hardcopy of current buffer without page headings.

`M-x print-region'
     Like `print-buffer' but print only the current region.

`M-x lpr-region'
     Like `lpr-buffer' but print only the current region.

   The hardcopy commands (aside from the PostScript commands) pass extra
switches to the `lpr' program based on the value of the variable
`lpr-switches'.  Its value should be a list of strings, each string an
option starting with `-'.  For example, to specify a line width of 80
columns for all the printing you do in Emacs, set `lpr-switches' like
this:

     (setq lpr-switches '("-w80"))

   You can specify the printer to use by setting the variable
`printer-name'.

   The variable `lpr-command' specifies the name of the printer program
to run; the default value depends on your operating system type.  On
most systems, the default is `"lpr"'.  The variable
`lpr-headers-switches' similarly specifies the extra switches to use to
make page headers.  The variable `lpr-add-switches' controls whether to
supply `-T' and `-J' options (suitable for `lpr') to the printer
program: `nil' means don't add them.  `lpr-add-switches' should be
`nil' if your printer program is not compatible with `lpr'.

* Menu:

* PostScript::	         Printing buffers or regions as PostScript.
* PostScript Variables:: Customizing the PostScript printing commands.
* Printing Package::     An optional advanced printing interface.


File: emacs,  Node: PostScript,  Next: PostScript Variables,  Up: Printing

44 PostScript Hardcopy
**********************

These commands convert buffer contents to PostScript, either printing
it or leaving it in another Emacs buffer.

`M-x ps-print-buffer'
     Print hardcopy of the current buffer in PostScript form.

`M-x ps-print-region'
     Print hardcopy of the current region in PostScript form.

`M-x ps-print-buffer-with-faces'
     Print hardcopy of the current buffer in PostScript form, showing
     the faces used in the text by means of PostScript features.

`M-x ps-print-region-with-faces'
     Print hardcopy of the current region in PostScript form, showing
     the faces used in the text.

`M-x ps-spool-buffer'
     Generate PostScript for the current buffer text.

`M-x ps-spool-region'
     Generate PostScript for the current region.

`M-x ps-spool-buffer-with-faces'
     Generate PostScript for the current buffer, showing the faces used.

`M-x ps-spool-region-with-faces'
     Generate PostScript for the current region, showing the faces used.

`M-x handwrite'
     Generates/prints PostScript for the current buffer as if
     handwritten.

   The PostScript commands, `ps-print-buffer' and `ps-print-region',
print buffer contents in PostScript form.  One command prints the
entire buffer; the other, just the region.  The corresponding
`-with-faces' commands, `ps-print-buffer-with-faces' and
`ps-print-region-with-faces', use PostScript features to show the faces
(fonts and colors) in the text properties of the text being printed.

   If you are using a color display, you can print a buffer of program
code with color highlighting by turning on Font-Lock mode in that
buffer, and using `ps-print-buffer-with-faces'.

   The commands whose names have `spool' instead of `print' generate
the PostScript output in an Emacs buffer instead of sending it to the
printer.

   `M-x handwrite' is more frivolous.  It generates a PostScript
rendition of the current buffer as a cursive handwritten document.  It
can be customized in group `handwrite'.  This function only supports
ISO 8859-1 characters.

   The following section describes variables for customizing these
commands.


File: emacs,  Node: PostScript Variables,  Next: Printing Package,  Prev: PostScript,  Up: Printing

45 Variables for PostScript Hardcopy
************************************

All the PostScript hardcopy commands use the variables `ps-lpr-command'
and `ps-lpr-switches' to specify how to print the output.
`ps-lpr-command' specifies the command name to run, `ps-lpr-switches'
specifies command line options to use, and `ps-printer-name' specifies
the printer.  If you don't set the first two variables yourself, they
take their initial values from `lpr-command' and `lpr-switches'.  If
`ps-printer-name' is `nil', `printer-name' is used.

   The variable `ps-print-header' controls whether these commands add
header lines to each page--set it to `nil' to turn headers off.

   If your printer doesn't support colors, you should turn off color
processing by setting `ps-print-color-p' to `nil'.  By default, if the
display supports colors, Emacs produces hardcopy output with color
information; on black-and-white printers, colors are emulated with
shades of gray.  This might produce illegible output, even if your
screen colors only use shades of gray.

   By default, PostScript printing ignores the background colors of the
faces, unless the variable `ps-use-face-background' is non-`nil'.  This
is to avoid unwanted interference with the zebra stripes and background
image/text.

   The variable `ps-paper-type' specifies which size of paper to format
for; legitimate values include `a4', `a3', `a4small', `b4', `b5',
`executive', `ledger', `legal', `letter', `letter-small', `statement',
`tabloid'.  The default is `letter'.  You can define additional paper
sizes by changing the variable `ps-page-dimensions-database'.

   The variable `ps-landscape-mode' specifies the orientation of
printing on the page.  The default is `nil', which stands for
"portrait" mode.  Any non-`nil' value specifies "landscape" mode.

   The variable `ps-number-of-columns' specifies the number of columns;
it takes effect in both landscape and portrait mode.  The default is 1.

   The variable `ps-font-family' specifies which font family to use for
printing ordinary text.  Legitimate values include `Courier',
`Helvetica', `NewCenturySchlbk', `Palatino' and `Times'.  The variable
`ps-font-size' specifies the size of the font for ordinary text.  It
defaults to 8.5 points.

   Emacs supports more scripts and characters than a typical PostScript
printer.  Thus, some of the characters in your buffer might not be
printable using the fonts built into your printer.  You can augment the
fonts supplied with the printer with those from the GNU Intlfonts
package, or you can instruct Emacs to use Intlfonts exclusively.  The
variable `ps-multibyte-buffer' controls this: the default value, `nil',
is appropriate for printing ASCII and Latin-1 characters; a value of
`non-latin-printer' is for printers which have the fonts for ASCII,
Latin-1, Japanese, and Korean characters built into them.  A value of
`bdf-font' arranges for the BDF fonts from the Intlfonts package to be
used for _all_ characters.  Finally, a value of `bdf-font-except-latin'
instructs the printer to use built-in fonts for ASCII and Latin-1
characters, and Intlfonts BDF fonts for the rest.

   To be able to use the BDF fonts, Emacs needs to know where to find
them.  The variable `bdf-directory-list' holds the list of directories
where Emacs should look for the fonts; the default value includes a
single directory `/usr/local/share/emacs/fonts/bdf'.

   Many other customization variables for these commands are defined and
described in the Lisp files `ps-print.el' and `ps-mule.el'.


File: emacs,  Node: Printing Package,  Prev: PostScript Variables,  Up: Printing

46 Printing Package
*******************

The basic Emacs facilities for printing hardcopy can be extended using
the Printing package.  This provides an easy-to-use interface for
choosing what to print, previewing PostScript files before printing,
and setting various printing options such as print headers, landscape
or portrait modes, duplex modes, and so forth.  On GNU/Linux or Unix
systems, the Printing package relies on the `gs' and `gv' utilities,
which are distributed as part of the GhostScript program.  On
MS-Windows, the `gstools' port of Ghostscript can be used.

   To use the Printing package, add `(require 'printing)' to your init
file (*note Init File::), followed by `(pr-update-menus)'.  This
function replaces the usual printing commands in the menu bar with a
`Printing' submenu that contains various printing options.  You can
also type `M-x pr-interface RET'; this creates a `*Printing Interface*'
buffer, similar to a customization buffer, where you can set the
printing options.  After selecting what and how to print, you start the
print job using the `Print' button (click `mouse-2' on it, or move
point over it and type `RET').  For further information on the various
options, use the `Interface Help' button.


File: emacs,  Node: Sorting,  Next: Narrowing,  Prev: Printing,  Up: Top

47 Sorting Text
***************

Emacs provides several commands for sorting text in the buffer.  All
operate on the contents of the region.  They divide the text of the
region into many "sort records", identify a "sort key" for each record,
and then reorder the records into the order determined by the sort
keys.  The records are ordered so that their keys are in alphabetical
order, or, for numeric sorting, in numeric order.  In alphabetic
sorting, all upper-case letters `A' through `Z' come before lower-case
`a', in accord with the ASCII character sequence.

   The various sort commands differ in how they divide the text into
sort records and in which part of each record is used as the sort key.
Most of the commands make each line a separate sort record, but some
commands use paragraphs or pages as sort records.  Most of the sort
commands use each entire sort record as its own sort key, but some use
only a portion of the record as the sort key.

`M-x sort-lines'
     Divide the region into lines, and sort by comparing the entire
     text of a line.  A numeric argument means sort into descending
     order.

`M-x sort-paragraphs'
     Divide the region into paragraphs, and sort by comparing the entire
     text of a paragraph (except for leading blank lines).  A numeric
     argument means sort into descending order.

`M-x sort-pages'
     Divide the region into pages, and sort by comparing the entire
     text of a page (except for leading blank lines).  A numeric
     argument means sort into descending order.

`M-x sort-fields'
     Divide the region into lines, and sort by comparing the contents of
     one field in each line.  Fields are defined as separated by
     whitespace, so the first run of consecutive non-whitespace
     characters in a line constitutes field 1, the second such run
     constitutes field 2, etc.

     Specify which field to sort by with a numeric argument: 1 to sort
     by field 1, etc.  A negative argument means count fields from the
     right instead of from the left; thus, minus 1 means sort by the
     last field.  If several lines have identical contents in the field
     being sorted, they keep the same relative order that they had in
     the original buffer.

`M-x sort-numeric-fields'
     Like `M-x sort-fields' except the specified field is converted to
     an integer for each line, and the numbers are compared.  `10'
     comes before `2' when considered as text, but after it when
     considered as a number.  By default, numbers are interpreted
     according to `sort-numeric-base', but numbers beginning with `0x'
     or `0' are interpreted as hexadecimal and octal, respectively.

`M-x sort-columns'
     Like `M-x sort-fields' except that the text within each line used
     for comparison comes from a fixed range of columns.  See below for
     an explanation.

`M-x reverse-region'
     Reverse the order of the lines in the region.  This is useful for
     sorting into descending order by fields or columns, since those
     sort commands do not have a feature for doing that.

   For example, if the buffer contains this:

     On systems where clash detection (locking of files being edited) is
     implemented, Emacs also checks the first time you modify a buffer
     whether the file has changed on disk since it was last visited or
     saved.  If it has, you are asked to confirm that you want to change
     the buffer.

applying `M-x sort-lines' to the entire buffer produces this:

     On systems where clash detection (locking of files being edited) is
     implemented, Emacs also checks the first time you modify a buffer
     saved.  If it has, you are asked to confirm that you want to change
     the buffer.
     whether the file has changed on disk since it was last visited or

where the upper-case `O' sorts before all lower-case letters.  If you
use `C-u 2 M-x sort-fields' instead, you get this:

     implemented, Emacs also checks the first time you modify a buffer
     saved.  If it has, you are asked to confirm that you want to change
     the buffer.
     On systems where clash detection (locking of files being edited) is
     whether the file has changed on disk since it was last visited or

where the sort keys were `Emacs', `If', `buffer', `systems' and `the'.

   `M-x sort-columns' requires more explanation.  You specify the
columns by putting point at one of the columns and the mark at the other
column.  Because this means you cannot put point or the mark at the
beginning of the first line of the text you want to sort, this command
uses an unusual definition of "region": all of the line point is in is
considered part of the region, and so is all of the line the mark is in,
as well as all the lines in between.

   For example, to sort a table by information found in columns 10 to
15, you could put the mark on column 10 in the first line of the table,
and point on column 15 in the last line of the table, and then run
`sort-columns'.  Equivalently, you could run it with the mark on column
15 in the first line and point on column 10 in the last line.

   This can be thought of as sorting the rectangle specified by point
and the mark, except that the text on each line to the left or right of
the rectangle moves along with the text inside the rectangle.  *Note
Rectangles::.

   Many of the sort commands ignore case differences when comparing, if
`sort-fold-case' is non-`nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: Narrowing,  Next: Two-Column,  Prev: Sorting,  Up: Top

48 Narrowing
************

"Narrowing" means focusing in on some portion of the buffer, making the
rest temporarily inaccessible.  The portion which you can still get to
is called the "accessible portion".  Canceling the narrowing, which
makes the entire buffer once again accessible, is called "widening".
The bounds of narrowing in effect in a buffer are called the buffer's
"restriction".

   Narrowing can make it easier to concentrate on a single subroutine or
paragraph by eliminating clutter.  It can also be used to limit the
range of operation of a replace command or repeating keyboard macro.

`C-x n n'
     Narrow down to between point and mark (`narrow-to-region').

`C-x n w'
     Widen to make the entire buffer accessible again (`widen').

`C-x n p'
     Narrow down to the current page (`narrow-to-page').

`C-x n d'
     Narrow down to the current defun (`narrow-to-defun').

   When you have narrowed down to a part of the buffer, that part
appears to be all there is.  You can't see the rest, you can't move
into it (motion commands won't go outside the accessible part), you
can't change it in any way.  However, it is not gone, and if you save
the file all the inaccessible text will be saved.  The word `Narrow'
appears in the mode line whenever narrowing is in effect.

   The primary narrowing command is `C-x n n' (`narrow-to-region').  It
sets the current buffer's restrictions so that the text in the current
region remains accessible, but all text before the region or after the
region is inaccessible.  Point and mark do not change.

   Alternatively, use `C-x n p' (`narrow-to-page') to narrow down to
the current page.  *Note Pages::, for the definition of a page.  `C-x n
d' (`narrow-to-defun') narrows down to the defun containing point
(*note Defuns::).

   The way to cancel narrowing is to widen with `C-x n w' (`widen').
This makes all text in the buffer accessible again.

   You can get information on what part of the buffer you are narrowed
down to using the `C-x =' command.  *Note Position Info::.

   Because narrowing can easily confuse users who do not understand it,
`narrow-to-region' is normally a disabled command.  Attempting to use
this command asks for confirmation and gives you the option of enabling
it; if you enable the command, confirmation will no longer be required
for it.  *Note Disabling::.


File: emacs,  Node: Two-Column,  Next: Editing Binary Files,  Prev: Narrowing,  Up: Top

49 Two-Column Editing
*********************

Two-column mode lets you conveniently edit two side-by-side columns of
text.  It uses two side-by-side windows, each showing its own buffer.

   There are three ways to enter two-column mode:

`<F2> 2' or `C-x 6 2'
     Enter two-column mode with the current buffer on the left, and on
     the right, a buffer whose name is based on the current buffer's
     name (`2C-two-columns').  If the right-hand buffer doesn't already
     exist, it starts out empty; the current buffer's contents are not
     changed.

     This command is appropriate when the current buffer is empty or
     contains just one column and you want to add another column.

`<F2> s' or `C-x 6 s'
     Split the current buffer, which contains two-column text, into two
     buffers, and display them side by side (`2C-split').  The current
     buffer becomes the left-hand buffer, but the text in the right-hand
     column is moved into the right-hand buffer.  The current column
     specifies the split point.  Splitting starts with the current line
     and continues to the end of the buffer.

     This command is appropriate when you have a buffer that already
     contains two-column text, and you wish to separate the columns
     temporarily.

`<F2> b BUFFER <RET>'
`C-x 6 b BUFFER <RET>'
     Enter two-column mode using the current buffer as the left-hand
     buffer, and using buffer BUFFER as the right-hand buffer
     (`2C-associate-buffer').

   `<F2> s' or `C-x 6 s' looks for a column separator, which is a
string that appears on each line between the two columns.  You can
specify the width of the separator with a numeric argument to `<F2> s';
that many characters, before point, constitute the separator string.
By default, the width is 1, so the column separator is the character
before point.

   When a line has the separator at the proper place, `<F2> s' puts the
text after the separator into the right-hand buffer, and deletes the
separator.  Lines that don't have the column separator at the proper
place remain unsplit; they stay in the left-hand buffer, and the
right-hand buffer gets an empty line to correspond.  (This is the way
to write a line that "spans both columns while in two-column mode":
write it in the left-hand buffer, and put an empty line in the
right-hand buffer.)

   The command `C-x 6 <RET>' or `<F2> <RET>' (`2C-newline') inserts a
newline in each of the two buffers at corresponding positions.  This is
the easiest way to add a new line to the two-column text while editing
it in split buffers.

   When you have edited both buffers as you wish, merge them with `<F2>
1' or `C-x 6 1' (`2C-merge').  This copies the text from the right-hand
buffer as a second column in the other buffer.  To go back to
two-column editing, use `<F2> s'.

   Use `<F2> d' or `C-x 6 d' to dissociate the two buffers, leaving
each as it stands (`2C-dissociate').  If the other buffer, the one not
current when you type `<F2> d', is empty, `<F2> d' kills it.


File: emacs,  Node: Editing Binary Files,  Next: Saving Emacs Sessions,  Prev: Two-Column,  Up: Top

50 Editing Binary Files
***********************

There is a special major mode for editing binary files: Hexl mode.  To
use it, use `M-x hexl-find-file' instead of `C-x C-f' to visit the
file.  This command converts the file's contents to hexadecimal and
lets you edit the translation.  When you save the file, it is converted
automatically back to binary.

   You can also use `M-x hexl-mode' to translate an existing buffer
into hex.  This is useful if you visit a file normally and then discover
it is a binary file.

   Ordinary text characters overwrite in Hexl mode.  This is to reduce
the risk of accidentally spoiling the alignment of data in the file.
There are special commands for insertion.  Here is a list of the
commands of Hexl mode:

`C-M-d'
     Insert a byte with a code typed in decimal.

`C-M-o'
     Insert a byte with a code typed in octal.

`C-M-x'
     Insert a byte with a code typed in hex.

`C-x ['
     Move to the beginning of a 1k-byte "page."

`C-x ]'
     Move to the end of a 1k-byte "page."

`M-g'
     Move to an address specified in hex.

`M-j'
     Move to an address specified in decimal.

`C-c C-c'
     Leave Hexl mode, going back to the major mode this buffer had
     before you invoked `hexl-mode'.

Other Hexl commands let you insert strings (sequences) of binary bytes,
move by `short's or `int's, etc.; type `C-h a hexl-<RET>' for details.


File: emacs,  Node: Saving Emacs Sessions,  Next: Recursive Edit,  Prev: Editing Binary Files,  Up: Top

51 Saving Emacs Sessions
************************

Use the desktop library to save the state of Emacs from one session to
another.  Once you save the Emacs "desktop"--the buffers, their file
names, major modes, buffer positions, and so on--then subsequent Emacs
sessions reload the saved desktop.

   You can save the desktop manually with the command `M-x
desktop-save'.  You can also enable automatic saving of the desktop
when you exit Emacs, and automatic restoration of the last saved
desktop when Emacs starts: use the Customization buffer (*note Easy
Customization::) to set `desktop-save-mode' to `t' for future sessions,
or add this line in your `~/.emacs' file:

     (desktop-save-mode 1)

   If you turn on `desktop-save-mode' in your `~/.emacs', then when
Emacs starts, it looks for a saved desktop in the current directory.
Thus, you can have separate saved desktops in different directories,
and the starting directory determines which one Emacs reloads.  You can
save the current desktop and reload one saved in another directory by
typing `M-x desktop-change-dir'.  Typing `M-x desktop-revert' reverts
to the desktop previously reloaded.

   Specify the option `--no-desktop' on the command line when you don't
want it to reload any saved desktop.  This turns off
`desktop-save-mode' for the current session.  Starting Emacs with the
`--no-init-file' option also disables desktop reloading, since it
bypasses the `.emacs' init file, where `desktop-save-mode' is usually
turned on.

   By default, all the buffers in the desktop are restored at one go.
However, this may be slow if there are a lot of buffers in the desktop.
You can specify the maximum number of buffers to restore immediately
with the variable `desktop-restore-eager'; the remaining buffers are
restored "lazily," when Emacs is idle.

   Type `M-x desktop-clear' to empty the Emacs desktop.  This kills all
buffers except for internal ones, and clears the global variables
listed in `desktop-globals-to-clear'.  If you want this to preserve
certain buffers, customize the variable
`desktop-clear-preserve-buffers-regexp', whose value is a regular
expression matching the names of buffers not to kill.

   If you want to save minibuffer history from one session to another,
use the `savehist' library.


File: emacs,  Node: Recursive Edit,  Next: Emulation,  Prev: Saving Emacs Sessions,  Up: Top

52 Recursive Editing Levels
***************************

A "recursive edit" is a situation in which you are using Emacs commands
to perform arbitrary editing while in the middle of another Emacs
command.  For example, when you type `C-r' inside of a `query-replace',
you enter a recursive edit in which you can change the current buffer.
On exiting from the recursive edit, you go back to the `query-replace'.

   "Exiting" the recursive edit means returning to the unfinished
command, which continues execution.  The command to exit is `C-M-c'
(`exit-recursive-edit').

   You can also "abort" the recursive edit.  This is like exiting, but
also quits the unfinished command immediately.  Use the command `C-]'
(`abort-recursive-edit') to do this.  *Note Quitting::.

   The mode line shows you when you are in a recursive edit by
displaying square brackets around the parentheses that always surround
the major and minor mode names.  Every window's mode line shows this in
the same way, since being in a recursive edit is true of Emacs as a
whole rather than any particular window or buffer.

   It is possible to be in recursive edits within recursive edits.  For
example, after typing `C-r' in a `query-replace', you may type a
command that enters the debugger.  This begins a recursive editing level
for the debugger, within the recursive editing level for `C-r'.  Mode
lines display a pair of square brackets for each recursive editing
level currently in progress.

   Exiting the inner recursive edit (such as with the debugger `c'
command) resumes the command running in the next level up.  When that
command finishes, you can then use `C-M-c' to exit another recursive
editing level, and so on.  Exiting applies to the innermost level only.
Aborting also gets out of only one level of recursive edit; it returns
immediately to the command level of the previous recursive edit.  If you
wish, you can then abort the next recursive editing level.

   Alternatively, the command `M-x top-level' aborts all levels of
recursive edits, returning immediately to the top-level command reader.

   The text being edited inside the recursive edit need not be the same
text that you were editing at top level.  It depends on what the
recursive edit is for.  If the command that invokes the recursive edit
selects a different buffer first, that is the buffer you will edit
recursively.  In any case, you can switch buffers within the recursive
edit in the normal manner (as long as the buffer-switching keys have
not been rebound).  You could probably do all the rest of your editing
inside the recursive edit, visiting files and all.  But this could have
surprising effects (such as stack overflow) from time to time.  So
remember to exit or abort the recursive edit when you no longer need it.

   In general, we try to minimize the use of recursive editing levels in
GNU Emacs.  This is because they constrain you to "go back" in a
particular order--from the innermost level toward the top level.  When
possible, we present different activities in separate buffers so that
you can switch between them as you please.  Some commands switch to a
new major mode which provides a command to switch back.  These
approaches give you more flexibility to go back to unfinished tasks in
the order you choose.


File: emacs,  Node: Emulation,  Next: Hyperlinking,  Prev: Recursive Edit,  Up: Top

53 Emulation
************

GNU Emacs can be programmed to emulate (more or less) most other
editors.  Standard facilities can emulate these:

CRiSP/Brief (PC editor)
     You can turn on key bindings to emulate the CRiSP/Brief editor with
     `M-x crisp-mode'.  Note that this rebinds `M-x' to exit Emacs
     unless you set the variable `crisp-override-meta-x'.  You can also
     use the command `M-x scroll-all-mode' or set the variable
     `crisp-load-scroll-all' to emulate CRiSP's scroll-all feature
     (scrolling all windows together).

EDT (DEC VMS editor)
     Turn on EDT emulation with the command `M-x edt-emulation-on',
     while `M-x edt-emulation-off' restores normal Emacs command
     bindings.

     Most of the EDT emulation commands are keypad keys, and most
     standard Emacs key bindings are still available.  The EDT
     emulation rebindings are done in the global keymap, so there is no
     problem switching buffers or major modes while in EDT emulation.

TPU (DEC VMS editor)
     `M-x tpu-edt-on' turns on emulation of the TPU editor emulating
     EDT.

vi (Berkeley editor)
     Viper is the newest emulator for vi.  It implements several levels
     of emulation; level 1 is closest to vi itself, while level 5
     departs somewhat from strict emulation to take advantage of the
     capabilities of Emacs.  To invoke Viper, type `M-x viper-mode'; it
     will guide you the rest of the way and ask for the emulation
     level.  *note Viper: (viper)Top.

vi (another emulator)
     `M-x vi-mode' enters a major mode that replaces the previously
     established major mode.  All of the vi commands that, in real vi,
     enter "input" mode are programmed instead to return to the
     previous major mode.  Thus, ordinary Emacs serves as vi's "input"
     mode.

     Because vi emulation works through major modes, it does not work
     to switch buffers during emulation.  Return to normal Emacs first.

     If you plan to use vi emulation much, you probably want to bind a
     key to the `vi-mode' command.

vi (alternate emulator)
     `M-x vip-mode' invokes another vi emulator, said to resemble real
     vi more thoroughly than `M-x vi-mode'.  "Input" mode in this
     emulator is changed from ordinary Emacs so you can use <ESC> to go
     back to emulated vi command mode.  To get from emulated vi command
     mode back to ordinary Emacs, type `C-z'.

     This emulation does not work through major modes, and it is
     possible to switch buffers in various ways within the emulator.
     It is not so necessary to assign a key to the command `vip-mode' as
     it is with `vi-mode' because terminating insert mode does not use
     it.

     *note VIP: (vip)Top, for full information.

WordStar (old wordprocessor)
     `M-x wordstar-mode' provides a major mode with WordStar-like key
     bindings.


File: emacs,  Node: Hyperlinking,  Next: Dissociated Press,  Prev: Emulation,  Up: Top

54 Hyperlinking and Navigation Features
***************************************

Various modes documented elsewhere have hypertext features so that you
can follow links, usually by clicking `Mouse-2' on the link or typing
<RET> while point is on the link.  Clicking `Mouse-1' quickly on the
link also follows it.  (Hold `Mouse-1' for longer if you want to set
point instead.)

   Info mode, Help mode and the Dired-like modes are examples of modes
that have links in the buffer.  The Tags facility links between uses
and definitions in source files, see *Note Tags::.  Imenu provides
navigation amongst items indexed in the current buffer, see *Note
Imenu::.  Info-lookup provides mode-specific lookup of definitions in
Info indexes, see *Note Documentation::.  Speedbar maintains a frame in
which links to files, and locations in files are displayed, see *Note
Speedbar::.

   Other non-mode-specific facilities described in this section enable
following links from the current buffer in a context-sensitive fashion.

* Menu:

* Browse-URL::                  Following URLs.
* Goto-address::                Activating URLs.
* FFAP::                        Finding files etc. at point.


File: emacs,  Node: Browse-URL,  Next: Goto-address,  Up: Hyperlinking

54.1 Following URLs
===================

`M-x browse-url <RET> URL <RET>'
     Load a URL into a Web browser.

   The Browse-URL package provides facilities for following URLs
specifying links on the World Wide Web.  Usually this works by invoking
a web browser, but you can, for instance, arrange to invoke
`compose-mail' from `mailto:' URLs.

   The general way to use this feature is to type `M-x browse-url',
which displays a specified URL.  If point is located near a plausible
URL, that URL is used as the default.  Other commands are available
which you might like to bind to keys, such as `browse-url-at-point' and
`browse-url-at-mouse'.

   You can customize Browse-URL's behavior via various options in the
`browse-url' Customize group, particularly
`browse-url-browser-function'.  You can invoke actions dependent on the
type of URL by defining `browse-url-browser-function' as an association
list.  The package's commentary available via `C-h p' under the
`hypermedia' keyword provides more information.  Packages with
facilities for following URLs should always go through Browse-URL, so
that the customization options for Browse-URL will affect all browsing
in Emacs.


File: emacs,  Node: Goto-address,  Next: FFAP,  Prev: Browse-URL,  Up: Hyperlinking

54.2 Activating URLs
====================

`M-x goto-address'
     Activate URLs and e-mail addresses in the current buffer.

   You can make URLs in the current buffer active with `M-x
goto-address'.  This finds all the URLs in the buffer, and establishes
bindings for `Mouse-2' and `C-c <RET>' on them.  After activation, if
you click on a URL with `Mouse-2', or move to a URL and type `C-c
<RET>', that will display the web page that the URL specifies.  For a
`mailto' URL, it sends mail instead, using your selected
mail-composition method (*note Mail Methods::).

   It can be useful to add `goto-address' to mode hooks and the hooks
used to display an incoming message.  `rmail-show-message-hook' is the
appropriate hook for Rmail, and `mh-show-mode-hook' for MH-E.  This is
not needed for Gnus, which has a similar feature of its own.


File: emacs,  Node: FFAP,  Prev: Goto-address,  Up: Hyperlinking

54.3 Finding Files and URLs at Point
====================================

FFAP mode replaces certain key bindings for finding files, including
`C-x C-f', with commands that provide more sensitive defaults.  These
commands behave like the ordinary ones when given a prefix argument.
Otherwise, they get the default file name or URL from the text around
point.  If what is found in the buffer has the form of a URL rather
than a file name, the commands use `browse-url' to view it.

   This feature is useful for following references in mail or news
buffers, `README' files, `MANIFEST' files, and so on.  The `ffap'
package's commentary available via `C-h p' under the `files' keyword
and the `ffap' Custom group provide details.

   You can turn on FFAP minor mode by calling `ffap-bindings' to make
the following key bindings and to install hooks for using `ffap' in
Rmail, Gnus and VM article buffers.

`C-x C-f FILENAME <RET>'
     Find FILENAME, guessing a default from text around point
     (`find-file-at-point').

`C-x C-r'
     `ffap-read-only', analogous to `find-file-read-only'.

`C-x C-v'
     `ffap-alternate-file', analogous to `find-alternate-file'.

`C-x d DIRECTORY <RET>'
     Start Dired on DIRECTORY, defaulting to the directory name at
     point (`dired-at-point').

`C-x C-d'
     `ffap-list-directory', analogous to `list-directory'.

`C-x 4 f'
     `ffap-other-window', analogous to `find-file-other-window'.

`C-x 4 r'
     `ffap-read-only-other-window', analogous to
     `find-file-read-only-other-window'.

`C-x 4 d'
     `ffap-dired-other-window', analogous to `dired-other-window'.

`C-x 5 f'
     `ffap-other-frame', analogous to `find-file-other-frame'.

`C-x 5 r'
     `ffap-read-only-other-frame', analogous to
     `find-file-read-only-other-frame'.

`C-x 5 d'
     `ffap-dired-other-frame', analogous to `dired-other-frame'.

`M-x ffap-next'
     Search buffer for next file name or URL, then find that file or
     URL.

`S-Mouse-3'
     `ffap-at-mouse' finds the file guessed from text around the
     position of a mouse click.

`C-S-Mouse-3'
     Display a menu of files and URLs mentioned in current buffer, then
     find the one you select (`ffap-menu').


File: emacs,  Node: Dissociated Press,  Next: Amusements,  Prev: Hyperlinking,  Up: Top

55 Dissociated Press
********************

`M-x dissociated-press' is a command for scrambling a file of text
either word by word or character by character.  Starting from a buffer
of straight English, it produces extremely amusing output.  The input
comes from the current Emacs buffer.  Dissociated Press writes its
output in a buffer named `*Dissociation*', and redisplays that buffer
after every couple of lines (approximately) so you can read the output
as it comes out.

   Dissociated Press asks every so often whether to continue generating
output.  Answer `n' to stop it.  You can also stop at any time by
typing `C-g'.  The dissociation output remains in the `*Dissociation*'
buffer for you to copy elsewhere if you wish.

   Dissociated Press operates by jumping at random from one point in the
buffer to another.  In order to produce plausible output rather than
gibberish, it insists on a certain amount of overlap between the end of
one run of consecutive words or characters and the start of the next.
That is, if it has just output `president' and then decides to jump to
a different point in the file, it might spot the `ent' in `pentagon'
and continue from there, producing `presidentagon'.(1)  Long sample
texts produce the best results.

   A positive argument to `M-x dissociated-press' tells it to operate
character by character, and specifies the number of overlap characters.
A negative argument tells it to operate word by word, and specifies
the number of overlap words.  In this mode, whole words are treated as
the elements to be permuted, rather than characters.  No argument is
equivalent to an argument of two.  For your againformation, the output
goes only into the buffer `*Dissociation*'.  The buffer you start with
is not changed.

   Dissociated Press produces results fairly like those of a Markov
chain based on a frequency table constructed from the sample text.  It
is, however, an independent, ignoriginal invention.  Dissociated Press
techniquitously copies several consecutive characters from the sample
between random choices, whereas a Markov chain would choose randomly
for each word or character.  This makes for more plausible sounding
results, and runs faster.

   It is a mustatement that too much use of Dissociated Press can be a
developediment to your real work, sometimes to the point of outragedy.
And keep dissociwords out of your documentation, if you want it to be
well userenced and properbose.  Have fun.  Your buggestions are welcome.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This dissociword actually appeared during the Vietnam War, when
it was very appropriate.  Bush has made it appropriate again.


File: emacs,  Node: Amusements,  Next: Customization,  Prev: Dissociated Press,  Up: Top

56 Other Amusements
*******************

If you are a little bit bored, you can try `M-x hanoi'.  If you are
considerably bored, give it a numeric argument.  If you are very, very
bored, try an argument of 9.  Sit back and watch.

   If you want a little more personal involvement, try `M-x gomoku',
which plays the game Go Moku with you.

   `M-x blackbox', `M-x mpuz' and `M-x 5x5' are puzzles.  `blackbox'
challenges you to determine the location of objects inside a box by
tomography.  `mpuz' displays a multiplication puzzle with letters
standing for digits in a code that you must guess--to guess a value,
type a letter and then the digit you think it stands for.  The aim of
`5x5' is to fill in all the squares.

   `M-x decipher' helps you to cryptanalyze a buffer which is encrypted
in a simple monoalphabetic substitution cipher.

   `M-x dunnet' runs an adventure-style exploration game, which is a
bigger sort of puzzle.

   `M-x lm' runs a relatively non-participatory game in which a robot
attempts to maneuver towards a tree at the center of the window based on
unique olfactory cues from each of the four directions.

   `M-x life' runs Conway's "Life" cellular automaton.

   `M-x morse-region' converts text in a region to Morse code and `M-x
unmorse-region' converts it back.  No cause for remorse.

   `M-x pong' plays a Pong-like game, bouncing the ball off opposing
bats.

   `M-x solitaire' plays a game of solitaire in which you jump pegs
across other pegs.

   `M-x studlify-region' studlify-cases the region, producing text like
this:

     M-x stUdlIfY-RegioN stUdlIfY-CaSeS thE region.

   `M-x tetris' runs an implementation of the well-known Tetris game.
Likewise, `M-x snake' provides an implementation of Snake.

   When you are frustrated, try the famous Eliza program.  Just do `M-x
doctor'.  End each input by typing <RET> twice.

   When you are feeling strange, type `M-x yow'.

   The command `M-x zone' plays games with the display when Emacs is
idle.


File: emacs,  Node: Customization,  Next: Quitting,  Prev: Amusements,  Up: Top

57 Customization
****************

This chapter talks about various topics relevant to adapting the
behavior of Emacs in ways we have anticipated.  *Note Emacs Lisp:
(elisp)Top, for how to make more far-reaching and open-ended changes.
*Note X Resources::, for information on using X resources to customize
Emacs.

   Customization that you do within Emacs normally affects only the
particular Emacs session that you do it in--it does not persist between
sessions unless you save the customization in a file such as your init
file (`.emacs') that will affect future sessions.  (*Note Init File::.)
When you tell the customization buffer to save customizations for
future sessions, this actually works by editing `.emacs' for you.

   Another means of customization is the keyboard macro, which is a
sequence of keystrokes to be replayed with a single command.  *Note
Keyboard Macros::, for full instruction how to record, manage, and
replay sequences of keys.

* Menu:

* Minor Modes::		Each minor mode is one feature you can turn on
			  independently of any others.
* Easy Customization::  Convenient way to browse and change settings.
* Variables::		Many Emacs commands examine Emacs variables
			  to decide what to do; by setting variables,
			  you can control their functioning.
* Key Bindings::	The keymaps say what command each key runs.
			  By changing them, you can "redefine keys".
* Syntax::		The syntax table controls how words and
			  expressions are parsed.
* Init File::		How to write common customizations in the
			  `.emacs' file.


File: emacs,  Node: Minor Modes,  Next: Easy Customization,  Up: Customization

57.1 Minor Modes
================

Minor modes are optional features which you can turn on or off.  For
example, Auto Fill mode is a minor mode in which <SPC> breaks lines
between words as you type.  All the minor modes are independent of each
other and of the selected major mode.  Most minor modes say in the mode
line when they are enabled; for example, `Fill' in the mode line means
that Auto Fill mode is enabled.

   You should append `-mode' to the name of a minor mode to produce the
name of the command that turns the mode on or off.  Thus, the command
to enable or disable Auto Fill mode is called `auto-fill-mode'.  These
commands are usually invoked with `M-x', but you can bind keys to them
if you wish.

   With no argument, the minor mode function turns the mode on if it
was off, and off if it was on.  This is known as "toggling".  A
positive argument always turns the mode on, and an explicit zero
argument or a negative argument always turns it off.

   Some minor modes are global: while enabled, they affect everything
you do in the Emacs session, in all buffers.  Other minor modes are
buffer-local; they apply only to the current buffer, so you can enable
the mode in certain buffers and not others.

   For most minor modes, the command name is also the name of a
variable.  The variable's value is non-`nil' if the mode is enabled and
`nil' if it is disabled.  Some minor-mode commands work by just setting
the variable.  For example, the command `abbrev-mode' works by setting
the value of `abbrev-mode' as a variable; it is this variable that
directly turns Abbrev mode on and off.  You can directly set the
variable's value instead of calling the mode function.  For other minor
modes, you need to either set the variable through the Customize
interface or call the mode function to correctly enable or disable the
mode.  To check which of these two possibilities applies to a given
minor mode, use `C-h v' to ask for documentation on the variable name.

   For minor mode commands that work by just setting the minor mode
variable, that variable provides a good way for Lisp programs to turn
minor modes on and off; it is also useful in a file's local variables
list (*note File Variables::).  But please think twice before setting
minor modes with a local variables list, because most minor modes are a
matter of user preference--other users editing the same file might not
want the same minor modes you prefer.

   The most useful buffer-local minor modes include Abbrev mode, Auto
Fill mode, Auto Save mode, Font-Lock mode, Glasses mode, Outline minor
mode, Overwrite mode, and Binary Overwrite mode.

   Abbrev mode allows you to define abbreviations that automatically
expand as you type them.  For example, `amd' might expand to `abbrev
mode'.  *Note Abbrevs::, for full information.

   Auto Fill mode allows you to enter filled text without breaking lines
explicitly.  Emacs inserts newlines as necessary to prevent lines from
becoming too long.  *Note Filling::.

   Auto Save mode saves the buffer contents periodically to reduce the
amount of work you can lose in case of a crash.  *Note Auto Save::.

   Enriched mode enables editing and saving of formatted text.  *Note
Formatted Text::.

   Flyspell mode automatically highlights misspelled words.  *Note
Spelling::.

   Font-Lock mode automatically highlights certain textual units found
in programs, such as comments, strings, and function names being
defined.  This requires a display that can show multiple fonts or
colors.  *Note Faces::.

   Outline minor mode provides the same facilities as the major mode
called Outline mode; but since it is a minor mode instead, you can
combine it with any major mode.  *Note Outline Mode::.

   Overwrite mode causes ordinary printing characters to replace
existing text instead of shoving it to the right.  For example, if
point is in front of the `B' in `FOOBAR', then in Overwrite mode typing
a `G' changes it to `FOOGAR', instead of producing `FOOGBAR' as usual.
In Overwrite mode, the command `C-q' inserts the next character
whatever it may be, even if it is a digit--this gives you a way to
insert a character instead of replacing an existing character.

   The command `overwrite-mode' is an exception to the rule that
commands which toggle minor modes are normally not bound to keys: it is
bound to the <INSERT> function key.  This is because many other
programs bind <INSERT> to similar functions.

   Binary Overwrite mode is a variant of Overwrite mode for editing
binary files; it treats newlines and tabs like other characters, so that
they overwrite other characters and can be overwritten by them.  In
Binary Overwrite mode, digits after `C-q' specify an octal character
code, as usual.

   Here are some useful minor modes that normally apply to all buffers
at once.  Since Line Number mode and Transient Mark mode can be enabled
or disabled just by setting the value of the minor mode variable, you
_can_ set them differently for particular buffers, by explicitly making
the corresponding variable local in those buffers.  *Note Locals::.

   Icomplete mode displays an indication of available completions when
you are in the minibuffer and completion is active.  *Note Completion
Options::.

   Line Number mode enables continuous display in the mode line of the
line number of point, and Column Number mode enables display of the
column number.  *Note Mode Line::.

   Scroll Bar mode gives each window a scroll bar (*note Scroll Bars::).
Menu Bar mode gives each frame a menu bar (*note Menu Bars::).  Both of
these modes are enabled by default when you use the X Window System.

   In Transient Mark mode, every change in the buffer contents
"deactivates" the mark, so that commands that operate on the region
will get an error.  This means you must either set the mark, or
explicitly "reactivate" it, before each command that uses the region.
The advantage of Transient Mark mode is that Emacs can display the
region highlighted.  *Note Mark::.


File: emacs,  Node: Easy Customization,  Next: Variables,  Prev: Minor Modes,  Up: Customization

57.2 Easy Customization Interface
=================================

Emacs has many "settings" which have values that you can specify in
order to customize various commands.  Many are documented in this
manual.  Most settings are "user options"--that is to say, Lisp
variables (*note Variables::)--so their names appear in the Variable
Index (*note Variable Index::).  The other settings are faces and their
attributes (*note Faces::).

   You can browse interactively through settings and change them using
`M-x customize'.  This command creates a "customization buffer", which
offers commands to navigate through a logically organized structure of
the Emacs settings; you can also use it to edit and set their values,
and to save settings permanently in your `~/.emacs' file (*note Init
File::).

   The appearance of the example buffers in this section is typically
different under a graphical display, since faces are then used to
indicate buttons, links and editable fields.

* Menu:

* Groups: Customization Groups.   How settings are classified in a structure.
* Browsing: Browsing Custom.   Browsing and searching for settings.
* Changing a Variable::      How to edit an option's value and set the option.
* Saving Customizations::    Specifying the file for saving customizations.
* Face Customization::       How to edit the attributes of a face.
* Specific Customization::   Making a customization buffer for specific
                                variables, faces, or groups.
* Custom Themes::            How to define collections of customized options
                                that can be loaded and unloaded together.


File: emacs,  Node: Customization Groups,  Next: Browsing Custom,  Up: Easy Customization

57.2.1 Customization Groups
---------------------------

For customization purposes, settings are organized into "groups" to
help you find them.  Groups are collected into bigger groups, all the
way up to a master group called `Emacs'.

   `M-x customize' creates a customization buffer that shows the
top-level `Emacs' group and the second-level groups immediately under
it.  It looks like this, in part:

     /- Emacs group: ---------------------------------------------------\
           [State]: visible group members are all at standard values.
        Customization of the One True Editor.
        See also [Manual].

     Editing group: [Go to Group]
     Basic text editing facilities.

     External group: [Go to Group]
     Interfacing to external utilities.

     MORE SECOND-LEVEL GROUPS

     \- Emacs group end ------------------------------------------------/

This says that the buffer displays the contents of the `Emacs' group.
The other groups are listed because they are its contents.  But they
are listed differently, without indentation and dashes, because _their_
contents are not included.  Each group has a single-line documentation
string; the `Emacs' group also has a `[State]' line.

   Most of the text in the customization buffer is read-only, but it
typically includes some "editable fields" that you can edit.  There are
also "buttons" and "links", which do something when you "invoke" them.
To invoke a button or a link, either click on it with `Mouse-1', or
move point to it and type <RET>.

   For example, the phrase `[State]' that appears in a second-level
group is a button.  It operates on the same customization buffer.  The
phrase `[Go to Group]' is a kind of hypertext link to another group.
Invoking it creates a new customization buffer, which shows that group
and its contents.

   The `Emacs' group includes a few settings, but mainly it contains
other groups, which contain more groups, which contain the settings.
By browsing the hierarchy of groups, you will eventually find the
feature you are interested in customizing.  Then you can use the
customization buffer to set that feature's settings.  You can also go
straight to a particular group by name, using the command `M-x
customize-group'.


File: emacs,  Node: Browsing Custom,  Next: Changing a Variable,  Prev: Customization Groups,  Up: Easy Customization

57.2.2 Browsing and Searching for Options and Faces
---------------------------------------------------

`M-x customize-browse' is another way to browse the available settings.
This command creates a special customization buffer which shows only
the names of groups and settings, and puts them in a structure.

   In this buffer, you can show the contents of a group by invoking the
`[+]' button.  When the group contents are visible, this button changes
to `[-]'; invoking that hides the group contents again.

   Each group or setting in this buffer has a link which says
`[Group]', `[Option]' or `[Face]'.  Invoking this link creates an
ordinary customization buffer showing just that group and its contents,
just that user option, or just that face.  This is the way to change
settings that you find with `M-x customize-browse'.

   If you can guess part of the name of the settings you are interested
in, `M-x customize-apropos' is another way to search for settings.
However, unlike `customize' and `customize-browse', `customize-apropos'
can only find groups and settings that are loaded in the current Emacs
session.  *Note Customizing Specific Items: Specific Customization.


File: emacs,  Node: Changing a Variable,  Next: Saving Customizations,  Prev: Browsing Custom,  Up: Easy Customization

57.2.3 Changing a Variable
--------------------------

Here is an example of what a variable (a user option) looks like in the
customization buffer:

     Kill Ring Max: [Hide Value] 60
        [State]: STANDARD.
     Maximum length of kill ring before oldest elements are thrown away.

   The text following `[Hide Value]', `60' in this case, indicates the
current value of the variable.  If you see `[Show Value]' instead of
`[Hide Value]', it means that the value is hidden; the customization
buffer initially hides values that take up several lines.  Invoke
`[Show Value]' to show the value.

   The line after the variable name indicates the "customization state"
of the variable: in the example above, it says you have not changed the
option yet.  The `[State]' button at the beginning of this line gives
you a menu of various operations for customizing the variable.

   The line after the `[State]' line displays the beginning of the
variable's documentation string.  If there are more lines of
documentation, this line ends with a `[More]' button; invoke that to
show the full documentation string.

   To enter a new value for `Kill Ring Max', move point to the value
and edit it textually.  For example, you can type `M-d', then insert
another number.  As you begin to alter the text, you will see the
`[State]' line change to say that you have edited the value:

     [State]: EDITED, shown value does not take effect until you set or ...
                                                                save it.

   Editing the value does not actually set the variable.  To do that,
you must "set" the variable.  To do this, invoke the `[State]' button
and choose `Set for Current Session'.

   The state of the variable changes visibly when you set it:

     [State]: SET for current session only.

   You don't have to worry about specifying a value that is not valid;
the `Set for Current Session' operation checks for validity and will
not install an unacceptable value.

   While editing a field that is a file name, directory name, command
name, or anything else for which completion is defined, you can type
`M-<TAB>' (`widget-complete') to do completion.  (`<ESC> <TAB>' and
`C-M-i' do the same thing.)

   Some variables have a small fixed set of possible legitimate values.
These variables don't let you edit the value textually.  Instead, a
`[Value Menu]' button appears before the value; invoke this button to
change the value.  For a boolean "on or off" value, the button says
`[Toggle]', and it changes to the other value.  `[Value Menu]' and
`[Toggle]' simply edit the buffer; the changes take real effect when
you use the `Set for Current Session' operation.

   Some variables have values with complex structure.  For example, the
value of `file-coding-system-alist' is an association list.  Here is
how it appears in the customization buffer:

     File Coding System Alist: [Hide Value]
     [INS] [DEL] File regexp: \.elc\'
                 Choice: [Value Menu] Encoding/decoding pair:
                 Decoding: emacs-mule
                 Encoding: emacs-mule
     [INS] [DEL] File regexp: \(\`\|/\)loaddefs.el\'
                 Choice: [Value Menu] Encoding/decoding pair:
                 Decoding: raw-text
                 Encoding: raw-text-unix
     [INS] [DEL] File regexp: \.tar\'
                 Choice: [Value Menu] Encoding/decoding pair:
                 Decoding: no-conversion
                 Encoding: no-conversion
     [INS] [DEL] File regexp:
                 Choice: [Value Menu] Encoding/decoding pair:
                 Decoding: undecided
                 Encoding: nil
     [INS]
        [State]: STANDARD.
     Alist to decide a coding system to use for a file I/O ...
                                     operation. [Hide Rest]
     The format is ((PATTERN . VAL) ...),
     where PATTERN is a regular expression matching a file name,
     [...more lines of documentation...]

Each association in the list appears on four lines, with several
editable fields and/or buttons.  You can edit the regexps and coding
systems using ordinary editing commands.  You can also invoke `[Value
Menu]' to switch to a different kind of value--for instance, to specify
a function instead of a pair of coding systems.

   To delete an association from the list, invoke the `[DEL]' button
for that item.  To add an association, invoke `[INS]' at the position
where you want to add it.  There is an `[INS]' button between each pair
of associations, another at the beginning and another at the end, so
you can add a new association at any position in the list.

   Two special commands, <TAB> and `S-<TAB>', are useful for moving
through the customization buffer.  <TAB> (`widget-forward') moves
forward to the next button or editable field; `S-<TAB>'
(`widget-backward') moves backward to the previous button or editable
field.

   Typing <RET> on an editable field also moves forward, just like
<TAB>.  We set it up this way because people often type <RET> when they
are finished editing a field.  To insert a newline within an editable
field, use `C-o' or `C-q C-j'.

   Setting the variable changes its value in the current Emacs session;
"saving" the value changes it for future sessions as well.  To save the
variable, invoke `[State]' and select the `Save for Future Sessions'
operation.  This works by writing code so as to set the variable again,
each time you start Emacs (*note Saving Customizations::).

   You can also restore the variable to its standard value by invoking
`[State]' and selecting the `Erase Customization' operation.  There are
actually four reset operations:

`Undo Edits'
     If you have made some modifications and not yet set the variable,
     this restores the text in the customization buffer to match the
     actual value.

`Reset to Saved'
     This restores the value of the variable to the last saved value,
     and updates the text accordingly.

`Erase Customization'
     This sets the variable to its standard value, and updates the text
     accordingly.  This also eliminates any saved value for the
     variable, so that you will get the standard value in future Emacs
     sessions.

`Set to Backup Value'
     This sets the variable to a previous value that was set in the
     customization buffer in this session.  If you customize a variable
     and then reset it, which discards the customized value, you can
     get the discarded value back again with this operation.

   Sometimes it is useful to record a comment about a specific
customization.  Use the `Add Comment' item from the `[State]' menu to
create a field for entering the comment.  The comment you enter will be
saved, and displayed again if you again view the same variable in a
customization buffer, even in another session.

   The state of a group indicates whether anything in that group has
been edited, set or saved.

   Near the top of the customization buffer there are two lines of
buttons:

      [Set for Current Session] [Save for Future Sessions]
      [Undo Edits] [Reset to Saved] [Erase Customization]   [Finish]

Invoking `[Finish]' either buries or kills this customization buffer
according to the setting of the option `custom-buffer-done-kill'; the
default is to bury the buffer.  Each of the other buttons performs an
operation--set, save or reset--on each of the settings in the buffer
that could meaningfully be set, saved or reset.  They do not operate on
settings whose values are hidden, nor on subgroups which are hidden or
not visible in the buffer.


File: emacs,  Node: Saving Customizations,  Next: Face Customization,  Prev: Changing a Variable,  Up: Easy Customization

57.2.4 Saving Customizations
----------------------------

Saving customizations from the customization buffer works by writing
code that future sessions will read, code to set up those
customizations again.

   Normally this saves customizations in your init file, `~/.emacs'.
If you wish, you can save customizations in another file instead.  To
make this work, your `~/.emacs' should set `custom-file' to the name of
that file.  Then you should load the file by calling `load'.  For
example:

     (setq custom-file "~/.emacs-custom.el")
     (load custom-file)

   You can use `custom-file' to specify different customization files
for different Emacs versions, like this:

     (cond ((< emacs-major-version 21)
            ;; Emacs 20 customization.
            (setq custom-file "~/.custom-20.el"))
           ((and (= emacs-major-version 21) (< emacs-minor-version 4))
            ;; Emacs 21 customization, before version 21.4.
            (setq custom-file "~/.custom-21.el"))
           ((< emacs-major-version 22)
            ;; Emacs version 21.4 or later.
            (setq custom-file "~/.custom-21.4.el"))
           (t
            ;; Emacs version 22.1 or later.
            (setq custom-file "~/.custom-22.el")))

     (load custom-file)

   If Emacs was invoked with the `-q' or `--no-init-file' options
(*note Initial Options::), it will not let you save your customizations
in your `~/.emacs' init file.  This is because saving customizations
from such a session would wipe out all the other customizations you
might have on your init file.


File: emacs,  Node: Face Customization,  Next: Specific Customization,  Prev: Saving Customizations,  Up: Easy Customization

57.2.5 Customizing Faces
------------------------

In addition to variables, some customization groups also include faces.
When you show the contents of a group, both the variables and the
faces in the group appear in the customization buffer.  Here is an
example of how a face looks:

     Custom Changed Face:(sample) [Hide Face]
        [State]: STANDARD.
     Face used when the customize item has been changed.
     Parent groups: [Custom Magic Faces]
     Attributes: [ ] Font Family: *
                 [ ] Width: *
                 [ ] Height: *
                 [ ] Weight: *
                 [ ] Slant: *
                 [ ] Underline: *
                 [ ] Overline: *
                 [ ] Strike-through: *
                 [ ] Box around text: *
                 [ ] Inverse-video: *
                 [X] Foreground: white       (sample)
                 [X] Background: blue        (sample)
                 [ ] Stipple: *
                 [ ] Inherit: *

   Each face attribute has its own line.  The `[X]' button before the
attribute name indicates whether the attribute is "enabled"; `[X]'
means that it's enabled, and `[ ]' means that it's disabled.  You can
enable or disable the attribute by clicking that button.  When the
attribute is enabled, you can change the attribute value in the usual
ways.

   For the colors, you can specify a color name (use `M-x
list-colors-display' for a list of them) or a hexadecimal color
specification of the form `#RRGGBB'.  (`#000000' is black, `#ff0000' is
red, `#00ff00' is green, `#0000ff' is blue, and `#ffffff' is white.)
On a black-and-white display, the colors you can use for the background
are `black', `white', `gray', `gray1', and `gray3'.  Emacs supports
these shades of gray by using background stipple patterns instead of a
color.

   Setting, saving and resetting a face work like the same operations
for variables (*note Changing a Variable::).

   A face can specify different appearances for different types of
display.  For example, a face can make text red on a color display, but
use a bold font on a monochrome display.  To specify multiple
appearances for a face, select `For All Kinds of Displays' in the menu
you get from invoking `[State]'.

   Another more basic way to set the attributes of a specific face is
with `M-x modify-face'.  This command reads the name of a face, then
reads the attributes one by one.  For the color and stipple attributes,
the attribute's current value is the default--type just <RET> if you
don't want to change that attribute.  Type `none' if you want to clear
out the attribute.


File: emacs,  Node: Specific Customization,  Next: Custom Themes,  Prev: Face Customization,  Up: Easy Customization

57.2.6 Customizing Specific Items
---------------------------------

Instead of finding the setting you want to change by navigating the
structure of groups, here are other ways to specify the settings that
you want to customize.

`M-x customize-option <RET> OPTION <RET>'
     Set up a customization buffer with just one user option variable,
     OPTION.

`M-x customize-face <RET> FACE <RET>'
     Set up a customization buffer with just one face, FACE.

`M-x customize-group <RET> GROUP <RET>'
     Set up a customization buffer with just one group, GROUP.

`M-x customize-apropos <RET> REGEXP <RET>'
     Set up a customization buffer with all the settings and groups that
     match REGEXP.

`M-x customize-changed <RET> VERSION <RET>'
     Set up a customization buffer with all the settings and groups
     whose meaning has changed since Emacs version VERSION.

`M-x customize-saved'
     Set up a customization buffer containing all settings that you
     have saved with customization buffers.

`M-x customize-unsaved'
     Set up a customization buffer containing all settings that you have
     set but not saved.

   If you want to alter a particular user option with the customization
buffer, and you know its name, you can use the command `M-x
customize-option' and specify the user option (variable) name.  This
sets up the customization buffer with just one user option--the one
that you asked for.  Editing, setting and saving the value work as
described above, but only for the specified user option.  Minibuffer
completion is handy if you only know part of the name.  However, this
command can only see options that have been loaded in the current Emacs
session.

   Likewise, you can modify a specific face, chosen by name, using `M-x
customize-face'.  By default it operates on the face used on the
character after point.

   You can also set up the customization buffer with a specific group,
using `M-x customize-group'.  The immediate contents of the chosen
group, including settings (user options and faces), and other groups,
all appear as well (even if not already loaded).  However, the
subgroups' own contents are not included.

   For a more general way of controlling what to customize, you can use
`M-x customize-apropos'.  You specify a regular expression as argument;
then all _loaded_ settings and groups whose names match this regular
expression are set up in the customization buffer.  If you specify an
empty regular expression, this includes _all_ loaded groups and
settings--which takes a long time to set up.

   When you upgrade to a new Emacs version, you might want to consider
customizing new settings, and settings whose meanings or default values
have changed.  To do this, use `M-x customize-changed' and specify a
previous Emacs version number using the minibuffer.  It creates a
customization buffer which shows all the settings and groups whose
definitions have been changed since the specified version, loading them
if necessary.

   If you change settings and then decide the change was a mistake, you
can use two special commands to revisit your previous changes.  Use
`M-x customize-saved' to look at the settings that you have saved.  Use
`M-x customize-unsaved' to look at the settings that you have set but
not saved.


File: emacs,  Node: Custom Themes,  Prev: Specific Customization,  Up: Easy Customization

57.2.7 Customization Themes
---------------------------

"Custom themes" are collections of settings that can be enabled or
disabled as a unit.  You can use Custom themes to switch quickly and
easily between various collections of settings, and to transfer such
collections from one computer to another.

   To define a Custom theme, use `M-x customize-create-theme', which
brings up a buffer named `*New Custom Theme*'.  At the top of the
buffer is an editable field where you can specify the name of the
theme.  Click on the button labelled `Insert Variable' to add a
variable to the theme, and click on `Insert Face' to add a face.  You
can edit these values in the `*New Custom Theme*' buffer like in an
ordinary Customize buffer.  To remove an option from the theme, click
on its `State' button and select `Delete'.

   After adding the desired options, click on `Save Theme' to save the
Custom theme.  This writes the theme definition to a file
`FOO-theme.el' (where FOO is the theme name you supplied), in the
directory `~/.emacs.d/'.  You can specify the directory by setting
`custom-theme-directory'.

   You can view and edit the settings of a previously-defined theme by
clicking on `Visit Theme' and specifying the theme name.  You can also
import the variables and faces that you have set using Customize by
visiting the "special" theme named `user'.  This theme, which records
all the options that you set in the ordinary customization buffer, is
always enabled, and always takes precedence over all other enabled
Custom themes.  Additionally, the `user' theme is recorded with code in
your `.emacs' file, rather than a `user-theme.el' file.

   Once you have defined a Custom theme, you can use it by customizing
the variable `custom-enabled-themes'.  This is a list of Custom themes
that are "enabled", or put into effect.  If you set
`custom-enabled-themes' using the Customize interface, the theme
definitions are automatically loaded from the theme files, if they
aren't already.  If you save the value of `custom-enabled-themes' for
future Emacs sessions, those Custom themes will be enabled whenever
Emacs is started up.

   If two enabled themes specify different values for an option, the
theme occurring earlier in `custom-enabled-themes' takes effect.

   You can temporarily enable a Custom theme with `M-x enable-theme'.
This prompts for a theme name in the minibuffer, loads the theme from
the theme file if necessary, and enables the theme.  You can "disable"
any enabled theme with the command `M-x disable-theme'; this returns
the options specified in the theme to their original values.  To
re-enable the theme, type `M-x enable-theme' again.  If a theme file is
changed during your Emacs session, you can reload it by typing `M-x
load-theme'.  (This also enables the theme.)


File: emacs,  Node: Variables,  Next: Key Bindings,  Prev: Easy Customization,  Up: Customization

57.3 Variables
==============

A "variable" is a Lisp symbol which has a value.  The symbol's name is
also called the name of the variable.  A variable name can contain any
characters that can appear in a file, but conventionally variable names
consist of words separated by hyphens.  A variable can have a
documentation string which describes what kind of value it should have
and how the value will be used.

   Emacs Lisp allows any variable (with a few exceptions) to have any
kind of value, but most variables that Emacs uses expect a value of a
certain type.  Often the value should always be a string, or should
always be a number.  Sometimes we say that a certain feature is turned
on if a variable is "non-`nil'," meaning that if the variable's value
is `nil', the feature is off, but the feature is on for _any_ other
value.  The conventional value to use to turn on the feature--since you
have to pick one particular value when you set the variable--is `t'.

   Emacs uses many Lisp variables for internal record keeping, but the
most interesting variables for a non-programmer user are those meant
for users to change--these are called "user options".

   Each user option that you can set with the customization buffer is
in fact a Lisp variable.  Emacs does not (usually) change the values of
these variables on its own; instead, you set the values in order to
control the behavior of certain Emacs commands.  Use of the
customization buffer is explained above (*note Easy Customization::);
here we describe other aspects of Emacs variables.

* Menu:

* Examining::	        Examining or setting one variable's value.
* Hooks::	        Hook variables let you specify programs for parts
		          of Emacs to run on particular occasions.
* Locals::	        Per-buffer values of variables.
* File Variables::      How files can specify variable values.


File: emacs,  Node: Examining,  Next: Hooks,  Up: Variables

57.3.1 Examining and Setting Variables
--------------------------------------

`C-h v VAR <RET>'
     Display the value and documentation of variable VAR
     (`describe-variable').

`M-x set-variable <RET> VAR <RET> VALUE <RET>'
     Change the value of variable VAR to VALUE.

   To examine the value of a single variable, use `C-h v'
(`describe-variable'), which reads a variable name using the
minibuffer, with completion.  It displays both the value and the
documentation of the variable.  For example,

     C-h v fill-column <RET>

displays something like this:

     fill-column is a variable defined in `C source code'.
     fill-column's value is 70
     Local in buffer custom.texi; global value is 70
     Automatically becomes buffer-local when set in any fashion.

     This variable is safe to use as a file local variable only if its value
     satisfies the predicate `integerp'.

     Documentation:
     *Column beyond which automatic line-wrapping should happen.
     Interactively, you can set the buffer local value using C-x f.

     You can customize this variable.

The line that says you can customize the variable indicates that this
variable is a user option.  (The star also indicates this, but it is an
obsolete indicator that may eventually disappear.)  `C-h v' is not
restricted to user options; it allows any variable name.

   The most convenient way to set a specific user option variable is
with `M-x set-variable'.  This reads the variable name with the
minibuffer (with completion), and then reads a Lisp expression for the
new value using the minibuffer a second time (you can insert the old
value into the minibuffer for editing via `M-n').  For example,

     M-x set-variable <RET> fill-column <RET> 75 <RET>

sets `fill-column' to 75.

   `M-x set-variable' is limited to user option variables, but you can
set any variable with a Lisp expression, using the function `setq'.
Here is a `setq' expression to set `fill-column':

     (setq fill-column 75)

   To execute an expression like this one, go to the `*scratch*'
buffer, type in the expression, and then type `C-j'.  *Note Lisp
Interaction::.

   Setting variables, like all means of customizing Emacs except where
otherwise stated, affects only the current Emacs session.  The only way
to alter the variable in future sessions is to put something in the
`~/.emacs' file to set it those sessions (*note Init File::).


File: emacs,  Node: Hooks,  Next: Locals,  Prev: Examining,  Up: Variables

57.3.2 Hooks
------------

"Hooks" are an important mechanism for customization of Emacs.  A hook
is a Lisp variable which holds a list of functions, to be called on
some well-defined occasion.  (This is called "running the hook".)  The
individual functions in the list are called the "hook functions" of the
hook.  With rare exceptions, hooks in Emacs are empty when Emacs starts
up, so the only hook functions in any given hook are the ones you
explicitly put there as customization.

   Most major modes run one or more "mode hooks" as the last step of
initialization.  This makes it easy for you to customize the behavior of
the mode, by setting up a hook function to override the local variable
assignments already made by the mode.  But hooks are also used in other
contexts.  For example, the hook `suspend-hook' runs just before Emacs
suspends itself (*note Exiting::).

   Most Emacs hooks are "normal hooks".  This means that running the
hook operates by calling all the hook functions, unconditionally, with
no arguments.  We have made an effort to keep most hooks normal so that
you can use them in a uniform way.  Every variable in Emacs whose name
ends in `-hook' is a normal hook.

   There are also a few "abnormal hooks".  These variables' names end
in `-hooks' or `-functions', instead of `-hook'.  What makes these
hooks abnormal is that there is something peculiar about the way its
functions are called--perhaps they are given arguments, or perhaps the
values they return are used in some way.  For example,
`find-file-not-found-functions' (*note Visiting::) is abnormal because
as soon as one hook function returns a non-`nil' value, the rest are
not called at all.  The documentation of each abnormal hook variable
explains in detail what is peculiar about it.

   You can set a hook variable with `setq' like any other Lisp
variable, but the recommended way to add a hook function to a hook
(either normal or abnormal) is by calling `add-hook'.  *Note Hooks:
(elisp)Hooks.

   For example, here's how to set up a hook to turn on Auto Fill mode
when entering Text mode and other modes based on Text mode:

     (add-hook 'text-mode-hook 'turn-on-auto-fill)

   The next example shows how to use a hook to customize the indentation
of C code.  (People often have strong personal preferences for one
format compared to another.)  Here the hook function is an anonymous
lambda expression.

     (setq my-c-style
       '((c-comment-only-line-offset . 4)
         (c-cleanup-list . (scope-operator
     		       empty-defun-braces
     		       defun-close-semi))
         (c-offsets-alist . ((arglist-close . c-lineup-arglist)
     			(substatement-open . 0)))))

     (add-hook 'c-mode-common-hook
       '(lambda ()
          (c-add-style "my-style" my-c-style t)))

   It is best to design your hook functions so that the order in which
they are executed does not matter.  Any dependence on the order is
"asking for trouble."  However, the order is predictable: the most
recently added hook functions are executed first.

   If you play with adding various different versions of a hook
function by calling `add-hook' over and over, remember that all the
versions you added will remain in the hook variable together.  You can
clear out individual functions by calling `remove-hook', or do `(setq
HOOK-VARIABLE nil)' to remove everything.


File: emacs,  Node: Locals,  Next: File Variables,  Prev: Hooks,  Up: Variables

57.3.3 Local Variables
----------------------

`M-x make-local-variable <RET> VAR <RET>'
     Make variable VAR have a local value in the current buffer.

`M-x kill-local-variable <RET> VAR <RET>'
     Make variable VAR use its global value in the current buffer.

`M-x make-variable-buffer-local <RET> VAR <RET>'
     Mark variable VAR so that setting it will make it local to the
     buffer that is current at that time.

   Almost any variable can be made "local" to a specific Emacs buffer.
This means that its value in that buffer is independent of its value in
other buffers.  A few variables are always local in every buffer.
Every other Emacs variable has a "global" value which is in effect in
all buffers that have not made the variable local.

   `M-x make-local-variable' reads the name of a variable and makes it
local to the current buffer.  Changing its value subsequently in this
buffer will not affect others, and changes in its global value will not
affect this buffer.

   `M-x make-variable-buffer-local' marks a variable so it will become
local automatically whenever it is set.  More precisely, once a
variable has been marked in this way, the usual ways of setting the
variable automatically do `make-local-variable' first.  We call such
variables "per-buffer" variables.  Many variables in Emacs are normally
per-buffer; the variable's document string tells you when this is so.
A per-buffer variable's global value is normally never effective in any
buffer, but it still has a meaning: it is the initial value of the
variable for each new buffer.

   Major modes (*note Major Modes::) always make variables local to the
buffer before setting the variables.  This is why changing major modes
in one buffer has no effect on other buffers.  Minor modes also work by
setting variables--normally, each minor mode has one controlling
variable which is non-`nil' when the mode is enabled (*note Minor
Modes::).  For many minor modes, the controlling variable is per
buffer, and thus always buffer-local.  Otherwise, you can make it local
in a specific buffer like any other variable.

   A few variables cannot be local to a buffer because they are always
local to each display instead (*note Multiple Displays::).  If you try
to make one of these variables buffer-local, you'll get an error
message.

   `M-x kill-local-variable' makes a specified variable cease to be
local to the current buffer.  The global value of the variable
henceforth is in effect in this buffer.  Setting the major mode kills
all the local variables of the buffer except for a few variables
specially marked as "permanent locals".

   To set the global value of a variable, regardless of whether the
variable has a local value in the current buffer, you can use the Lisp
construct `setq-default'.  This construct is used just like `setq', but
it sets variables' global values instead of their local values (if
any).  When the current buffer does have a local value, the new global
value may not be visible until you switch to another buffer.  Here is
an example:

     (setq-default fill-column 75)

`setq-default' is the only way to set the global value of a variable
that has been marked with `make-variable-buffer-local'.

   Lisp programs can use `default-value' to look at a variable's
default value.  This function takes a symbol as argument and returns its
default value.  The argument is evaluated; usually you must quote it
explicitly.  For example, here's how to obtain the default value of
`fill-column':

     (default-value 'fill-column)


File: emacs,  Node: File Variables,  Prev: Locals,  Up: Variables

57.3.4 Local Variables in Files
-------------------------------

A file can specify local variable values for use when you edit the file
with Emacs.  Visiting the file checks for local variable
specifications; it automatically makes these variables local to the
buffer, and sets them to the values specified in the file.

* Menu:

* Specifying File Variables:: Specifying file local variables.
* Safe File Variables::       Making sure file local variables are safe.


File: emacs,  Node: Specifying File Variables,  Next: Safe File Variables,  Up: File Variables

57.3.4.1 Specifying File Variables
..................................

There are two ways to specify file local variable values: in the first
line, or with a local variables list.  Here's how to specify them in the
first line:

     -*- mode: MODENAME; VAR: VALUE; ... -*-

You can specify any number of variables/value pairs in this way, each
pair with a colon and semicolon as shown above.  `mode: MODENAME;'
specifies the major mode; this should come first in the line.  The
VALUEs are not evaluated; they are used literally.  Here is an example
that specifies Lisp mode and sets two variables with numeric values:

     ;; -*- mode: Lisp; fill-column: 75; comment-column: 50; -*-

   You can also specify the coding system for a file in this way: just
specify a value for the "variable" named `coding'.  The "value" must be
a coding system name that Emacs recognizes.  *Note Coding Systems::.
`unibyte: t' specifies unibyte loading for a particular Lisp file.
*Note Enabling Multibyte::.

   The `eval' pseudo-variable, described below, can be specified in the
first line as well.

   In shell scripts, the first line is used to identify the script
interpreter, so you cannot put any local variables there.  To
accommodate this, Emacs looks for local variable specifications in the
_second_ line when the first line specifies an interpreter.

   A "local variables list" goes near the end of the file, in the last
page.  (It is often best to put it on a page by itself.)  The local
variables list starts with a line containing the string `Local
Variables:', and ends with a line containing the string `End:'.  In
between come the variable names and values, one set per line, as
`VARIABLE: VALUE'.  The VALUEs are not evaluated; they are used
literally.  If a file has both a local variables list and a `-*-' line,
Emacs processes _everything_ in the `-*-' line first, and _everything_
in the local variables list afterward.

   Here is an example of a local variables list:

     ;; Local Variables: **
     ;; mode:lisp **
     ;; comment-column:0 **
     ;; comment-start: ";; "  **
     ;; comment-end:"**" **
     ;; End: **

   Each line starts with the prefix `;; ' and each line ends with the
suffix ` **'.  Emacs recognizes these as the prefix and suffix based on
the first line of the list, by finding them surrounding the magic
string `Local Variables:'; then it automatically discards them from the
other lines of the list.

   The usual reason for using a prefix and/or suffix is to embed the
local variables list in a comment, so it won't confuse other programs
that the file is intended as input for.  The example above is for a
language where comment lines start with `;; ' and end with `**'; the
local values for `comment-start' and `comment-end' customize the rest
of Emacs for this unusual syntax.  Don't use a prefix (or a suffix) if
you don't need one.

   If you write a multi-line string value, you should put the prefix
and suffix on each line, even lines that start or end within the
string.  They will be stripped off for processing the list.  If you
want to split a long string across multiple lines of the file, you can
use backslash-newline, which is ignored in Lisp string constants.
Here's an example of doing this:

     # Local Variables:
     # compile-command: "cc foo.c -Dfoo=bar -Dhack=whatever \
     #   -Dmumble=blaah"
     # End:

   Some "variable names" have special meanings in a local variables
list.  Specifying the "variable" `mode' really sets the major mode,
while any value specified for the "variable" `eval' is simply evaluated
as an expression (its value is ignored).  A value for `coding'
specifies the coding system for character code conversion of this file,
and a value of `t' for `unibyte' says to visit the file in a unibyte
buffer.  These four "variables" are not really variables; setting them
in any other context has no special meaning.

   _If `mode' is used to set a major mode, it should be the first
"variable" in the list._  Otherwise, the entries that precede it will
usually be ignored, since most modes kill all local variables as part
of their initialization.

   You can use the `mode' "variable" to set minor modes as well as the
major modes; in fact, you can use it more than once, first to set the
major mode and then to set minor modes which are specific to particular
buffers.  But most minor modes should not be specified in the file at
all, because they represent user preferences.

   For example, you may be tempted to try to turn on Auto Fill mode with
a local variable list.  That is a mistake.  The choice of Auto Fill mode
or not is a matter of individual taste, not a matter of the contents of
particular files.  If you want to use Auto Fill, set up major mode hooks
with your `.emacs' file to turn it on (when appropriate) for you alone
(*note Init File::).  Don't use a local variable list to impose your
taste on everyone.

   The start of the local variables list must be no more than 3000
characters from the end of the file, and must be in the last page if the
file is divided into pages.  Otherwise, Emacs will not notice it is
there.  The purpose of this rule is so that a stray `Local Variables:'
not in the last page does not confuse Emacs, and so that visiting a
long file that is all one page and has no local variables list need not
take the time to search the whole file.

   Use the command `normal-mode' to reset the local variables and major
mode of a buffer according to the file name and contents, including the
local variables list if any.  *Note Choosing Modes::.


File: emacs,  Node: Safe File Variables,  Prev: Specifying File Variables,  Up: File Variables

57.3.4.2 Safety of File Variables
.................................

File-local variables can be dangerous; when you visit someone else's
file, there's no telling what its local variables list could do to your
Emacs.  Improper values of the `eval' "variable," and other variables
such as `load-path', could execute Lisp code you didn't intend to run.

   Therefore, whenever Emacs encounters file local variable values that
are not known to be safe, it displays the file's entire local variables
list, and asks you for confirmation before setting them.  You can type
`y' or <SPC> to put the local variables list into effect, or `n' to
ignore it.  When Emacs is run in batch mode (*note Initial Options::),
it can't really ask you, so it assumes the answer `n'.

   Emacs normally recognizes certain variables/value pairs as safe.
For instance, it is safe to give `comment-column' or `fill-column' any
integer value.  If a file specifies only known-safe variable/value
pairs, Emacs does not ask for confirmation before setting them.
Otherwise, you can tell Emacs to record all the variable/value pairs in
this file as safe, by typing `!' at the confirmation prompt.  When
Emacs encounters these variable/value pairs subsequently, in the same
file or others, it will assume they are safe.

   Some variables, such as `load-path', are considered particularly
"risky": there is seldom any reason to specify them as local variables,
and changing them can be dangerous.  Even if you enter `!' at the
confirmation prompt, Emacs will not record any values as safe for these
variables.  If you really want to record safe values for these
variables, do it directly by customizing `safe-local-variable-values'
(*note Easy Customization::).

   The variable `enable-local-variables' allows you to change the way
Emacs processes local variables.  Its default value is `t', which
specifies the behavior described above.  If it is `nil', Emacs simply
ignores all file local variables.  `:safe' means use only the safe
values and ignore the rest.  Any other value says to query you about
each file that has local variables, without trying to determine whether
the values are known to be safe.

   The variable `enable-local-eval' controls whether Emacs processes
`eval' variables.  The three possibilities for the variable's value are
`t', `nil', and anything else, just as for `enable-local-variables'.
The default is `maybe', which is neither `t' nor `nil', so normally
Emacs does ask for confirmation about processing `eval' variables.

   But there is an exception.  The `safe-local-eval-forms' is a
customizable list of eval forms which are safe.  Emacs does not ask for
confirmation when it finds these forms for the `eval' variable.


File: emacs,  Node: Key Bindings,  Next: Syntax,  Prev: Variables,  Up: Customization

57.4 Customizing Key Bindings
=============================

This section describes "key bindings", which map keys to commands, and
"keymaps", which record key bindings.  It also explains how to
customize key bindings.

   Recall that a command is a Lisp function whose definition provides
for interactive use.  Like every Lisp function, a command has a function
name, which usually consists of lower-case letters and hyphens.

* Menu:

* Keymaps::             Generalities.  The global keymap.
* Prefix Keymaps::      Keymaps for prefix keys.
* Local Keymaps::       Major and minor modes have their own keymaps.
* Minibuffer Maps::     The minibuffer uses its own local keymaps.
* Rebinding::           How to redefine one key's meaning conveniently.
* Init Rebinding::      Rebinding keys with your init file, `.emacs'.
* Function Keys::       Rebinding terminal function keys.
* Named ASCII Chars::   Distinguishing <TAB> from C-i, and so on.
* Mouse Buttons::       Rebinding mouse buttons in Emacs.
* Disabling::           Disabling a command means confirmation is required
                          before it can be executed.  This is done to protect
                          beginners from surprises.


File: emacs,  Node: Keymaps,  Next: Prefix Keymaps,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.1 Keymaps
--------------

The bindings between key sequences and command functions are recorded
in data structures called "keymaps".  Emacs has many of these, each
used on particular occasions.

   Recall that a "key sequence" ("key", for short) is a sequence of
"input events" that have a meaning as a unit.  Input events include
characters, function keys and mouse buttons--all the inputs that you
can send to the computer with your terminal.  A key sequence gets its
meaning from its "binding", which says what command it runs.  The
function of keymaps is to record these bindings.

   The "global" keymap is the most important keymap because it is
always in effect.  The global keymap defines keys for Fundamental mode;
most of these definitions are common to most or all major modes.  Each
major or minor mode can have its own keymap which overrides the global
definitions of some keys.

   For example, a self-inserting character such as `g' is
self-inserting because the global keymap binds it to the command
`self-insert-command'.  The standard Emacs editing characters such as
`C-a' also get their standard meanings from the global keymap.
Commands to rebind keys, such as `M-x global-set-key', actually work by
storing the new binding in the proper place in the global map.  *Note
Rebinding::.

   Meta characters work differently; Emacs translates each Meta
character into a pair of characters starting with <ESC>.  When you type
the character `M-a' in a key sequence, Emacs replaces it with `<ESC>
a'.  A meta key comes in as a single input event, but becomes two
events for purposes of key bindings.  The reason for this is
historical, and we might change it someday.

   Most modern keyboards have function keys as well as character keys.
Function keys send input events just as character keys do, and keymaps
can have bindings for them.

   On text terminals, typing a function key actually sends the computer
a sequence of characters; the precise details of the sequence depends on
which function key and on the model of terminal you are using.  (Often
the sequence starts with `<ESC> ['.)  If Emacs understands your
terminal type properly, it recognizes the character sequences forming
function keys wherever they occur in a key sequence (not just at the
beginning).  Thus, for most purposes, you can pretend the function keys
reach Emacs directly and ignore their encoding as character sequences.

   Mouse buttons also produce input events.  These events come with
other data--the window and position where you pressed or released the
button, and a time stamp.  But only the choice of button matters for key
bindings; the other data matters only if a command looks at it.
(Commands designed for mouse invocation usually do look at the other
data.)

   A keymap records definitions for single events.  Interpreting a key
sequence of multiple events involves a chain of keymaps.  The first
keymap gives a definition for the first event; this definition is
another keymap, which is used to look up the second event in the
sequence, and so on.

   Key sequences can mix function keys and characters.  For example,
`C-x <SELECT>' is meaningful.  If you make <SELECT> a prefix key, then
`<SELECT> C-n' makes sense.  You can even mix mouse events with
keyboard events, but we recommend against it, because such key
sequences are inconvenient to use.

   As a user, you can redefine any key; but it is usually best to stick
to key sequences that consist of `C-c' followed by a letter (upper or
lower case).  These keys are "reserved for users," so they won't
conflict with any properly designed Emacs extension.  The function keys
<F5> through <F9> are also reserved for users.  If you redefine some
other key, your definition may be overridden by certain extensions or
major modes which redefine the same key.


File: emacs,  Node: Prefix Keymaps,  Next: Local Keymaps,  Prev: Keymaps,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.2 Prefix Keymaps
---------------------

A prefix key such as `C-x' or <ESC> has its own keymap, which holds the
definition for the event that immediately follows that prefix.

   The definition of a prefix key is usually the keymap to use for
looking up the following event.  The definition can also be a Lisp
symbol whose function definition is the following keymap; the effect is
the same, but it provides a command name for the prefix key that can be
used as a description of what the prefix key is for.  Thus, the binding
of `C-x' is the symbol `Control-X-prefix', whose function definition is
the keymap for `C-x' commands.  The definitions of `C-c', `C-x', `C-h'
and <ESC> as prefix keys appear in the global map, so these prefix keys
are always available.

   Aside from ordinary prefix keys, there is a fictitious "prefix key"
which represents the menu bar; see *Note Menu Bar: (elisp)Menu Bar, for
special information about menu bar key bindings.  Mouse button events
that invoke pop-up menus are also prefix keys; see *Note Menu Keymaps:
(elisp)Menu Keymaps, for more details.

   Some prefix keymaps are stored in variables with names:

   * `ctl-x-map' is the variable name for the map used for characters
     that follow `C-x'.

   * `help-map' is for characters that follow `C-h'.

   * `esc-map' is for characters that follow <ESC>.  Thus, all Meta
     characters are actually defined by this map.

   * `ctl-x-4-map' is for characters that follow `C-x 4'.

   * `mode-specific-map' is for characters that follow `C-c'.


File: emacs,  Node: Local Keymaps,  Next: Minibuffer Maps,  Prev: Prefix Keymaps,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.3 Local Keymaps
--------------------

So far we have explained the ins and outs of the global map.  Major
modes customize Emacs by providing their own key bindings in "local
keymaps".  For example, C mode overrides <TAB> to make it indent the
current line for C code.  Portions of text in the buffer can specify
their own keymaps to substitute for the keymap of the buffer's major
mode.

   Minor modes can also have local keymaps.  Whenever a minor mode is
in effect, the definitions in its keymap override both the major mode's
local keymap and the global keymap.

   A local keymap can locally redefine a key as a prefix key by defining
it as a prefix keymap.  If the key is also defined globally as a prefix,
then its local and global definitions (both keymaps) effectively
combine: both of them are used to look up the event that follows the
prefix key.  Thus, if the mode's local keymap defines `C-c' as another
keymap, and that keymap defines `C-z' as a command, this provides a
local meaning for `C-c C-z'.  This does not affect other sequences that
start with `C-c'; if those sequences don't have their own local
bindings, their global bindings remain in effect.

   Another way to think of this is that Emacs handles a multi-event key
sequence by looking in several keymaps, one by one, for a binding of the
whole key sequence.  First it checks the minor mode keymaps for minor
modes that are enabled, then it checks the major mode's keymap, and then
it checks the global keymap.  This is not precisely how key lookup
works, but it's good enough for understanding the results in ordinary
circumstances.

   Most major modes construct their keymaps when the mode is used for
the first time in a session.  If you wish to change one of these
keymaps, you must use the major mode's "mode hook" (*note Hooks::).

   For example, the command `texinfo-mode' to select Texinfo mode runs
the hook `texinfo-mode-hook'.  Here's how you can use the hook to add
local bindings (not very useful, we admit) for `C-c n' and `C-c p' in
Texinfo mode:

     (add-hook 'texinfo-mode-hook
               '(lambda ()
                  (define-key texinfo-mode-map "\C-cp"
                              'backward-paragraph)
                  (define-key texinfo-mode-map "\C-cn"
                              'forward-paragraph)))


File: emacs,  Node: Minibuffer Maps,  Next: Rebinding,  Prev: Local Keymaps,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.4 Minibuffer Keymaps
-------------------------

The minibuffer has its own set of local keymaps; they contain various
completion and exit commands.

   * `minibuffer-local-map' is used for ordinary input (no completion).

   * `minibuffer-local-ns-map' is similar, except that <SPC> exits just
     like <RET>.  This is used mainly for Mocklisp compatibility.

   * `minibuffer-local-completion-map' is for permissive completion.

   * `minibuffer-local-must-match-map' is for strict completion and for
     cautious completion.

   * Finally, `minibuffer-local-filename-completion-map' and
     `minibuffer-local-must-match-filename-map' are like the two
     previous ones, but they are specifically for file name completion.
     They do not bind <SPC>.


File: emacs,  Node: Rebinding,  Next: Init Rebinding,  Prev: Minibuffer Maps,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.5 Changing Key Bindings Interactively
------------------------------------------

The way to redefine an Emacs key is to change its entry in a keymap.
You can change the global keymap, in which case the change is effective
in all major modes (except those that have their own overriding local
definitions for the same key).  Or you can change the current buffer's
local map, which affects all buffers using the same major mode.

`M-x global-set-key <RET> KEY CMD <RET>'
     Define KEY globally to run CMD.

`M-x local-set-key <RET> KEY CMD <RET>'
     Define KEY locally (in the major mode now in effect) to run CMD.

`M-x global-unset-key <RET> KEY'
     Make KEY undefined in the global map.

`M-x local-unset-key <RET> KEY'
     Make KEY undefined locally (in the major mode now in effect).

   For example, suppose you like to execute commands in a subshell
within an Emacs buffer, instead of suspending Emacs and executing
commands in your login shell.  Normally, `C-z' is bound to the function
`suspend-emacs' (when not using the X Window System), but you can
change `C-z' to invoke an interactive subshell within Emacs, by binding
it to `shell' as follows:

     M-x global-set-key <RET> C-z shell <RET>

`global-set-key' reads the command name after the key.   After you
press the key, a message like this appears so that you can confirm that
you are binding the key you want:

     Set key C-z to command:

   You can redefine function keys and mouse events in the same way; just
type the function key or click the mouse when it's time to specify the
key to rebind.

   You can rebind a key that contains more than one event in the same
way.  Emacs keeps reading the key to rebind until it is a complete key
(that is, not a prefix key).  Thus, if you type `C-f' for KEY, that's
the end; it enters the minibuffer immediately to read CMD.  But if you
type `C-x', since that's a prefix, it reads another character; if that
is `4', another prefix character, it reads one more character, and so
on.  For example,

     M-x global-set-key <RET> C-x 4 $ spell-other-window <RET>

redefines `C-x 4 $' to run the (fictitious) command
`spell-other-window'.

   The two-character keys consisting of `C-c' followed by a letter are
reserved for user customizations.  Lisp programs are not supposed to
define these keys, so the bindings you make for them will be available
in all major modes and will never get in the way of anything.

   You can remove the global definition of a key with
`global-unset-key'.  This makes the key "undefined"; if you type it,
Emacs will just beep.  Similarly, `local-unset-key' makes a key
undefined in the current major mode keymap, which makes the global
definition (or lack of one) come back into effect in that major mode.

   If you have redefined (or undefined) a key and you subsequently wish
to retract the change, undefining the key will not do the job--you need
to redefine the key with its standard definition.  To find the name of
the standard definition of a key, go to a Fundamental mode buffer in a
fresh Emacs and use `C-h c'.  The documentation of keys in this manual
also lists their command names.

   If you want to prevent yourself from invoking a command by mistake,
it is better to disable the command than to undefine the key.  A
disabled command is less work to invoke when you really want to.  *Note
Disabling::.


File: emacs,  Node: Init Rebinding,  Next: Function Keys,  Prev: Rebinding,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.6 Rebinding Keys in Your Init File
---------------------------------------

If you have a set of key bindings that you like to use all the time,
you can specify them in your `.emacs' file by using their Lisp syntax.
(*Note Init File::.)

   The simplest method for doing this works for ASCII characters and
Meta-modified ASCII characters only.  This method uses a string to
represent the key sequence you want to rebind.  For example, here's how
to bind `C-z' to `shell':

     (global-set-key "\C-z" 'shell)

This example uses a string constant containing one character, `C-z'.
(`\C-' is string syntax for a control character.)  The single-quote
before the command name, `shell', marks it as a constant symbol rather
than a variable.  If you omit the quote, Emacs would try to evaluate
`shell' immediately as a variable.  This probably causes an error; it
certainly isn't what you want.

   Here is another example that binds the key sequence `C-x M-l':

     (global-set-key "\C-x\M-l" 'make-symbolic-link)

   To put <TAB>, <RET>, <ESC>, or <DEL> in the string, you can use the
Emacs Lisp escape sequences, `\t', `\r', `\e', and `\d'.  Here is an
example which binds `C-x <TAB>':

     (global-set-key "\C-x\t" 'indent-rigidly)

   These examples show how to write some other special ASCII characters
in strings for key bindings:

     (global-set-key "\r" 'newline)               ;; <RET>
     (global-set-key "\d" 'delete-backward-char)  ;; <DEL>
     (global-set-key "\C-x\e\e" 'repeat-complex-command)  ;; <ESC>

   When the key sequence includes function keys or mouse button events,
or non-ASCII characters such as `C-=' or `H-a', you must use the more
general method of rebinding, which uses a vector to specify the key
sequence.

   The way to write a vector in Emacs Lisp is with square brackets
around the vector elements.  Use spaces to separate the elements.  If an
element is a symbol, simply write the symbol's name--no other
delimiters or punctuation are needed.  If a vector element is a
character, write it as a Lisp character constant: `?' followed by the
character as it would appear in a string.

   Here are examples of using vectors to rebind `C-=' (a control
character not in ASCII), `C-M-=' (not in ASCII because `C-=' is not),
`H-a' (a Hyper character; ASCII doesn't have Hyper at all), <F7> (a
function key), and `C-Mouse-1' (a keyboard-modified mouse button):

     (global-set-key [?\C-=] 'make-symbolic-link)
     (global-set-key [?\M-\C-=] 'make-symbolic-link)
     (global-set-key [?\H-a] 'make-symbolic-link)
     (global-set-key [f7] 'make-symbolic-link)
     (global-set-key [C-mouse-1] 'make-symbolic-link)

   You can use a vector for the simple cases too.  Here's how to
rewrite the first six examples above to use vectors:

     (global-set-key [?\C-z] 'shell)
     (global-set-key [?\C-x ?l] 'make-symbolic-link)
     (global-set-key [?\C-x ?\t] 'indent-rigidly)
     (global-set-key [?\r] 'newline)
     (global-set-key [?\d] 'delete-backward-char)
     (global-set-key [?\C-x ?\e ?\e] 'repeat-complex-command)

As you see, you represent a multi-character key sequence with a vector
by listing all of the characters, in order, within the square brackets
that delimit the vector.

   Language and coding systems can cause problems with key bindings for
non-ASCII characters.  *Note Init Non-ASCII::.


File: emacs,  Node: Function Keys,  Next: Named ASCII Chars,  Prev: Init Rebinding,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.7 Rebinding Function Keys
------------------------------

Key sequences can contain function keys as well as ordinary characters.
Just as Lisp characters (actually integers) represent keyboard
characters, Lisp symbols represent function keys.  If the function key
has a word as its label, then that word is also the name of the
corresponding Lisp symbol.  Here are the conventional Lisp names for
common function keys:

`left', `up', `right', `down'
     Cursor arrow keys.

`begin', `end', `home', `next', `prior'
     Other cursor repositioning keys.

`select', `print', `execute', `backtab'
`insert', `undo', `redo', `clearline'
`insertline', `deleteline', `insertchar', `deletechar'
     Miscellaneous function keys.

`f1', `f2', ... `f35'
     Numbered function keys (across the top of the keyboard).

`kp-add', `kp-subtract', `kp-multiply', `kp-divide'
`kp-backtab', `kp-space', `kp-tab', `kp-enter'
`kp-separator', `kp-decimal', `kp-equal'
     Keypad keys (to the right of the regular keyboard), with names or
     punctuation.

`kp-0', `kp-1', ... `kp-9'
     Keypad keys with digits.

`kp-f1', `kp-f2', `kp-f3', `kp-f4'
     Keypad PF keys.

   These names are conventional, but some systems (especially when using
X) may use different names.  To make certain what symbol is used for a
given function key on your terminal, type `C-h c' followed by that key.

   A key sequence which contains function key symbols (or anything but
ASCII characters) must be a vector rather than a string.  Thus, to bind
function key `f1' to the command `rmail', write the following:

     (global-set-key [f1] 'rmail)

To bind the right-arrow key to the command `forward-char', you can use
this expression:

     (global-set-key [right] 'forward-char)

This uses the Lisp syntax for a vector containing the symbol `right'.
(This binding is present in Emacs by default.)

   *Note Init Rebinding::, for more information about using vectors for
rebinding.

   You can mix function keys and characters in a key sequence.  This
example binds `C-x <NEXT>' to the command `forward-page'.

     (global-set-key [?\C-x next] 'forward-page)

where `?\C-x' is the Lisp character constant for the character `C-x'.
The vector element `next' is a symbol and therefore does not take a
question mark.

   You can use the modifier keys <CTRL>, <META>, <HYPER>, <SUPER>,
<ALT> and <SHIFT> with function keys.  To represent these modifiers,
add the strings `C-', `M-', `H-', `s-', `A-' and `S-' at the front of
the symbol name.  Thus, here is how to make `Hyper-Meta-<RIGHT>' move
forward a word:

     (global-set-key [H-M-right] 'forward-word)

   Many keyboards have a "numeric keypad" on the right hand side.  The
numeric keys in the keypad double up as cursor motion keys, toggled by
a key labeled `Num Lock'.  By default, Emacs translates these keys to
the corresponding keys in the main keyboard.  For example, when `Num
Lock' is on, the key labeled `8' on the numeric keypad produces `kp-8',
which is translated to `8'; when `Num Lock' is off, the same key
produces `kp-up', which is translated to <UP>.  If you rebind a key
such as `8' or <UP>, it affects the equivalent keypad key too.
However, if you rebind a `kp-' key directly, that won't affect its
non-keypad equivalent.

   Emacs provides a convenient method for binding the numeric keypad
keys, using the variables `keypad-setup', `keypad-numlock-setup',
`keypad-shifted-setup', and `keypad-numlock-shifted-setup'.  These can
be found in the `keyboard' customization group (*note Easy
Customization::).  You can rebind the keys to perform other tasks, such
as issuing numeric prefix arguments.


File: emacs,  Node: Named ASCII Chars,  Next: Mouse Buttons,  Prev: Function Keys,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.8 Named ASCII Control Characters
-------------------------------------

<TAB>, <RET>, <BS>, <LFD>, <ESC> and <DEL> started out as names for
certain ASCII control characters, used so often that they have special
keys of their own.  For instance, <TAB> was another name for `C-i'.
Later, users found it convenient to distinguish in Emacs between these
keys and the "same" control characters typed with the <CTRL> key.
Therefore, on most modern terminals, they are no longer the same, and
<TAB> is distinguishable from `C-i'.

   Emacs can distinguish these two kinds of input if the keyboard does.
It treats the "special" keys as function keys named `tab', `return',
`backspace', `linefeed', `escape', and `delete'.  These function keys
translate automatically into the corresponding ASCII characters _if_
they have no bindings of their own.  As a result, neither users nor
Lisp programs need to pay attention to the distinction unless they care
to.

   If you do not want to distinguish between (for example) <TAB> and
`C-i', make just one binding, for the ASCII character <TAB> (octal code
011).  If you do want to distinguish, make one binding for this ASCII
character, and another for the "function key" `tab'.

   With an ordinary ASCII terminal, there is no way to distinguish
between <TAB> and `C-i' (and likewise for other such pairs), because
the terminal sends the same character in both cases.


File: emacs,  Node: Mouse Buttons,  Next: Disabling,  Prev: Named ASCII Chars,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.9 Rebinding Mouse Buttons
------------------------------

Emacs uses Lisp symbols to designate mouse buttons, too.  The ordinary
mouse events in Emacs are "click" events; these happen when you press a
button and release it without moving the mouse.  You can also get
"drag" events, when you move the mouse while holding the button down.
Drag events happen when you finally let go of the button.

   The symbols for basic click events are `mouse-1' for the leftmost
button, `mouse-2' for the next, and so on.  Here is how you can
redefine the second mouse button to split the current window:

     (global-set-key [mouse-2] 'split-window-vertically)

   The symbols for drag events are similar, but have the prefix `drag-'
before the word `mouse'.  For example, dragging the first button
generates a `drag-mouse-1' event.

   You can also define bindings for events that occur when a mouse
button is pressed down.  These events start with `down-' instead of
`drag-'.  Such events are generated only if they have key bindings.
When you get a button-down event, a corresponding click or drag event
will always follow.

   If you wish, you can distinguish single, double, and triple clicks.
A double click means clicking a mouse button twice in approximately the
same place.  The first click generates an ordinary click event.  The
second click, if it comes soon enough, generates a double-click event
instead.  The event type for a double-click event starts with
`double-': for example, `double-mouse-3'.

   This means that you can give a special meaning to the second click at
the same place, but it must act on the assumption that the ordinary
single click definition has run when the first click was received.

   This constrains what you can do with double clicks, but user
interface designers say that this constraint ought to be followed in
any case.  A double click should do something similar to the single
click, only "more so."  The command for the double-click event should
perform the extra work for the double click.

   If a double-click event has no binding, it changes to the
corresponding single-click event.  Thus, if you don't define a
particular double click specially, it executes the single-click command
twice.

   Emacs also supports triple-click events whose names start with
`triple-'.  Emacs does not distinguish quadruple clicks as event types;
clicks beyond the third generate additional triple-click events.
However, the full number of clicks is recorded in the event list, so if
you know Emacs Lisp you can distinguish if you really want to (*note
Accessing Events: (elisp)Accessing Events.).  We don't recommend
distinct meanings for more than three clicks, but sometimes it is
useful for subsequent clicks to cycle through the same set of three
meanings, so that four clicks are equivalent to one click, five are
equivalent to two, and six are equivalent to three.

   Emacs also records multiple presses in drag and button-down events.
For example, when you press a button twice, then move the mouse while
holding the button, Emacs gets a `double-drag-' event.  And at the
moment when you press it down for the second time, Emacs gets a
`double-down-' event (which is ignored, like all button-down events, if
it has no binding).

   The variable `double-click-time' specifies how much time can elapse
between clicks and still allow them to be grouped as a multiple click.
Its value is in units of milliseconds.  If the value is `nil', double
clicks are not detected at all.  If the value is `t', then there is no
time limit.  The default is 500.

   The variable `double-click-fuzz' specifies how much the mouse can
move between clicks and still allow them to be grouped as a multiple
click.  Its value is in units of pixels on windowed displays and in
units of 1/8 of a character cell on text-mode terminals; the default is
3.

   The symbols for mouse events also indicate the status of the modifier
keys, with the usual prefixes `C-', `M-', `H-', `s-', `A-' and `S-'.
These always precede `double-' or `triple-', which always precede
`drag-' or `down-'.

   A frame includes areas that don't show text from the buffer, such as
the mode line and the scroll bar.  You can tell whether a mouse button
comes from a special area of the screen by means of dummy "prefix
keys."  For example, if you click the mouse in the mode line, you get
the prefix key `mode-line' before the ordinary mouse-button symbol.
Thus, here is how to define the command for clicking the first button in
a mode line to run `scroll-up':

     (global-set-key [mode-line mouse-1] 'scroll-up)

   Here is the complete list of these dummy prefix keys and their
meanings:

`mode-line'
     The mouse was in the mode line of a window.

`vertical-line'
     The mouse was in the vertical line separating side-by-side
     windows.  (If you use scroll bars, they appear in place of these
     vertical lines.)

`vertical-scroll-bar'
     The mouse was in a vertical scroll bar.  (This is the only kind of
     scroll bar Emacs currently supports.)

`menu-bar'
     The mouse was in the menu bar.

`header-line'
     The mouse was in a header line.

   You can put more than one mouse button in a key sequence, but it
isn't usual to do so.


File: emacs,  Node: Disabling,  Prev: Mouse Buttons,  Up: Key Bindings

57.4.10 Disabling Commands
--------------------------

Disabling a command means that invoking it interactively asks for
confirmation from the user.  The purpose of disabling a command is to
prevent users from executing it by accident; we do this for commands
that might be confusing to the uninitiated.

   Attempting to invoke a disabled command interactively in Emacs
displays a window containing the command's name, its documentation, and
some instructions on what to do immediately; then Emacs asks for input
saying whether to execute the command as requested, enable it and
execute it, or cancel.  If you decide to enable the command, you must
then answer another question--whether to do this permanently, or just
for the current session.  (Enabling permanently works by automatically
editing your `.emacs' file.)  You can also type `!' to enable _all_
commands, for the current session only.

   The direct mechanism for disabling a command is to put a non-`nil'
`disabled' property on the Lisp symbol for the command.  Here is the
Lisp program to do this:

     (put 'delete-region 'disabled t)

   If the value of the `disabled' property is a string, that string is
included in the message displayed when the command is used:

     (put 'delete-region 'disabled
          "It's better to use `kill-region' instead.\n")

   You can make a command disabled either by editing the `.emacs' file
directly, or with the command `M-x disable-command', which edits the
`.emacs' file for you.  Likewise, `M-x enable-command' edits `.emacs'
to enable a command permanently.  *Note Init File::.

   If Emacs was invoked with the `-q' or `--no-init-file' options
(*note Initial Options::), it will not edit your `~/.emacs' init file.
Doing so could lose information because Emacs has not read your init
file.

   Whether a command is disabled is independent of what key is used to
invoke it; disabling also applies if the command is invoked using
`M-x'.  However, disabling a command has no effect on calling it as a
function from Lisp programs.


File: emacs,  Node: Syntax,  Next: Init File,  Prev: Key Bindings,  Up: Customization

57.5 The Syntax Table
=====================

All the Emacs commands which parse words or balance parentheses are
controlled by the "syntax table".  The syntax table says which
characters are opening delimiters, which are parts of words, which are
string quotes, and so on.  It does this by assigning each character to
one of fifteen-odd "syntax classes".  In some cases it specifies some
additional information also.

   Each major mode has its own syntax table (though related major modes
sometimes share one syntax table), which it installs in each buffer
that uses the mode.  The syntax table installed in the current buffer
is the one that all commands use, so we call it "the" syntax table.

   To display a description of the contents of the current syntax
table, type `C-h s' (`describe-syntax').  The description of each
character includes the string you would have to give to
`modify-syntax-entry' to set up that character's current syntax,
starting with the character which designates its syntax class, plus
some English text to explain its meaning.

   A syntax table is actually a Lisp object, a char-table, whose
elements are cons cells.  For full information on the syntax table, see
*Note Syntax Tables: (elisp)Syntax Tables.


File: emacs,  Node: Init File,  Prev: Syntax,  Up: Customization

57.6 The Init File, `~/.emacs'
==============================

When Emacs is started, it normally loads a Lisp program from the file
`.emacs' or `.emacs.el' in your home directory (*note Find Init::).  We
call this file your "init file" because it specifies how to initialize
Emacs for you.  You can use the command line switch `-q' to prevent
loading your init file, and `-u' (or `--user') to specify a different
user's init file (*note Initial Options::).

   You can also use `~/.emacs.d/init.el' as the init file.  Emacs tries
this if it cannot find `~/.emacs' or `~/.emacs.el'.

   There can also be a "default init file", which is the library named
`default.el', found via the standard search path for libraries.  The
Emacs distribution contains no such library; your site may create one
for local customizations.  If this library exists, it is loaded
whenever you start Emacs (except when you specify `-q').  But your init
file, if any, is loaded first; if it sets `inhibit-default-init'
non-`nil', then `default' is not loaded.

   Your site may also have a "site startup file"; this is named
`site-start.el', if it exists.  Like `default.el', Emacs finds this
file via the standard search path for Lisp libraries.  Emacs loads this
library before it loads your init file.  To inhibit loading of this
library, use the option `--no-site-file'.  *Note Initial Options::.  We
recommend against using `site-start.el' for changes that some users may
not like.  It is better to put them in `default.el', so that users can
more easily override them.

   You can place `default.el' and `site-start.el' in any of the
directories which Emacs searches for Lisp libraries.  The variable
`load-path' (*note Lisp Libraries::) specifies these directories.  Many
sites put these files in the `site-lisp' subdirectory of the Emacs
installation directory, typically `/usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp'.

   If you have a large amount of code in your `.emacs' file, you should
rename it to `~/.emacs.el', and byte-compile it.  *Note Byte
Compilation: (elisp)Byte Compilation, for more information about
compiling Emacs Lisp programs.

   If you are going to write actual Emacs Lisp programs that go beyond
minor customization, you should read the `Emacs Lisp Reference Manual'.
*Note Emacs Lisp: (elisp)Top.

* Menu:

* Init Syntax::	        Syntax of constants in Emacs Lisp.
* Init Examples::       How to do some things with an init file.
* Terminal Init::       Each terminal type can have an init file.
* Find Init::	        How Emacs finds the init file.
* Init Non-ASCII::      Using non-ASCII characters in an init file.


File: emacs,  Node: Init Syntax,  Next: Init Examples,  Up: Init File

57.6.1 Init File Syntax
-----------------------

The `.emacs' file contains one or more Lisp function call expressions.
Each of these consists of a function name followed by arguments, all
surrounded by parentheses.  For example, `(setq fill-column 60)' calls
the function `setq' to set the variable `fill-column' (*note Filling::)
to 60.

   You can set any Lisp variable with `setq', but with certain
variables `setq' won't do what you probably want in the `.emacs' file.
Some variables automatically become buffer-local when set with `setq';
what you want in `.emacs' is to set the default value, using
`setq-default'.  Some customizable minor mode variables do special
things to enable the mode when you set them with Customize, but
ordinary `setq' won't do that; to enable the mode in your `.emacs'
file, call the minor mode command.  The following section has examples
of both of these methods.

   The second argument to `setq' is an expression for the new value of
the variable.  This can be a constant, a variable, or a function call
expression.  In `.emacs', constants are used most of the time.  They
can be:

Numbers:
     Numbers are written in decimal, with an optional initial minus
     sign.

Strings:
     Lisp string syntax is the same as C string syntax with a few extra
     features.  Use a double-quote character to begin and end a string
     constant.

     In a string, you can include newlines and special characters
     literally.  But often it is cleaner to use backslash sequences for
     them: `\n' for newline, `\b' for backspace, `\r' for carriage
     return, `\t' for tab, `\f' for formfeed (control-L), `\e' for
     escape, `\\' for a backslash, `\"' for a double-quote, or `\OOO'
     for the character whose octal code is OOO.  Backslash and
     double-quote are the only characters for which backslash sequences
     are mandatory.

     `\C-' can be used as a prefix for a control character, as in
     `\C-s' for ASCII control-S, and `\M-' can be used as a prefix for
     a Meta character, as in `\M-a' for `Meta-A' or `\M-\C-a' for
     `Control-Meta-A'.

     *Note Init Non-ASCII::, for information about including non-ASCII
     in your init file.

Characters:
     Lisp character constant syntax consists of a `?' followed by
     either a character or an escape sequence starting with `\'.
     Examples: `?x', `?\n', `?\"', `?\)'.  Note that strings and
     characters are not interchangeable in Lisp; some contexts require
     one and some contexts require the other.

     *Note Init Non-ASCII::, for information about binding commands to
     keys which send non-ASCII characters.

True:
     `t' stands for `true'.

False:
     `nil' stands for `false'.

Other Lisp objects:
     Write a single-quote (`'') followed by the Lisp object you want.


File: emacs,  Node: Init Examples,  Next: Terminal Init,  Prev: Init Syntax,  Up: Init File

57.6.2 Init File Examples
-------------------------

Here are some examples of doing certain commonly desired things with
Lisp expressions:

   * Make <TAB> in C mode just insert a tab if point is in the middle
     of a line.

          (setq c-tab-always-indent nil)

     Here we have a variable whose value is normally `t' for `true' and
     the alternative is `nil' for `false'.

   * Make searches case sensitive by default (in all buffers that do not
     override this).

          (setq-default case-fold-search nil)

     This sets the default value, which is effective in all buffers
     that do not have local values for the variable.  Setting
     `case-fold-search' with `setq' affects only the current buffer's
     local value, which is not what you probably want to do in an init
     file.

   * Specify your own email address, if Emacs can't figure it out
     correctly.

          (setq user-mail-address "rumsfeld@torture.gov")

     Various Emacs packages that need your own email address use the
     value of `user-mail-address'.

   * Make Text mode the default mode for new buffers.

          (setq default-major-mode 'text-mode)

     Note that `text-mode' is used because it is the command for
     entering Text mode.  The single-quote before it makes the symbol a
     constant; otherwise, `text-mode' would be treated as a variable
     name.

   * Set up defaults for the Latin-1 character set which supports most
     of the languages of Western Europe.

          (set-language-environment "Latin-1")

   * Turn off Line Number mode, a global minor mode.

          (line-number-mode 0)

   * Turn on Auto Fill mode automatically in Text mode and related
     modes.

          (add-hook 'text-mode-hook
            '(lambda () (auto-fill-mode 1)))

     This shows how to add a hook function to a normal hook variable
     (*note Hooks::).  The function we supply is a list starting with
     `lambda', with a single-quote in front of it to make it a list
     constant rather than an expression.

     It's beyond the scope of this manual to explain Lisp functions,
     but for this example it is enough to know that the effect is to
     execute `(auto-fill-mode 1)' when Text mode is entered.  You can
     replace that with any other expression that you like, or with
     several expressions in a row.

     Emacs comes with a function named `turn-on-auto-fill' whose
     definition is `(lambda () (auto-fill-mode 1))'.  Thus, a simpler
     way to write the above example is as follows:

          (add-hook 'text-mode-hook 'turn-on-auto-fill)

   * Load the installed Lisp library named `foo' (actually a file
     `foo.elc' or `foo.el' in a standard Emacs directory).

          (load "foo")

     When the argument to `load' is a relative file name, not starting
     with `/' or `~', `load' searches the directories in `load-path'
     (*note Lisp Libraries::).

   * Load the compiled Lisp file `foo.elc' from your home directory.

          (load "~/foo.elc")

     Here an absolute file name is used, so no searching is done.

   * Tell Emacs to find the definition for the function `myfunction' by
     loading a Lisp library named `mypackage' (i.e. a file
     `mypackage.elc' or `mypackage.el'):

          (autoload 'myfunction "mypackage" "Do what I say." t)

     Here the string `"Do what I say."' is the function's documentation
     string.  You specify it in the `autoload' definition so it will be
     available for help commands even when the package is not loaded.
     The last argument, `t', indicates that this function is
     interactive; that is, it can be invoked interactively by typing
     `M-x myfunction <RET>' or by binding it to a key.  If the function
     is not interactive, omit the `t' or use `nil'.

   * Rebind the key `C-x l' to run the function `make-symbolic-link'
     (*note Init Rebinding::).

          (global-set-key "\C-xl" 'make-symbolic-link)

     or

          (define-key global-map "\C-xl" 'make-symbolic-link)

     Note once again the single-quote used to refer to the symbol
     `make-symbolic-link' instead of its value as a variable.

   * Do the same thing for Lisp mode only.

          (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-xl" 'make-symbolic-link)

   * Redefine all keys which now run `next-line' in Fundamental mode so
     that they run `forward-line' instead.

          (substitute-key-definition 'next-line 'forward-line
                                     global-map)

   * Make `C-x C-v' undefined.

          (global-unset-key "\C-x\C-v")

     One reason to undefine a key is so that you can make it a prefix.
     Simply defining `C-x C-v ANYTHING' will make `C-x C-v' a prefix,
     but `C-x C-v' must first be freed of its usual non-prefix
     definition.

   * Make `$' have the syntax of punctuation in Text mode.  Note the
     use of a character constant for `$'.

          (modify-syntax-entry ?\$ "." text-mode-syntax-table)

   * Enable the use of the command `narrow-to-region' without
     confirmation.

          (put 'narrow-to-region 'disabled nil)

   * Adjusting the configuration to various platforms and Emacs
     versions.

     Users typically want Emacs to behave the same on all systems, so
     the same init file is right for all platforms.  However, sometimes
     it happens that a function you use for customizing Emacs is not
     available on some platforms or in older Emacs versions.  To deal
     with that situation, put the customization inside a conditional
     that tests whether the function or facility is available, like
     this:

          (if (fboundp 'blink-cursor-mode)
              (blink-cursor-mode 0))

          (if (boundp 'coding-category-utf-8)
              (set-coding-priority '(coding-category-utf-8)))

     You can also simply disregard the errors that occur if the
     function is not defined.

          (condition case ()
              (set-face-background 'region "grey75")
            (error nil))

     A `setq' on a variable which does not exist is generally harmless,
     so those do not need a conditional.


File: emacs,  Node: Terminal Init,  Next: Find Init,  Prev: Init Examples,  Up: Init File

57.6.3 Terminal-specific Initialization
---------------------------------------

Each terminal type can have a Lisp library to be loaded into Emacs when
it is run on that type of terminal.  For a terminal type named
TERMTYPE, the library is called `term/TERMTYPE' and it is found by
searching the directories `load-path' as usual and trying the suffixes
`.elc' and `.el'.  Normally it appears in the subdirectory `term' of
the directory where most Emacs libraries are kept.

   The usual purpose of the terminal-specific library is to map the
escape sequences used by the terminal's function keys onto more
meaningful names, using `function-key-map'.  See the file
`term/lk201.el' for an example of how this is done.  Many function keys
are mapped automatically according to the information in the Termcap
data base; the terminal-specific library needs to map only the function
keys that Termcap does not specify.

   When the terminal type contains a hyphen, only the part of the name
before the first hyphen is significant in choosing the library name.
Thus, terminal types `aaa-48' and `aaa-30-rv' both use the library
`term/aaa'.  The code in the library can use `(getenv "TERM")' to find
the full terminal type name.

   The library's name is constructed by concatenating the value of the
variable `term-file-prefix' and the terminal type.  Your `.emacs' file
can prevent the loading of the terminal-specific library by setting
`term-file-prefix' to `nil'.

   Emacs runs the hook `term-setup-hook' at the end of initialization,
after both your `.emacs' file and any terminal-specific library have
been read in.  Add hook functions to this hook if you wish to override
part of any of the terminal-specific libraries and to define
initializations for terminals that do not have a library.  *Note
Hooks::.


File: emacs,  Node: Find Init,  Next: Init Non-ASCII,  Prev: Terminal Init,  Up: Init File

57.6.4 How Emacs Finds Your Init File
-------------------------------------

Normally Emacs uses the environment variable `HOME' (*note HOME:
General Variables.) to find `.emacs'; that's what `~' means in a file
name.  If `.emacs' is not found inside `~/' (nor `.emacs.el'), Emacs
looks for `~/.emacs.d/init.el' (which, like `~/.emacs.el', can be
byte-compiled).

   However, if you run Emacs from a shell started by `su', Emacs tries
to find your own `.emacs', not that of the user you are currently
pretending to be.  The idea is that you should get your own editor
customizations even if you are running as the super user.

   More precisely, Emacs first determines which user's init file to use.
It gets your user name from the environment variables `LOGNAME' and
`USER'; if neither of those exists, it uses effective user-ID.  If that
user name matches the real user-ID, then Emacs uses `HOME'; otherwise,
it looks up the home directory corresponding to that user name in the
system's data base of users.


File: emacs,  Node: Init Non-ASCII,  Prev: Find Init,  Up: Init File

57.6.5 Non-ASCII Characters in Init Files
-----------------------------------------

Language and coding systems may cause problems if your init file
contains non-ASCII characters, such as accented letters, in strings or
key bindings.

   If you want to use non-ASCII characters in your init file, you
should put a `-*-coding: CODING-SYSTEM-*-' tag on the first line of the
init file, and specify a coding system that supports the character(s)
in question.  *Note Recognize Coding::.  This is because the defaults
for decoding non-ASCII text might not yet be set up by the time Emacs
reads those parts of your init file which use such strings, possibly
leading Emacs to decode those strings incorrectly.  You should then
avoid adding Emacs Lisp code that modifies the coding system in other
ways, such as calls to `set-language-environment'.

   To bind non-ASCII keys, you must use a vector (*note Init
Rebinding::).  The string syntax cannot be used, since the non-ASCII
characters will be interpreted as meta keys.  For instance:

     (global-set-key [?CHAR] 'some-function)

Type `C-q', followed by the key you want to bind, to insert CHAR.

   *Warning:* if you change the keyboard encoding, or change between
multibyte and unibyte mode, or anything that would alter which code
`C-q' would insert for that character, this keybinding may stop
working.  It is therefore advisable to use one and only one coding
system, for your init file as well as the files you edit.  For example,
don't mix the `latin-1' and `latin-9' coding systems.


File: emacs,  Node: Quitting,  Next: Lossage,  Prev: Customization,  Up: Top

58 Quitting and Aborting
************************

`C-g'
`C-<BREAK> (MS-DOS only)'
     Quit: cancel running or partially typed command.

`C-]'
     Abort innermost recursive editing level and cancel the command
     which invoked it (`abort-recursive-edit').

`<ESC> <ESC> <ESC>'
     Either quit or abort, whichever makes sense
     (`keyboard-escape-quit').

`M-x top-level'
     Abort all recursive editing levels that are currently executing.

`C-x u'
     Cancel a previously made change in the buffer contents (`undo').

   There are two ways of canceling a command before it has finished:
"quitting" with `C-g', and "aborting" with `C-]' or `M-x top-level'.
Quitting cancels a partially typed command, or one which is still
running.  Aborting exits a recursive editing level and cancels the
command that invoked the recursive edit.  (*Note Recursive Edit::.)

   Quitting with `C-g' is the way to get rid of a partially typed
command, or a numeric argument that you don't want.  It also stops a
running command in the middle in a relatively safe way, so you can use
it if you accidentally give a command which takes a long time.  In
particular, it is safe to quit out of a kill command; either your text
will _all_ still be in the buffer, or it will _all_ be in the kill
ring, or maybe both.  Quitting an incremental search does special
things, documented under searching; it may take two successive `C-g'
characters to get out of a search (*note Incremental Search::).

   On MS-DOS, the character `C-<BREAK>' serves as a quit character like
`C-g'.  The reason is that it is not feasible, on MS-DOS, to recognize
`C-g' while a command is running, between interactions with the user.
By contrast, it _is_ feasible to recognize `C-<BREAK>' at all times.
*Note MS-DOS Keyboard::.

   `C-g' works by setting the variable `quit-flag' to `t' the instant
`C-g' is typed; Emacs Lisp checks this variable frequently, and quits
if it is non-`nil'.  `C-g' is only actually executed as a command if
you type it while Emacs is waiting for input.  In that case, the
command it runs is `keyboard-quit'.

   On a text terminal, if you quit with `C-g' a second time before the
first `C-g' is recognized, you activate the "emergency escape" feature
and return to the shell.  *Note Emergency Escape::.

   There are some situations where you cannot quit.  When Emacs is
waiting for the operating system to do something, quitting is
impossible unless special pains are taken for the particular system
call within Emacs where the waiting occurs.  We have done this for the
system calls that users are likely to want to quit from, but it's
possible you will a case not handled.  In one very common case--waiting
for file input or output using NFS--Emacs itself knows how to quit, but
many NFS implementations simply do not allow user programs to stop
waiting for NFS when the NFS server is hung.

   Aborting with `C-]' (`abort-recursive-edit') is used to get out of a
recursive editing level and cancel the command which invoked it.
Quitting with `C-g' does not do this, and could not do this, because it
is used to cancel a partially typed command _within_ the recursive
editing level.  Both operations are useful.  For example, if you are in
a recursive edit and type `C-u 8' to enter a numeric argument, you can
cancel that argument with `C-g' and remain in the recursive edit.

   The sequence `<ESC> <ESC> <ESC>' (`keyboard-escape-quit') can either
quit or abort.  (We defined it this way because <ESC> means "get out"
in many PC programs.)  It can cancel a prefix argument, clear a
selected region, or get out of a Query Replace, like `C-g'.  It can get
out of the minibuffer or a recursive edit, like `C-]'.  It can also get
out of splitting the frame into multiple windows, as with `C-x 1'.  One
thing it cannot do, however, is stop a command that is running.  That's
because it executes as an ordinary command, and Emacs doesn't notice it
until it is ready for the next command.

   The command `M-x top-level' is equivalent to "enough" `C-]' commands
to get you out of all the levels of recursive edits that you are in.
`C-]' gets you out one level at a time, but `M-x top-level' goes out
all levels at once.  Both `C-]' and `M-x top-level' are like all other
commands, and unlike `C-g', in that they take effect only when Emacs is
ready for a command.  `C-]' is an ordinary key and has its meaning only
because of its binding in the keymap.  *Note Recursive Edit::.

   `C-x u' (`undo') is not strictly speaking a way of canceling a
command, but you can think of it as canceling a command that already
finished executing.  *Note Undo::, for more information about the undo
facility.


File: emacs,  Node: Lossage,  Next: Bugs,  Prev: Quitting,  Up: Top

59 Dealing with Emacs Trouble
*****************************

This section describes various conditions in which Emacs fails to work
normally, and how to recognize them and correct them.  For a list of
additional problems you might encounter, see *Note Bugs and problems:
(efaq)Bugs and problems, and the file `etc/PROBLEMS' in the Emacs
distribution.  Type `C-h C-f' to read the FAQ; type `C-h C-e' to read
the `PROBLEMS' file.

* Menu:

* DEL Does Not Delete::   What to do if <DEL> doesn't delete.
* Stuck Recursive::       `[...]' in mode line around the parentheses.
* Screen Garbled::        Garbage on the screen.
* Text Garbled::          Garbage in the text.
* Memory Full::           How to cope when you run out of memory.
* After a Crash::         Recovering editing in an Emacs session that crashed.
* Emergency Escape::      Emergency escape---
                            What to do if Emacs stops responding.
* Total Frustration::     When you are at your wits' end.


File: emacs,  Node: DEL Does Not Delete,  Next: Stuck Recursive,  Up: Lossage

59.1 If <DEL> Fails to Delete
=============================

Every keyboard has a large key, a little ways above the <RET> or
<ENTER> key, which you normally use outside Emacs to erase the last
character that you typed.  We call this key "the usual erasure key".
In Emacs, it is supposed to be equivalent to <DEL>, and when Emacs is
properly configured for your terminal, it translates that key into the
character <DEL>.

   When Emacs starts up on a graphical display, it determines
automatically which key should be <DEL>.  In some unusual cases Emacs
gets the wrong information from the system.  If the usual erasure key
deletes forwards instead of backwards, that is probably what
happened--Emacs ought to be treating the <DELETE> key as <DEL>, but it
isn't.

   On a graphical display, if the usual erasure key is labeled
<BACKSPACE> and there is a <DELETE> key elsewhere, but the <DELETE> key
deletes backward instead of forward, that too suggests Emacs got the
wrong information--but in the opposite sense.  It ought to be treating
the <BACKSPACE> key as <DEL>, and treating <DELETE> differently, but it
isn't.

   On a text-only terminal, if you find the usual erasure key prompts
for a Help command, like `Control-h', instead of deleting a character,
it means that key is actually sending the <BS> character.  Emacs ought
to be treating <BS> as <DEL>, but it isn't.

   In all of those cases, the immediate remedy is the same: use the
command `M-x normal-erase-is-backspace-mode'.  This toggles between the
two modes that Emacs supports for handling <DEL>, so if Emacs starts in
the wrong mode, this should switch to the right mode.  On a text-only
terminal, if you want to ask for help when <BS> is treated as <DEL>,
use <F1>; `C-?' may also work, if it sends character code 127.

   To fix the problem automatically for every Emacs session, you can
put one of the following lines into your `.emacs' file (*note Init
File::).  For the first case above, where <DELETE> deletes forwards
instead of backwards, use this line to make <DELETE> act as <DEL>
(resulting in behavior compatible with Emacs 20 and previous versions):

     (normal-erase-is-backspace-mode 0)

For the other two cases, where <BACKSPACE> ought to act as <DEL>, use
this line:

     (normal-erase-is-backspace-mode 1)

   Another way to fix the problem for every Emacs session is to
customize the variable `normal-erase-is-backspace': the value `t'
specifies the mode where <BS> or <BACKSPACE> is <DEL>, and `nil'
specifies the other mode.  *Note Easy Customization::.

   On a graphical display, it can also happen that the usual erasure key
is labeled <BACKSPACE>, there is a <DELETE> key elsewhere, and both
keys delete forward.  This probably means that someone has redefined
your <BACKSPACE> key as a <DELETE> key.  With X, this is typically done
with a command to the `xmodmap' program when you start the server or
log in.  The most likely motive for this customization was to support
old versions of Emacs, so we recommend you simply remove it now.


File: emacs,  Node: Stuck Recursive,  Next: Screen Garbled,  Prev: DEL Does Not Delete,  Up: Lossage

59.2 Recursive Editing Levels
=============================

Recursive editing levels are important and useful features of Emacs, but
they can seem like malfunctions if you do not understand them.

   If the mode line has square brackets `[...]' around the parentheses
that contain the names of the major and minor modes, you have entered a
recursive editing level.  If you did not do this on purpose, or if you
don't understand what that means, you should just get out of the
recursive editing level.  To do so, type `M-x top-level'.  This is
called getting back to top level.  *Note Recursive Edit::.


File: emacs,  Node: Screen Garbled,  Next: Text Garbled,  Prev: Stuck Recursive,  Up: Lossage

59.3 Garbage on the Screen
==========================

If the text on a text terminal looks wrong, the first thing to do is
see whether it is wrong in the buffer.  Type `C-l' to redisplay the
entire screen.  If the screen appears correct after this, the problem
was entirely in the previous screen update.  (Otherwise, see the
following section.)

   Display updating problems often result from an incorrect terminfo
entry for the terminal you are using.  The file `etc/TERMS' in the
Emacs distribution gives the fixes for known problems of this sort.
`INSTALL' contains general advice for these problems in one of its
sections.  To investigate the possibility that you have this sort of
problem, try Emacs on another terminal made by a different
manufacturer.  If problems happen frequently on one kind of terminal
but not another kind, it is likely to be a bad terminfo entry, though
it could also be due to a bug in Emacs that appears for terminals that
have or that lack specific features.


File: emacs,  Node: Text Garbled,  Next: Memory Full,  Prev: Screen Garbled,  Up: Lossage

59.4 Garbage in the Text
========================

If `C-l' shows that the text is wrong, first type `C-h l' to see what
commands you typed to produce the observed results.  Then try undoing
the changes step by step using `C-x u', until it gets back to a state
you consider correct.

   If a large portion of text appears to be missing at the beginning or
end of the buffer, check for the word `Narrow' in the mode line.  If it
appears, the text you don't see is probably still present, but
temporarily off-limits.  To make it accessible again, type `C-x n w'.
*Note Narrowing::.


File: emacs,  Node: Memory Full,  Next: After a Crash,  Prev: Text Garbled,  Up: Lossage

59.5 Running out of Memory
==========================

If you get the error message `Virtual memory exceeded', save your
modified buffers with `C-x s'.  This method of saving them has the
smallest need for additional memory.  Emacs keeps a reserve of memory
which it makes available when this error happens; that should be enough
to enable `C-x s' to complete its work.  When the reserve has been
used, `!MEM FULL!' appears at the beginning of the mode line,
indicating there is no more reserve.

   Once you have saved your modified buffers, you can exit this Emacs
session and start another, or you can use `M-x kill-some-buffers' to
free space in the current Emacs job.  If this frees up sufficient
space, Emacs will refill its memory reserve, and `!MEM FULL!' will
disappear from the mode line.  That means you can safely go on editing
in the same Emacs session.

   Do not use `M-x buffer-menu' to save or kill buffers when you run
out of memory, because the buffer menu needs a fair amount of memory
itself, and the reserve supply may not be enough.


File: emacs,  Node: After a Crash,  Next: Emergency Escape,  Prev: Memory Full,  Up: Lossage

59.6 Recovery After a Crash
===========================

If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover the files you were
editing at the time of the crash from their auto-save files.  To do
this, start Emacs again and type the command `M-x recover-session'.

   This command initially displays a buffer which lists interrupted
session files, each with its date.  You must choose which session to
recover from.  Typically the one you want is the most recent one.  Move
point to the one you choose, and type `C-c C-c'.

   Then `recover-session' considers each of the files that you were
editing during that session; for each such file, it asks whether to
recover that file.  If you answer `y' for a file, it shows the dates of
that file and its auto-save file, then asks once again whether to
recover that file.  For the second question, you must confirm with
`yes'.  If you do, Emacs visits the file but gets the text from the
auto-save file.

   When `recover-session' is done, the files you've chosen to recover
are present in Emacs buffers.  You should then save them.  Only
this--saving them--updates the files themselves.

   As a last resort, if you had buffers with content which were not
associated with any files, or if the autosave was not recent enough to
have recorded important changes, you can use the `etc/emacs-buffer.gdb'
script with GDB (the GNU Debugger) to retrieve them from a core
dump-provided that a core dump was saved, and that the Emacs executable
was not stripped of its debugging symbols.

   As soon as you get the core dump, rename it to another name such as
`core.emacs', so that another crash won't overwrite it.

   To use this script, run `gdb' with the file name of your Emacs
executable and the file name of the core dump, e.g. `gdb /usr/bin/emacs
core.emacs'.  At the `(gdb)' prompt, load the recovery script: `source
/usr/src/emacs/etc/emacs-buffer.gdb'.  Then type the command
`ybuffer-list' to see which buffers are available.  For each buffer, it
lists a buffer number.  To save a buffer, use `ysave-buffer'; you
specify the buffer number, and the file name to write that buffer into.
You should use a file name which does not already exist; if the file
does exist, the script does not make a backup of its old contents.


File: emacs,  Node: Emergency Escape,  Next: Total Frustration,  Prev: After a Crash,  Up: Lossage

59.7 Emergency Escape
=====================

On text-only terminals, the "emergency escape" feature suspends Emacs
immediately if you type `C-g' a second time before Emacs can actually
respond to the first one by quitting.  This is so you can always get
out of GNU Emacs no matter how badly it might be hung.  When things are
working properly, Emacs recognizes and handles the first `C-g' so fast
that the second one won't trigger emergency escape.  However, if some
problem prevents Emacs from handling the first `C-g' properly, then the
second one will get you back to the shell.

   When you resume Emacs after a suspension caused by emergency escape,
it asks two questions before going back to what it had been doing:

     Auto-save? (y or n)
     Abort (and dump core)? (y or n)

Answer each one with `y' or `n' followed by <RET>.

   Saying `y' to `Auto-save?' causes immediate auto-saving of all
modified buffers in which auto-saving is enabled.  Saying `n' skips
this.

   Saying `y' to `Abort (and dump core)?' causes Emacs to crash,
dumping core.  This is to enable a wizard to figure out why Emacs was
failing to quit in the first place.  Execution does not continue after
a core dump.

   If you answer this question `n', Emacs execution resumes.  With
luck, Emacs will ultimately do the requested quit.  If not, each
subsequent `C-g' invokes emergency escape again.

   If Emacs is not really hung, just slow, you may invoke the double
`C-g' feature without really meaning to.  Then just resume and answer
`n' to both questions, and you will get back to the former state.  The
quit you requested will happen by and by.

   Emergency escape is active only for text terminals.  On graphical
displays, you can use the mouse to kill Emacs or switch to another
program.

   On MS-DOS, you must type `C-<BREAK>' (twice) to cause emergency
escape--but there are cases where it won't work, when system call hangs
or when Emacs is stuck in a tight loop in C code.


File: emacs,  Node: Total Frustration,  Prev: Emergency Escape,  Up: Lossage

59.8 Help for Total Frustration
===============================

If using Emacs (or something else) becomes terribly frustrating and none
of the techniques described above solve the problem, Emacs can still
help you.

   First, if the Emacs you are using is not responding to commands, type
`C-g C-g' to get out of it and then start a new one.

   Second, type `M-x doctor <RET>'.

   The Emacs psychotherapist will help you feel better.  Each time you
say something to the psychotherapist, you must end it by typing <RET>
<RET>.  This indicates you are finished typing.


File: emacs,  Node: Bugs,  Next: Contributing,  Prev: Lossage,  Up: Top

60 Reporting Bugs
*****************

Sometimes you will encounter a bug in Emacs.  Although we cannot
promise we can or will fix the bug, and we might not even agree that it
is a bug, we want to hear about problems you encounter.  Often we agree
they are bugs and want to fix them.

   To make it possible for us to fix a bug, you must report it.  In
order to do so effectively, you must know when and how to do it.

   Before reporting a bug, it is a good idea to see if it is already
known.  You can find the list of known problems in the file
`etc/PROBLEMS' in the Emacs distribution; type `C-h C-e' to read it.
Some additional user-level problems can be found in *Note Bugs and
problems: (efaq)Bugs and problems.  Looking up your problem in these
two documents might provide you with a solution or a work-around, or
give you additional information about related issues.

* Menu:

* Criteria:  Bug Criteria.	 Have you really found a bug?
* Understanding Bug Reporting::	 How to report a bug effectively.
* Checklist::			 Steps to follow for a good bug report.
* Sending Patches::		 How to send a patch for GNU Emacs.


File: emacs,  Node: Bug Criteria,  Next: Understanding Bug Reporting,  Up: Bugs

60.1 When Is There a Bug
========================

If Emacs accesses an invalid memory location ("segmentation fault"), or
exits with an operating system error message that indicates a problem
in the program (as opposed to something like "disk full"), then it is
certainly a bug.

   If Emacs updates the display in a way that does not correspond to
what is in the buffer, then it is certainly a bug.  If a command seems
to do the wrong thing but the problem corrects itself if you type
`C-l', it is a case of incorrect display updating.

   Taking forever to complete a command can be a bug, but you must make
certain that it was really Emacs's fault.  Some commands simply take a
long time.  Type `C-g' (`C-<BREAK>' on MS-DOS) and then `C-h l' to see
whether the input Emacs received was what you intended to type; if the
input was such that you _know_ it should have been processed quickly,
report a bug.  If you don't know whether the command should take a long
time, find out by looking in the manual or by asking for assistance.

   If a command you are familiar with causes an Emacs error message in a
case where its usual definition ought to be reasonable, it is probably a
bug.

   If a command does the wrong thing, that is a bug.  But be sure you
know for certain what it ought to have done.  If you aren't familiar
with the command, or don't know for certain how the command is supposed
to work, then it might actually be working right.  Rather than jumping
to conclusions, show the problem to someone who knows for certain.

   Finally, a command's intended definition may not be the best
possible definition for editing with.  This is a very important sort of
problem, but it is also a matter of judgment.  Also, it is easy to come
to such a conclusion out of ignorance of some of the existing features.
It is probably best not to complain about such a problem until you
have checked the documentation in the usual ways, feel confident that
you understand it, and know for certain that what you want is not
available.  Ask other Emacs users, too.  If you are not sure what the
command is supposed to do after a careful reading of the manual, check
the index and glossary for any terms that may be unclear.

   If after careful rereading of the manual you still do not understand
what the command should do, that indicates a bug in the manual, which
you should report.  The manual's job is to make everything clear to
people who are not Emacs experts--including you.  It is just as
important to report documentation bugs as program bugs.

   If the on-line documentation string of a function or variable
disagrees with the manual, one of them must be wrong; that is a bug.


File: emacs,  Node: Understanding Bug Reporting,  Next: Checklist,  Prev: Bug Criteria,  Up: Bugs

60.2 Understanding Bug Reporting
================================

When you decide that there is a bug, it is important to report it and to
report it in a way which is useful.  What is most useful is an exact
description of what commands you type, starting with the shell command
to run Emacs, until the problem happens.

   The most important principle in reporting a bug is to report
_facts_.  Hypotheses and verbal descriptions are no substitute for the
detailed raw data.  Reporting the facts is straightforward, but many
people strain to posit explanations and report them instead of the
facts.  If the explanations are based on guesses about how Emacs is
implemented, they will be useless; meanwhile, lacking the facts, we will
have no real information about the bug.

   For example, suppose that you type `C-x C-f /glorp/baz.ugh <RET>',
visiting a file which (you know) happens to be rather large, and Emacs
displays `I feel pretty today'.  The best way to report the bug is with
a sentence like the preceding one, because it gives all the facts.

   A bad way would be to assume that the problem is due to the size of
the file and say, "I visited a large file, and Emacs displayed `I feel
pretty today'."  This is what we mean by "guessing explanations."  The
problem is just as likely to be due to the fact that there is a `z' in
the file name.  If this is so, then when we got your report, we would
try out the problem with some "large file," probably with no `z' in its
name, and not see any problem.  There is no way in the world that we
could guess that we should try visiting a file with a `z' in its name.

   Alternatively, the problem might be due to the fact that the file
starts with exactly 25 spaces.  For this reason, you should make sure
that you inform us of the exact contents of any file that is needed to
reproduce the bug.  What if the problem only occurs when you have typed
the `C-x C-a' command previously?  This is why we ask you to give the
exact sequence of characters you typed since starting the Emacs session.

   You should not even say "visit a file" instead of `C-x C-f' unless
you _know_ that it makes no difference which visiting command is used.
Similarly, rather than saying "if I have three characters on the line,"
say "after I type `<RET> A B C <RET> C-p'," if that is the way you
entered the text.

   So please don't guess any explanations when you report a bug.  If you
want to actually _debug_ the problem, and report explanations that are
more than guesses, that is useful--but please include the facts as well.


File: emacs,  Node: Checklist,  Next: Sending Patches,  Prev: Understanding Bug Reporting,  Up: Bugs

60.3 Checklist for Bug Reports
==============================

The best way to send a bug report is to mail it electronically to the
Emacs maintainers at <bug-gnu-emacs@gnu.org>, or to
<emacs-pretest-bug@gnu.org> if you are pretesting an Emacs beta
release.  (If you want to suggest a change as an improvement, use the
same address.)

   If you'd like to read the bug reports, you can find them on the
newsgroup `gnu.emacs.bug'; keep in mind, however, that as a spectator
you should not criticize anything about what you see there.  The
purpose of bug reports is to give information to the Emacs maintainers.
Spectators are welcome only as long as they do not interfere with
this.  In particular, some bug reports contain fairly large amounts of
data; spectators should not complain about this.

   Please do not post bug reports using netnews; mail is more reliable
than netnews about reporting your correct address, which we may need in
order to ask you for more information.  If your data is more than
500,000 bytes, please don't include it directly in the bug report;
instead, offer to send it on request, or make it available by ftp and
say where.

   A convenient way to send a bug report for Emacs is to use the command
`M-x report-emacs-bug'.  This sets up a mail buffer (*note Sending
Mail::) and automatically inserts _some_ of the essential information.
However, it cannot supply all the necessary information; you should
still read and follow the guidelines below, so you can enter the other
crucial information by hand before you send the message.

   To enable maintainers to investigate a bug, your report should
include all these things:

   * The version number of Emacs.  Without this, we won't know whether
     there is any point in looking for the bug in the current version
     of GNU Emacs.

     You can get the version number by typing `M-x emacs-version
     <RET>'.  If that command does not work, you probably have something
     other than GNU Emacs, so you will have to report the bug somewhere
     else.

   * The type of machine you are using, and the operating system name
     and version number.  `M-x emacs-version <RET>' provides this
     information too.  Copy its output from the `*Messages*' buffer, so
     that you get it all and get it accurately.

   * The operands given to the `configure' command when Emacs was
     installed.

   * A complete list of any modifications you have made to the Emacs
     source.  (We may not have time to investigate the bug unless it
     happens in an unmodified Emacs.  But if you've made modifications
     and you don't tell us, you are sending us on a wild goose chase.)

     Be precise about these changes.  A description in English is not
     enough--send a context diff for them.

     Adding files of your own, or porting to another machine, is a
     modification of the source.

   * Details of any other deviations from the standard procedure for
     installing GNU Emacs.

   * The complete text of any files needed to reproduce the bug.

     If you can tell us a way to cause the problem without visiting any
     files, please do so.  This makes it much easier to debug.  If you
     do need files, make sure you arrange for us to see their exact
     contents.  For example, it can matter whether there are spaces at
     the ends of lines, or a newline after the last line in the buffer
     (nothing ought to care whether the last line is terminated, but
     try telling the bugs that).

   * The precise commands we need to type to reproduce the bug.

     The easy way to record the input to Emacs precisely is to write a
     dribble file.  To start the file, execute the Lisp expression

          (open-dribble-file "~/dribble")

     using `M-:' or from the `*scratch*' buffer just after starting
     Emacs.  From then on, Emacs copies all your input to the specified
     dribble file until the Emacs process is killed.

   * For possible display bugs, the terminal type (the value of
     environment variable `TERM'), the complete termcap entry for the
     terminal from `/etc/termcap' (since that file is not identical on
     all machines), and the output that Emacs actually sent to the
     terminal.

     The way to collect the terminal output is to execute the Lisp
     expression

          (open-termscript "~/termscript")

     using `M-:' or from the `*scratch*' buffer just after starting
     Emacs.  From then on, Emacs copies all terminal output to the
     specified termscript file as well, until the Emacs process is
     killed.  If the problem happens when Emacs starts up, put this
     expression into your `.emacs' file so that the termscript file
     will be open when Emacs displays the screen for the first time.

     Be warned: it is often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to fix
     a terminal-dependent bug without access to a terminal of the type
     that stimulates the bug.

   * If non-ASCII text or internationalization is relevant, the locale
     that was current when you started Emacs.  On GNU/Linux and Unix
     systems, or if you use a Posix-style shell such as Bash, you can
     use this shell command to view the relevant values:

          echo LC_ALL=$LC_ALL LC_COLLATE=$LC_COLLATE LC_CTYPE=$LC_CTYPE \
            LC_MESSAGES=$LC_MESSAGES LC_TIME=$LC_TIME LANG=$LANG

     Alternatively, use the `locale' command, if your system has it, to
     display your locale settings.

     You can use the `M-!' command to execute these commands from
     Emacs, and then copy the output from the `*Messages*' buffer into
     the bug report.  Alternatively, `M-x getenv <RET> LC_ALL <RET>'
     will display the value of `LC_ALL' in the echo area, and you can
     copy its output from the `*Messages*' buffer.

   * A description of what behavior you observe that you believe is
     incorrect.  For example, "The Emacs process gets a fatal signal,"
     or, "The resulting text is as follows, which I think is wrong."

     Of course, if the bug is that Emacs gets a fatal signal, then one
     can't miss it.  But if the bug is incorrect text, the maintainer
     might fail to notice what is wrong.  Why leave it to chance?

     Even if the problem you experience is a fatal signal, you should
     still say so explicitly.  Suppose something strange is going on,
     such as, your copy of the source is out of sync, or you have
     encountered a bug in the C library on your system.  (This has
     happened!)  Your copy might crash and the copy here might not.  If
     you _said_ to expect a crash, then when Emacs here fails to crash,
     we would know that the bug was not happening.  If you don't say to
     expect a crash, then we would not know whether the bug was
     happening--we would not be able to draw any conclusion from our
     observations.

   * If the bug is that the Emacs Manual or the Emacs Lisp Reference
     Manual fails to describe the actual behavior of Emacs, or that the
     text is confusing, copy in the text from the online manual which
     you think is at fault.  If the section is small, just the section
     name is enough.

   * If the manifestation of the bug is an Emacs error message, it is
     important to report the precise text of the error message, and a
     backtrace showing how the Lisp program in Emacs arrived at the
     error.

     To get the error message text accurately, copy it from the
     `*Messages*' buffer into the bug report.  Copy all of it, not just
     part.

     To make a backtrace for the error, use `M-x toggle-debug-on-error'
     before the error happens (that is to say, you must give that
     command and then make the bug happen).  This causes the error to
     start the Lisp debugger, which shows you a backtrace.  Copy the
     text of the debugger's backtrace into the bug report.  *Note The
     Lisp Debugger: (elisp)Debugger, for information on debugging Emacs
     Lisp programs with the Edebug package.

     This use of the debugger is possible only if you know how to make
     the bug happen again.  If you can't make it happen again, at least
     copy the whole error message.

   * Check whether any programs you have loaded into the Lisp world,
     including your `.emacs' file, set any variables that may affect the
     functioning of Emacs.  Also, see whether the problem happens in a
     freshly started Emacs without loading your `.emacs' file (start
     Emacs with the `-q' switch to prevent loading the init file).  If
     the problem does _not_ occur then, you must report the precise
     contents of any programs that you must load into the Lisp world in
     order to cause the problem to occur.

   * If the problem does depend on an init file or other Lisp programs
     that are not part of the standard Emacs system, then you should
     make sure it is not a bug in those programs by complaining to
     their maintainers first.  After they verify that they are using
     Emacs in a way that is supposed to work, they should report the
     bug.

   * If you wish to mention something in the GNU Emacs source, show the
     line of code with a few lines of context.  Don't just give a line
     number.

     The line numbers in the development sources don't match those in
     your sources.  It would take extra work for the maintainers to
     determine what code is in your version at a given line number, and
     we could not be certain.

   * Additional information from a C debugger such as GDB might enable
     someone to find a problem on a machine which he does not have
     available.  If you don't know how to use GDB, please read the GDB
     manual--it is not very long, and using GDB is easy.  You can find
     the GDB distribution, including the GDB manual in online form, in
     most of the same places you can find the Emacs distribution.  To
     run Emacs under GDB, you should switch to the `src' subdirectory
     in which Emacs was compiled, then do `gdb emacs'.  It is important
     for the directory `src' to be current so that GDB will read the
     `.gdbinit' file in this directory.

     However, you need to think when you collect the additional
     information if you want it to show what causes the bug.

     For example, many people send just a backtrace, but that is not
     very useful by itself.  A simple backtrace with arguments often
     conveys little about what is happening inside GNU Emacs, because
     most of the arguments listed in the backtrace are pointers to Lisp
     objects.  The numeric values of these pointers have no
     significance whatever; all that matters is the contents of the
     objects they point to (and most of the contents are themselves
     pointers).

     To provide useful information, you need to show the values of Lisp
     objects in Lisp notation.  Do this for each variable which is a
     Lisp object, in several stack frames near the bottom of the stack.
     Look at the source to see which variables are Lisp objects,
     because the debugger thinks of them as integers.

     To show a variable's value in Lisp syntax, first print its value,
     then use the user-defined GDB command `pr' to print the Lisp
     object in Lisp syntax.  (If you must use another debugger, call
     the function `debug_print' with the object as an argument.)  The
     `pr' command is defined by the file `.gdbinit', and it works only
     if you are debugging a running process (not with a core dump).

     To make Lisp errors stop Emacs and return to GDB, put a breakpoint
     at `Fsignal'.

     For a short listing of Lisp functions running, type the GDB
     command `xbacktrace'.

     The file `.gdbinit' defines several other commands that are useful
     for examining the data types and contents of Lisp objects.  Their
     names begin with `x'.  These commands work at a lower level than
     `pr', and are less convenient, but they may work even when `pr'
     does not, such as when debugging a core dump or when Emacs has had
     a fatal signal.

     More detailed advice and other useful techniques for debugging
     Emacs are available in the file `etc/DEBUG' in the Emacs
     distribution.  That file also includes instructions for
     investigating problems whereby Emacs stops responding (many people
     assume that Emacs is "hung," whereas in fact it might be in an
     infinite loop).

     To find the file `etc/DEBUG' in your Emacs installation, use the
     directory name stored in the variable `data-directory'.

   Here are some things that are not necessary in a bug report:

   * A description of the envelope of the bug--this is not necessary
     for a reproducible bug.

     Often people who encounter a bug spend a lot of time investigating
     which changes to the input file will make the bug go away and which
     changes will not affect it.

     This is often time-consuming and not very useful, because the way
     we will find the bug is by running a single example under the
     debugger with breakpoints, not by pure deduction from a series of
     examples.  You might as well save time by not searching for
     additional examples.  It is better to send the bug report right
     away, go back to editing, and find another bug to report.

     Of course, if you can find a simpler example to report _instead_ of
     the original one, that is a convenience.  Errors in the output
     will be easier to spot, running under the debugger will take less
     time, etc.

     However, simplification is not vital; if you can't do this or
     don't have time to try, please report the bug with your original
     test case.

   * A core dump file.

     Debugging the core dump might be useful, but it can only be done on
     your machine, with your Emacs executable.  Therefore, sending the
     core dump file to the Emacs maintainers won't be useful.  Above
     all, don't include the core file in an email bug report!  Such a
     large message can be extremely inconvenient.

   * A system-call trace of Emacs execution.

     System-call traces are very useful for certain special kinds of
     debugging, but in most cases they give little useful information.
     It is therefore strange that many people seem to think that _the_
     way to report information about a crash is to send a system-call
     trace.  Perhaps this is a habit formed from experience debugging
     programs that don't have source code or debugging symbols.

     In most programs, a backtrace is normally far, far more
     informative than a system-call trace.  Even in Emacs, a simple
     backtrace is generally more informative, though to give full
     information you should supplement the backtrace by displaying
     variable values and printing them as Lisp objects with `pr' (see
     above).

   * A patch for the bug.

     A patch for the bug is useful if it is a good one.  But don't omit
     the other information that a bug report needs, such as the test
     case, on the assumption that a patch is sufficient.  We might see
     problems with your patch and decide to fix the problem another
     way, or we might not understand it at all.  And if we can't
     understand what bug you are trying to fix, or why your patch
     should be an improvement, we mustn't install it.

     *Note Sending Patches::, for guidelines on how to make it easy for
     us to understand and install your patches.

   * A guess about what the bug is or what it depends on.

     Such guesses are usually wrong.  Even experts can't guess right
     about such things without first using the debugger to find the
     facts.


File: emacs,  Node: Sending Patches,  Prev: Checklist,  Up: Bugs

60.4 Sending Patches for GNU Emacs
==================================

If you would like to write bug fixes or improvements for GNU Emacs,
that is very helpful.  When you send your changes, please follow these
guidelines to make it easy for the maintainers to use them.  If you
don't follow these guidelines, your information might still be useful,
but using it will take extra work.  Maintaining GNU Emacs is a lot of
work in the best of circumstances, and we can't keep up unless you do
your best to help.

   * Send an explanation with your changes of what problem they fix or
     what improvement they bring about.  For a bug fix, just include a
     copy of the bug report, and explain why the change fixes the bug.

     (Referring to a bug report is not as good as including it, because
     then we will have to look it up, and we have probably already
     deleted it if we've already fixed the bug.)

   * Always include a proper bug report for the problem you think you
     have fixed.  We need to convince ourselves that the change is
     right before installing it.  Even if it is correct, we might have
     trouble understanding it if we don't have a way to reproduce the
     problem.

   * Include all the comments that are appropriate to help people
     reading the source in the future understand why this change was
     needed.

   * Don't mix together changes made for different reasons.  Send them
     _individually_.

     If you make two changes for separate reasons, then we might not
     want to install them both.  We might want to install just one.  If
     you send them all jumbled together in a single set of diffs, we
     have to do extra work to disentangle them--to figure out which
     parts of the change serve which purpose.  If we don't have time
     for this, we might have to ignore your changes entirely.

     If you send each change as soon as you have written it, with its
     own explanation, then two changes never get tangled up, and we can
     consider each one properly without any extra work to disentangle
     them.

   * Send each change as soon as that change is finished.  Sometimes
     people think they are helping us by accumulating many changes to
     send them all together.  As explained above, this is absolutely
     the worst thing you could do.

     Since you should send each change separately, you might as well
     send it right away.  That gives us the option of installing it
     immediately if it is important.

   * Use `diff -c' to make your diffs.  Diffs without context are hard
     to install reliably.  More than that, they are hard to study; we
     must always study a patch to decide whether we want to install it.
     Unidiff format is better than contextless diffs, but not as easy
     to read as `-c' format.

     If you have GNU diff, use `diff -c -F'^[_a-zA-Z0-9$]+ *('' when
     making diffs of C code.  This shows the name of the function that
     each change occurs in.

   * Avoid any ambiguity as to which is the old version and which is
     the new.  Please make the old version the first argument to diff,
     and the new version the second argument.  And please give one
     version or the other a name that indicates whether it is the old
     version or your new changed one.

   * Write the change log entries for your changes.  This is both to
     save us the extra work of writing them, and to help explain your
     changes so we can understand them.

     The purpose of the change log is to show people where to find what
     was changed.  So you need to be specific about what functions you
     changed; in large functions, it's often helpful to indicate where
     within the function the change was.

     On the other hand, once you have shown people where to find the
     change, you need not explain its purpose in the change log.  Thus,
     if you add a new function, all you need to say about it is that it
     is new.  If you feel that the purpose needs explaining, it
     probably does--but put the explanation in comments in the code.
     It will be more useful there.

     Please read the `ChangeLog' files in the `src' and `lisp'
     directories to see what sorts of information to put in, and to
     learn the style that we use.  *Note Change Log::.

   * When you write the fix, keep in mind that we can't install a
     change that would break other systems.  Please think about what
     effect your change will have if compiled on another type of system.

     Sometimes people send fixes that _might_ be an improvement in
     general--but it is hard to be sure of this.  It's hard to install
     such changes because we have to study them very carefully.  Of
     course, a good explanation of the reasoning by which you concluded
     the change was correct can help convince us.

     The safest changes are changes to the configuration files for a
     particular machine.  These are safe because they can't create new
     bugs on other machines.

     Please help us keep up with the workload by designing the patch in
     a form that is clearly safe to install.


File: emacs,  Node: Contributing,  Next: Service,  Prev: Bugs,  Up: Top

61 Contributing to Emacs Development
************************************

If you would like to help pretest Emacs releases to assure they work
well, or if you would like to work on improving Emacs, please contact
the maintainers at <emacs-devel@gnu.org>.  A pretester should be
prepared to investigate bugs as well as report them.  If you'd like to
work on improving Emacs, please ask for suggested projects or suggest
your own ideas.

   If you have already written an improvement, please tell us about it.
If you have not yet started work, it is useful to contact
<emacs-devel@gnu.org> before you start; it might be possible to suggest
ways to make your extension fit in better with the rest of Emacs.

   The development version of Emacs can be downloaded from the CVS
repository where it is actively maintained by a group of developers.
See the Emacs project page `http://savannah.gnu.org/projects/emacs/'
for details.


File: emacs,  Node: Service,  Next: Copying,  Prev: Contributing,  Up: Top

62 How To Get Help with GNU Emacs
*********************************

If you need help installing, using or changing GNU Emacs, there are two
ways to find it:

   * Send a message to the mailing list <help-gnu-emacs@gnu.org>, or
     post your request on newsgroup `gnu.emacs.help'.  (This mailing
     list and newsgroup interconnect, so it does not matter which one
     you use.)

   * Look in the service directory for someone who might help you for a
     fee.  The service directory is found in the file named
     `etc/SERVICE' in the Emacs distribution.


File: emacs,  Node: Copying,  Next: GNU Free Documentation License,  Prev: Service,  Up: Top

Appendix A GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
*************************************

                         Version 2, June 1991

     Copyright (C) 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
     51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301, USA

     Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
     of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble
========

The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom
to share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public License is
intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free
software--to make sure the software is free for all its users.  This
General Public License applies to most of the Free Software
Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to
using it.  (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by
the GNU Lesser General Public License instead.)  You can apply it to
your programs, too.

   When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
price.  Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it
if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in
new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.

   To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.
These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.

   For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether
gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that
you have.  You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
source code.  And you must show them these terms so they know their
rights.

   We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software,
and (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
distribute and/or modify the software.

   Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
software.  If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
authors' reputations.

   Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software
patents.  We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free
program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the
program proprietary.  To prevent this, we have made it clear that any
patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all.

   The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
modification follow.

    TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION
  0. This License applies to any program or other work which contains a
     notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed
     under the terms of this General Public License.  The "Program,"
     below, refers to any such program or work, and a "work based on
     the Program" means either the Program or any derivative work under
     copyright law: that is to say, a work containing the Program or a
     portion of it, either verbatim or with modifications and/or
     translated into another language.  (Hereinafter, translation is
     included without limitation in the term "modification.")  Each
     licensee is addressed as "you."

     Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are
     not covered by this License; they are outside its scope.  The act
     of running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the
     Program is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on
     the Program (independent of having been made by running the
     Program).  Whether that is true depends on what the Program does.

  1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's
     source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you
     conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate
     copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the
     notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any
     warranty; and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of
     this License along with the Program.

     You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy,
     and you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange
     for a fee.

  2. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion
     of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and
     distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1
     above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:

       a. You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices
          stating that you changed the files and the date of any change.

       b. You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that
          in whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program
          or any part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge
          to all third parties under the terms of this License.

       c. If the modified program normally reads commands interactively
          when run, you must cause it, when started running for such
          interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display
          an announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and
          a notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you
          provide a warranty) and that users may redistribute the
          program under these conditions, and telling the user how to
          view a copy of this License.  (Exception: if the Program
          itself is interactive but does not normally print such an
          announcement, your work based on the Program is not required
          to print an announcement.)

     These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole.  If
     identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the
     Program, and can be reasonably considered independent and separate
     works in themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not
     apply to those sections when you distribute them as separate
     works.  But when you distribute the same sections as part of a
     whole which is a work based on the Program, the distribution of
     the whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions
     for other licensees extend to the entire whole, and thus to each
     and every part regardless of who wrote it.

     Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or
     contest your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the
     intent is to exercise the right to control the distribution of
     derivative or collective works based on the Program.

     In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the
     Program with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on
     a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring the
     other work under the scope of this License.

  3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it,
     under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms
     of Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the
     following:

       a. Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable
          source code, which must be distributed under the terms of
          Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for
          software interchange; or,

       b. Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three
          years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your
          cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete
          machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be
          distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a
          medium customarily used for software interchange; or,

       c. Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer
          to distribute corresponding source code.  (This alternative is
          allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you
          received the program in object code or executable form with
          such an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)

     The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
     making modifications to it.  For an executable work, complete
     source code means all the source code for all modules it contains,
     plus any associated interface definition files, plus the scripts
     used to control compilation and installation of the executable.
     However, as a special exception, the source code distributed need
     not include anything that is normally distributed (in either
     source or binary form) with the major components (compiler,
     kernel, and so on) of the operating system on which the executable
     runs, unless that component itself accompanies the executable.

     If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering
     access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent
     access to copy the source code from the same place counts as
     distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
     compelled to copy the source along with the object code.

  4. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program
     except as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt
     otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is
     void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this
     License.  However, parties who have received copies, or rights,
     from you under this License will not have their licenses
     terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

  5. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not
     signed it.  However, nothing else grants you permission to modify
     or distribute the Program or its derivative works.  These actions
     are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License.
     Therefore, by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work
     based on the Program), you indicate your acceptance of this
     License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying,
     distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it.

  6. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
     Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
     original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program
     subject to these terms and conditions.  You may not impose any
     further restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights
     granted herein.  You are not responsible for enforcing compliance
     by third parties to this License.

  7. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
     infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent
     issues), conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order,
     agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this
     License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this
     License.  If you cannot distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously
     your obligations under this License and any other pertinent
     obligations, then as a consequence you may not distribute the
     Program at all.  For example, if a patent license would not permit
     royalty-free redistribution of the Program by all those who
     receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only
     way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain
     entirely from distribution of the Program.

     If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable
     under any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is
     intended to apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply
     in other circumstances.

     It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
     patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of
     any such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting
     the integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
     implemented by public license practices.  Many people have made
     generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
     through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
     system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is
     willing to distribute software through any other system and a
     licensee cannot impose that choice.

     This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed
     to be a consequence of the rest of this License.

  8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in
     certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces,
     the original copyright holder who places the Program under this
     License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation
     excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only
     in or among countries not thus excluded.  In such case, this
     License incorporates the limitation as if written in the body of
     this License.

  9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new
     versions of the General Public License from time to time.  Such
     new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but
     may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.

     Each version is given a distinguishing version number.  If the
     Program specifies a version number of this License which applies
     to it and "any later version," you have the option of following
     the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later
     version published by the Free Software Foundation.  If the Program
     does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose
     any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation.

 10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
     programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the
     author to ask for permission.  For software which is copyrighted
     by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software
     Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this.  Our decision
     will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of
     all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing
     and reuse of software generally.

                                NO WARRANTY
 11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO
     WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE
     LAW.  EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT
     HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT
     WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT
     NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
     FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE
     QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU.  SHOULD THE
     PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY
     SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.

 12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN
     WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY
     MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE
     LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL,
     INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR
     INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF
     DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU
     OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY
     OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN
     ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

                      END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
=============================================

If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
terms.

   To do so, attach the following notices to the program.  It is safest
to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.

     ONE LINE TO GIVE THE PROGRAM'S NAME AND AN IDEA OF WHAT IT DOES.
     Copyright (C) YYYY  NAME OF AUTHOR

     This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
     modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License
     as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2
     of the License, or (at your option) any later version.

     This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
     but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
     MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
     GNU General Public License for more details.

     You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along
     with this program; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc.,
     51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301, USA.

   Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper
mail.

   If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like
this when it starts in an interactive mode:

     Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) YYYY NAME OF AUTHOR
     Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details
     type `show w'.  This is free software, and you are welcome
     to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c'
     for details.

   The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the
appropriate parts of the General Public License.  Of course, the
commands you use may be called something other than `show w' and `show
c'; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits your
program.

   You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or
your school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program,
if necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:

     Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright
     interest in the program `Gnomovision'
     (which makes passes at compilers) written
     by James Hacker.

     SIGNATURE OF TY COON, 1 April 1989
     Ty Coon, President of Vice

   This General Public License does not permit incorporating your
program into proprietary programs.  If your program is a subroutine
library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary
applications with the library.  If this is what you want to do, use the
GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License.


File: emacs,  Node: GNU Free Documentation License,  Next: Emacs Invocation,  Prev: Copying,  Up: Top

Appendix B GNU Free Documentation License
*****************************************

                      Version 1.2, November 2002

     Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002  Free Software Foundation, Inc.
     51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301  USA

     Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
     of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.


  0. PREAMBLE

     The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
     functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to
     assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
     with or without modifying it, either commercially or
     noncommercially.  Secondarily, this License preserves for the
     author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not
     being considered responsible for modifications made by others.

     This License is a kind of "copyleft," which means that derivative
     works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.
     It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
     license designed for free software.

     We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for
     free software, because free software needs free documentation: a
     free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms
     that the software does.  But this License is not limited to
     software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless
     of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book.
     We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is
     instruction or reference.


  1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

     This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium,
     that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it
     can be distributed under the terms of this License.  Such a notice
     grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration,
     to use that work under the conditions stated herein.  The
     "Document," below, refers to any such manual or work.  Any member
     of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you."  You
     accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a
     way requiring permission under copyright law.

     A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
     Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
     modifications and/or translated into another language.

     A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter
     section of the Document that deals exclusively with the
     relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the
     Document's overall subject (or to related matters) and contains
     nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject.
     (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a
     Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.)  The
     relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the
     subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial,
     philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.

     The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose
     titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in
     the notice that says that the Document is released under this
     License.  If a section does not fit the above definition of
     Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant.
     The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections.  If the Document
     does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.

     The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are
     listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice
     that says that the Document is released under this License.  A
     Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may
     be at most 25 words.

     A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
     represented in a format whose specification is available to the
     general public, that is suitable for revising the document
     straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images
     composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some
     widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to
     text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
     formats suitable for input to text formatters.  A copy made in an
     otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of
     markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent
     modification by readers is not Transparent.  An image format is
     not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text.  A
     copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque."

     Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
     ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format,
     SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and
     standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for
     human modification.  Examples of transparent image formats include
     PNG, XCF and JPG.  Opaque formats include proprietary formats that
     can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML
     or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally
     available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF
     produced by some word processors for output purposes only.

     The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
     plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the
     material this License requires to appear in the title page.  For
     works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title
     Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the
     work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

     A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document
     whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses
     following text that translates XYZ in another language.  (Here XYZ
     stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as
     "Acknowledgements," "Dedications," "Endorsements," or "History.")
     To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the
     Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according
     to this definition.

     The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice
     which states that this License applies to the Document.  These
     Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in
     this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
     implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and
     has no effect on the meaning of this License.

  2. VERBATIM COPYING

     You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
     commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
     copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License
     applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you
     add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License.  You
     may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading
     or further copying of the copies you make or distribute.  However,
     you may accept compensation in exchange for copies.  If you
     distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow
     the conditions in section 3.

     You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above,
     and you may publicly display copies.

  3. COPYING IN QUANTITY

     If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly
     have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and
     the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must
     enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all
     these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and
     Back-Cover Texts on the back cover.  Both covers must also clearly
     and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies.  The
     front cover must present the full title with all words of the
     title equally prominent and visible.  You may add other material
     on the covers in addition.  Copying with changes limited to the
     covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
     satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in
     other respects.

     If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
     legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
     reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto
     adjacent pages.

     If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document
     numbering more than 100, you must either include a
     machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or
     state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from
     which the general network-using public has access to download
     using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent
     copy of the Document, free of added material.  If you use the
     latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you
     begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that
     this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
     location until at least one year after the last time you
     distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or
     retailers) of that edition to the public.

     It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of
     the Document well before redistributing any large number of
     copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated
     version of the Document.

  4. MODIFICATIONS

     You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document
     under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you
     release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with
     the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus
     licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to
     whoever possesses a copy of it.  In addition, you must do these
     things in the Modified Version:

     A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title
     distinct    from that of the Document, and from those of previous
     versions    (which should, if there were any, be listed in the
     History section    of the Document).  You may use the same title
     as a previous version    if the original publisher of that version
     gives permission.
     B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or
     entities    responsible for authorship of the modifications in the
     Modified    Version, together with at least five of the principal
     authors of the    Document (all of its principal authors, if it
     has fewer than five),    unless they release you from this
     requirement.
     C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
     Modified Version, as the publisher.
     D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
     E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
     adjacent to the other copyright notices.
     F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license
     notice    giving the public permission to use the Modified Version
     under the    terms of this License, in the form shown in the
     Addendum below.
     G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant
     Sections    and required Cover Texts given in the Document's
     license notice.
     H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
     I. Preserve the section Entitled "History," Preserve its Title,
     and add    to it an item stating at least the title, year, new
     authors, and    publisher of the Modified Version as given on the
     Title Page.  If    there is no section Entitled "History" in the
     Document, create one    stating the title, year, authors, and
     publisher of the Document as    given on its Title Page, then add
     an item describing the Modified    Version as stated in the
     previous sentence.
     J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
       public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and
     likewise    the network locations given in the Document for
     previous versions    it was based on.  These may be placed in the
     "History" section.     You may omit a network location for a work
     that was published at    least four years before the Document
     itself, or if the original    publisher of the version it refers
     to gives permission.
     K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications,"
     Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
       the substance and tone of each of the contributor
     acknowledgements    and/or dedications given therein.
     L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
     unaltered in their text and in their titles.  Section numbers
     or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
     M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements."  Such a section
     may not be included in the Modified Version.
     N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled
     "Endorsements"    or to conflict in title with any Invariant
     Section.
     O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

     If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
     appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no
     material copied from the Document, you may at your option
     designate some or all of these sections as invariant.  To do this,
     add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified
     Version's license notice.  These titles must be distinct from any
     other section titles.

     You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements," provided it contains
     nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
     parties-for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
     been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition
     of a standard.

     You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text,
     and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end
     of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.  Only one
     passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be
     added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity.  If the
     Document already includes a cover text for the same cover,
     previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity
     you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may
     replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous
     publisher that added the old one.

     The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this
     License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to
     assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

  5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

     You may combine the Document with other documents released under
     this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for
     modified versions, provided that you include in the combination
     all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
     unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your
     combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all
     their Warranty Disclaimers.

     The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
     multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
     copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
     but different contents, make the title of each such section unique
     by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the
     original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a
     unique number.  Make the same adjustment to the section titles in
     the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the
     combined work.

     In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled
     "History" in the various original documents, forming one section
     Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled
     "Acknowledgements," and any sections Entitled "Dedications."  You
     must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements."

  6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

     You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other
     documents released under this License, and replace the individual
     copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy
     that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the
     rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the
     documents in all other respects.

     You may extract a single document from such a collection, and
     distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert
     a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow
     this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of
     that document.

  7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

     A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other
     separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of
     a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the
     copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the
     legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual
     works permit.  When the Document is included in an aggregate, this
     License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which
     are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

     If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
     copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half
     of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed
     on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
     electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic
     form.  Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket
     the whole aggregate.

  8. TRANSLATION

     Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
     distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section
     4.  Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
     permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
     translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
     original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include a
     translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
     Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also
     include the original English version of this License and the
     original versions of those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a
     disagreement between the translation and the original version of
     this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
     prevail.

     If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements,"
     "Dedications," or "History," the requirement (section 4) to
     Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the
     actual title.

  9. TERMINATION

     You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
     except as expressly provided for under this License.  Any other
     attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is
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     from you under this License will not have their licenses
     terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

     The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of
     the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time.  Such new
     versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
     differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.  See
     http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

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     have the option of following the terms and conditions either of
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     you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the
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ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
====================================================

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and license
notices just after the title page:

     Copyright (C)  YEAR  YOUR NAME.
     Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
     under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
     or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
     with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
     A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
     Free Documentation License.''

   If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover
Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this:

     with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
     Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being
     LIST.

   If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

   If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to
permit their use in free software.


File: emacs,  Node: Emacs Invocation,  Next: X Resources,  Prev: GNU Free Documentation License,  Up: Top

Appendix C Command Line Arguments for Emacs Invocation
******************************************************

GNU Emacs supports command line arguments to request various actions
when invoking Emacs.  These are for compatibility with other editors and
for sophisticated activities.  We don't recommend using them for
ordinary editing.

   Arguments starting with `-' are "options", and so is `+LINENUM'.
All other arguments specify files to visit.  Emacs visits the specified
files while it starts up.  The last file name on your command line
becomes the current buffer; the other files are also visited in other
buffers.  If there are two files, they are both displayed; otherwise
the last file is displayed along with a buffer list that shows what
other buffers there are.  As with most programs, the special argument
`--' says that all subsequent arguments are file names, not options,
even if they start with `-'.

   Emacs command options can specify many things, such as the size and
position of the X window Emacs uses, its colors, and so on.  A few
options support advanced usage, such as running Lisp functions on files
in batch mode.  The sections of this chapter describe the available
options, arranged according to their purpose.

   There are two ways of writing options: the short forms that start
with a single `-', and the long forms that start with `--'.  For
example, `-d' is a short form and `--display' is the corresponding long
form.

   The long forms with `--' are easier to remember, but longer to type.
However, you don't have to spell out the whole option name; any
unambiguous abbreviation is enough.  When a long option takes an
argument, you can use either a space or an equal sign to separate the
option name and the argument.  Thus, you can write either `--display
sugar-bombs:0.0' or `--display=sugar-bombs:0.0'.  We recommend an equal
sign because it makes the relationship clearer, and the tables below
always show an equal sign.

   Most options specify how to initialize Emacs, or set parameters for
the Emacs session.  We call them "initial options".  A few options
specify things to do: for example, load libraries, call functions, or
terminate Emacs.  These are called "action options".  These and file
names together are called "action arguments".  Emacs processes all the
action arguments in the order they are written.  The `.emacs' file can
access the values of the action arguments as the elements of a list in
the variable `command-line-args'.

* Menu:

* Action Arguments::    Arguments to visit files, load libraries,
                          and call functions.
* Initial Options::     Arguments that take effect while starting Emacs.
* Command Example::     Examples of using command line arguments.
* Resume Arguments::    Specifying arguments when you resume a running Emacs.
* Environment::         Environment variables that Emacs uses.
* Display X::           Changing the default display and using remote login.
* Font X::              Choosing a font for text, under X.
* Colors::              Choosing display colors.
* Window Size X::       Start-up window size, under X.
* Borders X::           Internal and external borders, under X.
* Title X::             Specifying the initial frame's title.
* Icons X::             Choosing what sort of icon to use, under X.
* Misc X::              Other display options.


File: emacs,  Node: Action Arguments,  Next: Initial Options,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.1 Action Arguments
====================

Here is a table of the action arguments and options:

`FILE'
`--file=FILE'
`--find-file=FILE'
`--visit=FILE'
     Visit FILE using `find-file'.  *Note Visiting::.  If you visit
     several files at startup in this way, Emacs also displays a Buffer
     Menu buffer to show you what files it has visited.  You can
     inhibit that by setting `inhibit-startup-buffer-menu' to `t'.

`+LINENUM FILE'
     Visit FILE using `find-file', then go to line number LINENUM in it.

`+LINENUM:COLUMNNUM FILE'
     Visit FILE using `find-file', then go to line number LINENUM and
     put point at column number COLUMNNUM.

`-l FILE'
`--load=FILE'
     Load a Lisp library named FILE with the function `load'.  *Note
     Lisp Libraries::.  If FILE is not an absolute file name, the
     library can be found either in the current directory, or in the
     Emacs library search path as specified with `EMACSLOADPATH' (*note
     General Variables::).

     *Warning:* If previous command-line arguments have visited files,
     the current directory is the directory of the last file visited.

`-L DIR'
`--directory=DIR'
     Add directory DIR to the variable `load-path'.

`-f FUNCTION'
`--funcall=FUNCTION'
     Call Lisp function FUNCTION.  If it is an interactive function (a
     command), it reads the arguments interactively just as if you had
     called the same function with a key sequence.  Otherwise, it calls
     the function with no arguments.

`--eval=EXPRESSION'
`--execute=EXPRESSION'
     Evaluate Lisp expression EXPRESSION.

`--insert=FILE'
     Insert the contents of FILE into the current buffer.  This is like
     what `M-x insert-file' does.  *Note Misc File Ops::.

`--kill'
     Exit from Emacs without asking for confirmation.

`--help'
     Print a usage message listing all available options, then exit
     successfully.

`--version'
     Print Emacs version, then exit successfully.


File: emacs,  Node: Initial Options,  Next: Command Example,  Prev: Action Arguments,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.2 Initial Options
===================

The initial options specify parameters for the Emacs session.  This
section describes the more general initial options; some other options
specifically related to the X Window System appear in the following
sections.

   Some initial options affect the loading of init files.  The normal
actions of Emacs are to first load `site-start.el' if it exists, then
your own init file `~/.emacs' if it exists, and finally `default.el' if
it exists.  *Note Init File::.  Certain options prevent loading of some
of these files or substitute other files for them.

`-t DEVICE'
`--terminal=DEVICE'
     Use DEVICE as the device for terminal input and output.
     `--terminal' implies `--no-window-system'.

`-d DISPLAY'
`--display=DISPLAY'
     Use the X Window System and use the display named DISPLAY to open
     the initial Emacs frame.  *Note Display X::, for more details.

`-nw'
`--no-window-system'
     Don't communicate directly with the window system, disregarding the
     `DISPLAY' environment variable even if it is set.  This means that
     Emacs uses the terminal from which it was launched for all its
     display and input.

`-batch'
`--batch'
     Run Emacs in "batch mode".  Batch mode is used for running
     programs written in Emacs Lisp from shell scripts, makefiles, and
     so on.  You should also use the `-l' option or `-f' option, to
     invoke a Lisp program to do batch processing.

     In batch mode, Emacs does not display the text being edited, and
     the standard terminal interrupt characters such as `C-z' and `C-c'
     continue to have their normal effect.  The functions `prin1',
     `princ' and `print' output to `stdout' instead of the echo area,
     while `message' and error messages output to `stderr'.  Functions
     that would normally read from the minibuffer take their input from
     `stdin' instead.

     `--batch' implies `-q' (do not load an init file), but
     `site-start.el' is loaded nonetheless.  It also causes Emacs to
     exit after processing all the command options.  In addition, it
     disables auto-saving except in buffers for which it has been
     explicitly requested.

`--script FILE'
     Run Emacs in batch mode, like `--batch', and then read and execute
     the Lisp code in FILE.

     The normal use of this option is in executable script files that
     run Emacs.  They can start with this text on the first line

          #!/usr/bin/emacs --script

     which will invoke Emacs with `--script' and supply the name of the
     script file as FILE.  Emacs Lisp then treats `#!'  as a comment
     delimiter.

`-q'
`--no-init-file'
     Do not load your Emacs init file `~/.emacs', or `default.el'
     either.  Regardless of this switch, `site-start.el' is still
     loaded.  When invoked like this, Emacs does not allow saving
     options changed with the `M-x customize' command and its variants.
     *Note Easy Customization::.

`--no-site-file'
     Do not load `site-start.el'.  The options `-q', `-u' and `--batch'
     have no effect on the loading of this file--this option and `-Q'
     are the only options that block it.

`-Q'
`--quick'
     Start emacs with minimum customizations.  This is like using `-q'
     and `--no-site-file', but also disables the startup screen.

`--no-splash'
     Do not display a splash screen on startup.  You can also achieve
     this effect by setting the variable `inhibit-splash-screen' to
     non-`nil' in you personal init file (but _not_ in
     `site-start.el').  (This variable was called
     `inhibit-startup-message' in previous Emacs versions.)

`--no-desktop'
     Do not reload any saved desktop.  *Note Saving Emacs Sessions::.

`-u USER'
`--user=USER'
     Load USER's Emacs init file `~USER/.emacs' instead of your own(1).

`--debug-init'
     Enable the Emacs Lisp debugger for errors in the init file.  *Note
     Entering the Debugger on an Error: (elisp)Error Debugging.

`--unibyte'
`--no-multibyte'
     Do almost everything with single-byte buffers and strings.  All
     buffers and strings are unibyte unless you (or a Lisp program)
     explicitly ask for a multibyte buffer or string.  (Note that Emacs
     always loads Lisp files in multibyte mode, even if `--unibyte' is
     specified; see *Note Enabling Multibyte::.)  Setting the
     environment variable `EMACS_UNIBYTE' has the same effect (*note
     General Variables::).

`--multibyte'
`--no-unibyte'
     Inhibit the effect of `EMACS_UNIBYTE', so that Emacs uses
     multibyte characters by default, as usual.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This option has no effect on MS-Windows.


File: emacs,  Node: Command Example,  Next: Resume Arguments,  Prev: Initial Options,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.3 Command Argument Example
============================

Here is an example of using Emacs with arguments and options.  It
assumes you have a Lisp program file called `hack-c.el' which, when
loaded, performs some useful operation on the current buffer, expected
to be a C program.

     emacs --batch foo.c -l hack-c -f save-buffer >& log

This says to visit `foo.c', load `hack-c.el' (which makes changes in
the visited file), save `foo.c' (note that `save-buffer' is the
function that `C-x C-s' is bound to), and then exit back to the shell
(because of `--batch').  `--batch' also guarantees there will be no
problem redirecting output to `log', because Emacs will not assume that
it has a display terminal to work with.


File: emacs,  Node: Resume Arguments,  Next: Environment,  Prev: Command Example,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.4 Resuming Emacs with Arguments
=================================

You can specify action arguments for Emacs when you resume it after a
suspension.  To prepare for this, put the following code in your
`.emacs' file (*note Hooks::):

     (add-hook 'suspend-hook 'resume-suspend-hook)
     (add-hook 'suspend-resume-hook 'resume-process-args)

   As further preparation, you must execute the shell script
`emacs.csh' (if you use csh as your shell) or `emacs.bash' (if you use
bash as your shell).  These scripts define an alias named `edit', which
will resume Emacs giving it new command line arguments such as files to
visit.  The scripts are found in the `etc' subdirectory of the Emacs
distribution.

   Only action arguments work properly when you resume Emacs.  Initial
arguments are not recognized--it's too late to execute them anyway.

   Note that resuming Emacs (with or without arguments) must be done
from within the shell that is the parent of the Emacs job.  This is why
`edit' is an alias rather than a program or a shell script.  It is not
possible to implement a resumption command that could be run from other
subjobs of the shell; there is no way to define a command that could be
made the value of `EDITOR', for example.  Therefore, this feature does
not take the place of the Emacs Server feature (*note Emacs Server::).

   The aliases use the Emacs Server feature if you appear to have a
server Emacs running.  However, they cannot determine this with complete
accuracy.  They may think that a server is still running when in
actuality you have killed that Emacs, because the file `/tmp/esrv...'
still exists.  If this happens, find that file and delete it.


File: emacs,  Node: Environment,  Next: Display X,  Prev: Resume Arguments,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.5 Environment Variables
=========================

The "environment" is a feature of the operating system; it consists of
a collection of variables with names and values.  Each variable is
called an "environment variable"; environment variable names are
case-sensitive, and it is conventional to use upper case letters only.
The values are all text strings.

   What makes the environment useful is that subprocesses inherit the
environment automatically from their parent process.  This means you
can set up an environment variable in your login shell, and all the
programs you run (including Emacs) will automatically see it.
Subprocesses of Emacs (such as shells, compilers, and version-control
software) inherit the environment from Emacs, too.

   Inside Emacs, the command `M-x getenv' gets the value of an
environment variable.  `M-x setenv' sets a variable in the Emacs
environment.  (Environment variable substitutions with `$' work in the
value just as in file names; see *Note File Names with $::.)

   The way to set environment variables outside of Emacs depends on the
operating system, and especially the shell that you are using.  For
example, here's how to set the environment variable `ORGANIZATION' to
`not very much' using Bash:

     export ORGANIZATION="not very much"

and here's how to do it in csh or tcsh:

     setenv ORGANIZATION "not very much"

   When Emacs is using the X Window System, various environment
variables that control X work for Emacs as well.  See the X
documentation for more information.

* Menu:

* General Variables::   Environment variables that all versions of Emacs use.
* Misc Variables::      Certain system-specific variables.
* MS-Windows Registry:: An alternative to the environment on MS-Windows.


File: emacs,  Node: General Variables,  Next: Misc Variables,  Up: Environment

C.5.1 General Variables
-----------------------

Here is an alphabetical list of specific environment variables that
have special meanings in Emacs, giving the name of each variable and
its meaning.  Most of these variables are also used by some other
programs.  Emacs does not require any of these environment variables to
be set, but it uses their values if they are set.

`CDPATH'
     Used by the `cd' command to search for the directory you specify,
     when you specify a relative directory name.

`EMACS_UNIBYTE'
     Defining this environment variable with a nonempty value directs
     Emacs to do almost everything with single-byte buffers and
     strings.  It is equivalent to using the `--unibyte' command-line
     option on each invocation.  *Note Initial Options::.

`EMACSDATA'
     Directory for the architecture-independent files that come with
     Emacs.  This is used to initialize the Lisp variable
     `data-directory'.

`EMACSDOC'
     Directory for the documentation string file, `DOC-EMACSVERSION'.
     This is used to initialize the Lisp variable `doc-directory'.

`EMACSLOADPATH'
     A colon-separated list of directories(1) to search for Emacs Lisp
     files--used to initialize `load-path'.

`EMACSPATH'
     A colon-separated list of directories to search for executable
     files--used to initialize `exec-path'.

`EMAIL'
     Your email address; used to initialize the Lisp variable
     `user-mail-address', which the Emacs mail interface puts into the
     `From' header of outgoing messages (*note Mail Headers::).

`ESHELL'
     Used for shell-mode to override the `SHELL' environment variable.

`HISTFILE'
     The name of the file that shell commands are saved in between
     logins.  This variable defaults to `~/.bash_history' if you use
     Bash, to `~/.sh_history' if you use ksh, and to `~/.history'
     otherwise.

`HOME'
     The location of your files in the directory tree; used for
     expansion of file names starting with a tilde (`~').  On MS-DOS,
     it defaults to the directory from which Emacs was started, with
     `/bin' removed from the end if it was present.  On Windows, the
     default value of `HOME' is the `Application Data' subdirectory of
     the user profile directory (normally, this is `C:/Documents and
     Settings/USERNAME/Application Data', where USERNAME is your user
     name), though for backwards compatibility `C:/' will be used
     instead if a `.emacs' file is found there.

`HOSTNAME'
     The name of the machine that Emacs is running on.

`INCPATH'
     A colon-separated list of directories.  Used by the `complete'
     package to search for files.

`INFOPATH'
     A colon-separated list of directories in which to search for Info
     files.

`LC_ALL'
`LC_COLLATE'
`LC_CTYPE'
`LC_MESSAGES'
`LC_MONETARY'
`LC_NUMERIC'
`LC_TIME'
`LANG'
     The user's preferred locale.  The locale has six categories,
     specified by the environment variables `LC_COLLATE' for sorting,
     `LC_CTYPE' for character encoding, `LC_MESSAGES' for system
     messages, `LC_MONETARY' for monetary formats, `LC_NUMERIC' for
     numbers, and `LC_TIME' for dates and times.  If one of these
     variables is not set, the category defaults to the value of the
     `LANG' environment variable, or to the default `C' locale if
     `LANG' is not set.  But if `LC_ALL' is specified, it overrides the
     settings of all the other locale environment variables.

     On MS-Windows, if `LANG' is not already set in the environment
     when Emacs starts, Emacs sets it based on the system-wide default
     language, which you can set in the `Regional Settings' Control
     Panel on some versions of MS-Windows.

     The value of the `LC_CTYPE' category is matched against entries in
     `locale-language-names', `locale-charset-language-names', and
     `locale-preferred-coding-systems', to select a default language
     environment and coding system.  *Note Language Environments::.

`LOGNAME'
     The user's login name.  See also `USER'.

`MAIL'
     The name of your system mail inbox.

`MH'
     Name of setup file for the mh system.  (The default is
     `~/.mh_profile'.)

`NAME'
     Your real-world name.

`NNTPSERVER'
     The name of the news server.  Used by the mh and Gnus packages.

`ORGANIZATION'
     The name of the organization to which you belong.  Used for
     setting the `Organization:' header in your posts from the Gnus
     package.

`PATH'
     A colon-separated list of directories in which executables reside.
     This is used to initialize the Emacs Lisp variable `exec-path'.

`PWD'
     If set, this should be the default directory when Emacs was
     started.

`REPLYTO'
     If set, this specifies an initial value for the variable
     `mail-default-reply-to'.  *Note Mail Headers::.

`SAVEDIR'
     The name of a directory in which news articles are saved by
     default.  Used by the Gnus package.

`SHELL'
     The name of an interpreter used to parse and execute programs run
     from inside Emacs.

`SMTPSERVER'
     The name of the outgoing mail server.  Used by the SMTP library
     (*note Top: (smtpmail)Top.).  

`TERM'
     The type of the terminal that Emacs is using.  This variable must
     be set unless Emacs is run in batch mode.  On MS-DOS, it defaults
     to `internal', which specifies a built-in terminal emulation that
     handles the machine's own display.  If the value of `TERM'
     indicates that Emacs runs in non-windowed mode from `xterm' or a
     similar terminal emulator, the background mode defaults to
     `light', and Emacs will choose colors that are appropriate for a
     light background.

`TERMCAP'
     The name of the termcap library file describing how to program the
     terminal specified by the `TERM' variable.  This defaults to
     `/etc/termcap'.

`TMPDIR'
     Used by the Emerge package as a prefix for temporary files.

`TZ'
     This specifies the current time zone and possibly also daylight
     saving time information.  On MS-DOS, if `TZ' is not set in the
     environment when Emacs starts, Emacs defines a default value as
     appropriate for the country code returned by DOS.  On MS-Windows,
     Emacs does not use `TZ' at all.

`USER'
     The user's login name.  See also `LOGNAME'.  On MS-DOS, this
     defaults to `root'.

`VERSION_CONTROL'
     Used to initialize the `version-control' variable (*note Numbered
     Backups::).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Here and below, whenever we say "colon-separated list of
directories," it pertains to Unix and GNU/Linux systems.  On MS-DOS and
MS-Windows, the directories are separated by semi-colons instead, since
DOS/Windows file names might include a colon after a drive letter.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc Variables,  Next: MS-Windows Registry,  Prev: General Variables,  Up: Environment

C.5.2 Miscellaneous Variables
-----------------------------

These variables are used only on particular configurations:

`COMSPEC'
     On MS-DOS and MS-Windows, the name of the command interpreter to
     use when invoking batch files and commands internal to the shell.
     On MS-DOS this is also used to make a default value for the
     `SHELL' environment variable.

`NAME'
     On MS-DOS, this variable defaults to the value of the `USER'
     variable.

`TEMP'
`TMP'
     On MS-DOS and MS-Windows, these specify the name of the directory
     for storing temporary files in.

`EMACSTEST'
     On MS-DOS, this specifies a file to use to log the operation of the
     internal terminal emulator.  This feature is useful for submitting
     bug reports.

`EMACSCOLORS'
     On MS-DOS, this specifies the screen colors.  It is useful to set
     them this way, since otherwise Emacs would display the default
     colors momentarily when it starts up.

     The value of this variable should be the two-character encoding of
     the foreground (the first character) and the background (the second
     character) colors of the default face.  Each character should be
     the hexadecimal code for the desired color on a standard PC
     text-mode display.  For example, to get blue text on a light gray
     background, specify `EMACSCOLORS=17', since 1 is the code of the
     blue color and 7 is the code of the light gray color.

     The PC display usually supports only eight background colors.
     However, Emacs switches the DOS display to a mode where all 16
     colors can be used for the background, so all four bits of the
     background color are actually used.

`WINDOW_GFX'
     Used when initializing the Sun windows system.

`PRELOAD_WINSOCK'
     On MS-Windows, if you set this variable, Emacs will load and
     initialize the network library at startup, instead of waiting
     until the first time it is required.

`emacs_dir'
     On MS-Windows, `emacs_dir' is a special environment variable, which
     indicates the full path of the directory in which Emacs is
     installed.  If Emacs is installed in the standard directory
     structure, it calculates this value automatically.  It is not much
     use setting this variable yourself unless your installation is
     non-standard, since unlike other environment variables, it will be
     overridden by Emacs at startup.  When setting other environment
     variables, such as `EMACSLOADPATH', you may find it useful to use
     `emacs_dir' rather than hard-coding an absolute path.  This allows
     multiple versions of Emacs to share the same environment variable
     settings, and it allows you to move the Emacs installation
     directory, without changing any environment or registry settings.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-Windows Registry,  Prev: Misc Variables,  Up: Environment

C.5.3 The MS-Windows System Registry
------------------------------------

Under MS-Windows, the installation program `addpm.exe' adds values for
`emacs_dir', `EMACSLOADPATH', `EMACSDATA', `EMACSPATH', `EMACSDOC',
`SHELL' and `TERM' to the `HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE' section of the system
registry, under `/Software/GNU/Emacs'.  It does this because there is
no standard place to set environment variables across different
versions of Windows.  Running `addpm.exe' is no longer strictly
necessary in recent versions of Emacs, but if you are upgrading from an
older version, running `addpm.exe' ensures that you do not have older
registry entries from a previous installation, which may not be
compatible with the latest version of Emacs.

   When Emacs starts, as well as checking the environment, it also
checks the System Registry for those variables and for `HOME', `LANG'
and `PRELOAD_WINSOCK'.

   To determine the value of those variables, Emacs goes through the
following procedure.  First, the environment is checked.  If the
variable is not found there, Emacs looks for registry keys by that name
under `/Software/GNU/Emacs'; first in the `HKEY_CURRENT_USER' section
of the registry, and if not found there, in the `HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE'
section.  Finally, if Emacs still cannot determine the values,
compiled-in defaults are used.

   In addition to the environment variables above, you can also add many
of the settings which on X belong in the `.Xdefaults' file (*note X
Resources::) to the `/Software/GNU/Emacs' registry key.  Settings you
add to the `HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE' section will affect all users of the
machine.  Settings you add to the `HKEY_CURRENT_USER' section will only
affect you, and will override machine wide settings.


File: emacs,  Node: Display X,  Next: Font X,  Prev: Environment,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.6 Specifying the Display Name
===============================

The environment variable `DISPLAY' tells all X clients, including
Emacs, where to display their windows.  Its value is set by default in
ordinary circumstances, when you start an X server and run jobs
locally.  Occasionally you may need to specify the display yourself; for
example, if you do a remote login and want to run a client program
remotely, displaying on your local screen.

   With Emacs, the main reason people change the default display is to
let them log into another system, run Emacs on that system, but have the
window displayed at their local terminal.  You might need to log in to
another system because the files you want to edit are there, or because
the Emacs executable file you want to run is there.

   The syntax of the `DISPLAY' environment variable is
`HOST:DISPLAY.SCREEN', where HOST is the host name of the X Window
System server machine, DISPLAY is an arbitrarily-assigned number that
distinguishes your server (X terminal) from other servers on the same
machine, and SCREEN is a rarely-used field that allows an X server to
control multiple terminal screens.  The period and the SCREEN field are
optional.  If included, SCREEN is usually zero.

   For example, if your host is named `glasperle' and your server is
the first (or perhaps the only) server listed in the configuration, your
`DISPLAY' is `glasperle:0.0'.

   You can specify the display name explicitly when you run Emacs,
either by changing the `DISPLAY' variable, or with the option `-d
DISPLAY' or `--display=DISPLAY'.  Here is an example:

     emacs --display=glasperle:0 &

   You can inhibit the direct use of the window system and GUI with the
`-nw' option.  It tells Emacs to display using ordinary ASCII on its
controlling terminal.  This is also an initial option.

   Sometimes, security arrangements prevent a program on a remote system
from displaying on your local system.  In this case, trying to run Emacs
produces messages like this:

     Xlib:  connection to "glasperle:0.0" refused by server

You might be able to overcome this problem by using the `xhost' command
on the local system to give permission for access from your remote
machine.


File: emacs,  Node: Font X,  Next: Colors,  Prev: Display X,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.7 Font Specification Options
==============================

By default, Emacs displays text in a twelve point Courier font (when
using X).  You can specify a different font on your command line
through the option `-fn NAME' (or `--font', which is an alias for
`-fn').

`-fn NAME'
`--font=NAME'
     Use font NAME as the default font.

   Under X, each font has a long name which consists of fourteen words
or numbers, separated by dashes.  Some fonts also have shorter
nicknames.  For instance, `9x15' is such a nickname.  This font makes
each character nine pixels wide and fifteen pixels high.  You can use
either kind of name.  Case is insignificant in both kinds.  You can use
wildcard patterns for the font name; then Emacs lets X choose one of
the fonts that match the pattern.  The wildcard character `*' matches
any sequence of characters (including none) and `?' matches any single
character.  However, matching is implementation-dependent, and can be
inaccurate when wildcards match dashes in a long name.  For reliable
results, supply all 14 dashes and use wildcards only within a field.
Here is an example, which happens to specify the font whose nickname is
`6x13':

     emacs -fn \
       "-misc-fixed-medium-r-semicondensed--13-*-*-*-c-60-iso8859-1" &

You can also specify the font in your `.Xdefaults' file:

     emacs.font: -misc-fixed-medium-r-semicondensed--13-*-*-*-c-60-iso8859-1

   Note that if you use a wildcard pattern on the command line, you
need to enclose it in single or double quotes, to prevent the shell
from accidentally expanding it into a list of file names.  On the other
hand, you should not quote the name in the `.Xdefaults' file.

   The default font used by Emacs (under X) is:

     -adobe-courier-medium-r-*-*-*-120-*-*-*-*-iso8859-1

   A long font name has the following form:

     -MAKER-FAMILY-WEIGHT-SLANT-WIDTHTYPE-STYLE...
     ...-PIXELS-HEIGHT-HORIZ-VERT-SPACING-WIDTH-REGISTRY-ENCODING

MAKER
     This is the name of the font manufacturer.

FAMILY
     This is the name of the font family--for example, `courier'.

WEIGHT
     This is normally `bold', `medium' or `light'.  Other words may
     appear here in some font names.

SLANT
     This is `r' (roman), `i' (italic), `o' (oblique), `ri' (reverse
     italic), or `ot' (other).

WIDTHTYPE
     This is normally `condensed', `extended', `semicondensed' or
     `normal'.  Other words may appear here in some font names.

STYLE
     This is an optional additional style name.  Usually it is
     empty--most long font names have two hyphens in a row at this
     point.

PIXELS
     This is the font height, in pixels.

HEIGHT
     This is the font height on the screen, measured in tenths of a
     printer's point--approximately 1/720 of an inch.  In other words,
     it is the point size of the font, times ten.  For a given vertical
     resolution, HEIGHT and PIXELS are proportional; therefore, it is
     common to specify just one of them and use `*' for the other.

HORIZ
     This is the horizontal resolution, in pixels per inch, of the
     screen for which the font is intended.

VERT
     This is the vertical resolution, in pixels per inch, of the screen
     for which the font is intended.  Normally the resolution of the
     fonts on your system is the right value for your screen;
     therefore, you normally specify `*' for this and HORIZ.

SPACING
     This is `m' (monospace), `p' (proportional) or `c' (character
     cell).

WIDTH
     This is the average character width, in pixels, multiplied by ten.

REGISTRY
ENCODING
     These together make up the X font character set that the font
     depicts.  (X font character sets are not the same as Emacs
     charsets, but they are solutions for the same problem.)  You can
     use the `xfontsel' program to check which choices you have.
     However, normally you should use `iso8859' for REGISTRY and `1'
     for ENCODING.

   You will probably want to use a fixed-width default font--that is, a
font in which all characters have the same width.  Any font with `m' or
`c' in the SPACING field of the long name is a fixed-width font.
Here's how to use the `xlsfonts' program to list all the fixed-width
fonts available on your system:

     xlsfonts -fn '*x*' | egrep "^[0-9]+x[0-9]+"
     xlsfonts -fn '*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-m*'
     xlsfonts -fn '*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-c*'

To see what a particular font looks like, use the `xfd' command.  For
example:

     xfd -fn 6x13

displays the entire font `6x13'.

   While running Emacs, you can set the font of the current frame
(*note Frame Parameters::) or for a specific kind of text (*note
Faces::).


File: emacs,  Node: Colors,  Next: Window Size X,  Prev: Font X,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.8 Window Color Options
========================

On a color display, you can specify which color to use for various
parts of the Emacs display.  To find out what colors are available on
your system, type `M-x list-colors-display', or press `C-Mouse-2' and
select `Display Colors' from the pop-up menu.  (A particular window
system might support many more colors, but the list displayed by
`list-colors-display' shows their portable subset that can be safely
used on any display supported by Emacs.)  If you do not specify colors,
on windowed displays the default for the background is white and the
default for all other colors is black.  On a monochrome display, the
foreground is black, the background is white, and the border is gray if
the display supports that.  On terminals, the background is usually
black and the foreground is white.

   Here is a list of the command-line options for specifying colors:

`-fg COLOR'
`--foreground-color=COLOR'
     Specify the foreground color.  COLOR should be a standard color
     name, or a numeric specification of the color's red, green, and
     blue components as in `#4682B4' or `RGB:46/82/B4'.

`-bg COLOR'
`--background-color=COLOR'
     Specify the background color.

`-bd COLOR'
`--border-color=COLOR'
     Specify the color of the border of the X window.

`-cr COLOR'
`--cursor-color=COLOR'
     Specify the color of the Emacs cursor which indicates where point
     is.

`-ms COLOR'
`--mouse-color=COLOR'
     Specify the color for the mouse cursor when the mouse is in the
     Emacs window.

`-r'
`-rv'
`--reverse-video'
     Reverse video--swap the foreground and background colors.

`--color=MODE'
     For a character terminal only, specify the mode of color support.
     This option is intended for overriding the number of supported
     colors that the character terminal advertises in its `termcap' or
     `terminfo' database.  The parameter MODE can be one of the
     following:
    `never'
    `no'
          Don't use colors even if the terminal's capabilities specify
          color support.

    `default'
    `auto'
          Same as when `--color' is not used at all: Emacs detects at
          startup whether the terminal supports colors, and if it does,
          turns on colored display.

    `always'
    `yes'
    `ansi8'
          Turn on the color support unconditionally, and use color
          commands specified by the ANSI escape sequences for the 8
          standard colors.

    `NUM'
          Use color mode for NUM colors.  If NUM is -1, turn off color
          support (equivalent to `never'); if it is 0, use the default
          color support for this terminal (equivalent to `auto');
          otherwise use an appropriate standard mode for NUM colors.
          Depending on your terminal's capabilities, Emacs might be
          able to turn on a color mode for 8, 16, 88, or 256 as the
          value of NUM.  If there is no mode that supports NUM colors,
          Emacs acts as if NUM were 0, i.e. it uses the terminal's
          default color support mode.
     If MODE is omitted, it defaults to ANSI8.

   For example, to use a coral mouse cursor and a slate blue text
cursor, enter:

     emacs -ms coral -cr 'slate blue' &

   You can reverse the foreground and background colors through the
`-rv' option or with the X resource `reverseVideo'.

   The `-fg', `-bg', and `-rv' options function on text-only terminals
as well as on graphical displays.


File: emacs,  Node: Window Size X,  Next: Borders X,  Prev: Colors,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.9 Options for Window Size and Position
========================================

Here is a list of the command-line options for specifying size and
position of the initial Emacs frame:

`-g WIDTHxHEIGHT[{+-}XOFFSET{+-}YOFFSET]]'
`--geometry=WIDTHxHEIGHT[{+-}XOFFSET{+-}YOFFSET]]'
     Specify the size WIDTH and HEIGHT (measured in character columns
     and lines), and positions XOFFSET and YOFFSET (measured in
     pixels).  The WIDTH and HEIGHT parameters apply to all frames,
     whereas XOFFSET and YOFFSET only to the initial frame.

`-fs'
`--fullscreen'
     Specify that width and height shall be the size of the screen.

`-fh'
`--fullheight'
     Specify that the height shall be the height of the screen.

`-fw'
`--fullwidth'
     Specify that the width shall be the width of the screen.

In the `--geometry' option, `{+-}' means either a plus  sign or a minus
sign.  A plus sign before XOFFSET means it is the distance from the
left side of the screen; a minus sign means it counts from the right
side.  A plus sign before YOFFSET means it is the distance from the top
of the screen, and a minus sign there indicates the distance from the
bottom.  The values XOFFSET and YOFFSET may themselves be positive or
negative, but that doesn't change their meaning, only their direction.

   Emacs uses the same units as `xterm' does to interpret the geometry.
The WIDTH and HEIGHT are measured in characters, so a large font
creates a larger frame than a small font.  (If you specify a
proportional font, Emacs uses its maximum bounds width as the width
unit.)  The XOFFSET and YOFFSET are measured in pixels.

   You do not have to specify all of the fields in the geometry
specification.  If you omit both XOFFSET and YOFFSET, the window
manager decides where to put the Emacs frame, possibly by letting you
place it with the mouse.  For example, `164x55' specifies a window 164
columns wide, enough for two ordinary width windows side by side, and
55 lines tall.

   The default width for Emacs is 80 characters and the default height
is 40 lines.  You can omit either the width or the height or both.  If
you start the geometry with an integer, Emacs interprets it as the
width.  If you start with an `x' followed by an integer, Emacs
interprets it as the height.  Thus, `81' specifies just the width;
`x45' specifies just the height.

   If you start with `+' or `-', that introduces an offset, which means
both sizes are omitted.  Thus, `-3' specifies the XOFFSET only.  (If
you give just one offset, it is always XOFFSET.)  `+3-3' specifies both
the XOFFSET and the YOFFSET, placing the frame near the bottom left of
the screen.

   You can specify a default for any or all of the fields in
`.Xdefaults' file, and then override selected fields with a
`--geometry' option.

   Since the mode line and the echo area occupy the last 2 lines of the
frame, the height of the initial text window is 2 less than the height
specified in your geometry.  In non-X-toolkit versions of Emacs, the
menu bar also takes one line of the specified number.  But in the X
toolkit version, the menu bar is additional and does not count against
the specified height.  The tool bar, if present, is also additional.

   Enabling or disabling the menu bar or tool bar alters the amount of
space available for ordinary text.  Therefore, if Emacs starts up with
a tool bar (which is the default), and handles the geometry
specification assuming there is a tool bar, and then your `~/.emacs'
file disables the tool bar, you will end up with a frame geometry
different from what you asked for.  To get the intended size with no
tool bar, use an X resource to specify "no tool bar" (*note Table of
Resources::); then Emacs will already know there's no tool bar when it
processes the specified geometry.

   When using one of `--fullscreen', `--fullwidth' or `--fullheight'
there may be some space around the frame anyway.  That is because Emacs
rounds the sizes so they are an even number of character heights and
widths.

   Some window managers have options that can make them ignore both
program-specified and user-specified positions (sawfish is one).  If
these are set, Emacs fails to position the window correctly.


File: emacs,  Node: Borders X,  Next: Title X,  Prev: Window Size X,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.10 Internal and External Borders
==================================

An Emacs frame has an internal border and an external border.  The
internal border is an extra strip of the background color around the
text portion of the frame.  Emacs itself draws the internal border.
The external border is added by the window manager outside the frame;
depending on the window manager you use, it may contain various boxes
you can click on to move or iconify the window.

`-ib WIDTH'
`--internal-border=WIDTH'
     Specify WIDTH as the width of the internal border (between the text
     and the main border), in pixels.

`-bw WIDTH'
`--border-width=WIDTH'
     Specify WIDTH as the width of the main border, in pixels.

   When you specify the size of the frame, that does not count the
borders.  The frame's position is measured from the outside edge of the
external border.

   Use the `-ib N' option to specify an internal border N pixels wide.
The default is 1.  Use `-bw N' to specify the width of the external
border (though the window manager may not pay attention to what you
specify).  The default width of the external border is 2.


File: emacs,  Node: Title X,  Next: Icons X,  Prev: Borders X,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.11 Frame Titles
=================

An Emacs frame may or may not have a specified title.  The frame title,
if specified, appears in window decorations and icons as the name of
the frame.  If an Emacs frame has no specified title, the default title
has the form `INVOCATION-NAME@MACHINE' (if there is only one frame) or
the selected window's buffer name (if there is more than one frame).

   You can specify a title for the initial Emacs frame with a command
line option:

`-T TITLE'
`--title=TITLE'
     Specify TITLE as the title for the initial Emacs frame.

   The `--name' option (*note Resources::) also specifies the title for
the initial Emacs frame.


File: emacs,  Node: Icons X,  Next: Misc X,  Prev: Title X,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.12 Icons
==========

Most window managers allow you to "iconify" a frame, removing it from
sight, and leaving a small, distinctive "icon" window in its place.
Clicking on the icon window makes the frame itself appear again.  If
you have many clients running at once, you can avoid cluttering up the
screen by iconifying most of the clients.

`-nbi'
`--no-bitmap-icon'
     Do not use a picture of a gnu as the Emacs icon.

`-iconic'
`--iconic'
     Start Emacs in iconified state.

   By default Emacs uses an icon window containing a picture of the GNU
gnu.  The `-nbi' or `--no-bitmap-icon' option tells Emacs to let the
window manager choose what sort of icon to use--usually just a small
rectangle containing the frame's title.

   The `-iconic' option tells Emacs to begin running as an icon, rather
than showing a frame right away.  In this situation, the icon is the
only indication that Emacs has started; the text frame doesn't appear
until you deiconify it.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc X,  Prev: Icons X,  Up: Emacs Invocation

C.13 Other Display Options
==========================

`-hb'
`--horizontal-scroll-bars'
     Enable horizontal scroll bars.  Since horizontal scroll bars are
     not yet implemented, this actually does nothing.

`-vb'
`--vertical-scroll-bars'
     Enable vertical scroll bars.

`-lsp PIXELS'
`--line-spacing=PIXELS'
     Specify PIXELS as additional space to put between lines, in pixels.

`-nbc'
`--no-blinking-cursor'
     Disable the blinking cursor on graphical displays.

`-D'
`--basic-display'
     Disable the menu-bar, the tool-bar, the scroll-bars, and tool tips,
     and turn off the blinking cursor.  This can be useful for making a
     test case that simplifies debugging of display problems.

   The `--xrm' option (*note Resources::) specifies additional X
resource values.


File: emacs,  Node: X Resources,  Next: Antinews,  Prev: Emacs Invocation,  Up: Top

Appendix D X Options and Resources
**********************************

You can customize some X-related aspects of Emacs behavior using X
resources, as is usual for programs that use X.  On MS-Windows, you can
customize some of the same aspects using the system registry.  *Note
MS-Windows Registry::.  Likewise, Emacs on MacOS Carbon emulates X
resources using the Preferences system.  *Note Mac Environment
Variables::.

   When Emacs is built using an "X toolkit", such as Lucid or LessTif,
you need to use X resources to customize the appearance of the widgets,
including the menu-bar, scroll-bar, and dialog boxes.  This is because
the libraries that implement these don't provide for customization
through Emacs.  GTK+ widgets use a separate system of "GTK resources",
which we will also describe.

* Menu:

* Resources::           Using X resources with Emacs (in general).
* Table of Resources::  Table of specific X resources that affect Emacs.
* Face Resources::      X resources for customizing faces.
* Lucid Resources::     X resources for Lucid menus.
* LessTif Resources::   X resources for LessTif and Motif menus.
* GTK resources::       Resources for GTK widgets.


File: emacs,  Node: Resources,  Next: Table of Resources,  Up: X Resources

D.1 X Resources
===============

Programs running under the X Window System organize their user options
under a hierarchy of classes and resources.  You can specify default
values for these options in your X resources file, usually named
`~/.Xdefaults' or `~/.Xresources'.  If changes in `~/.Xdefaults' do not
take effect, it is because your X server stores its own list of
resources; to update them, use the shell command `xrdb'--for instance,
`xrdb ~/.Xdefaults'.

   Each line in the file specifies a value for one option or for a
collection of related options, for one program or for several programs
(optionally even for all programs).

   MS-Windows systems do not support `~/.Xdefaults' files, so instead
Emacs compiled for Windows looks for X resources in the Windows
Registry, first under the key `HKEY_CURRENT_USER\SOFTWARE\GNU\Emacs'
and then under the key `HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\GNU\Emacs'.  The
menu and scroll bars are native widgets on MS-Windows, so they are only
customizable via the system-wide settings in the Display Control Panel.
You can also set resources using the `-xrm' command line option (see
below.)

   Programs define named resources with particular meanings.  They also
define how to group resources into named classes.  For instance, in
Emacs, the `internalBorder' resource controls the width of the internal
border, and the `borderWidth' resource controls the width of the
external border.  Both of these resources are part of the `BorderWidth'
class.  Case distinctions are significant in these names.

   Every resource definition is associated with a specific program
name--the name of the executable file that you ran.  For Emacs, that is
normally `emacs'.  To specify a definition for all instances of Emacs,
regardless of their names, use `Emacs'.

   In `~/.Xdefaults', you can specify a value for a single resource on
one line, like this:

     emacs.borderWidth: 2

Or you can use a class name to specify the same value for all resources
in that class.  Here's an example:

     emacs.BorderWidth: 2

   If you specify a value for a class, it becomes the default for all
resources in that class.  You can specify values for individual
resources as well; these override the class value, for those particular
resources.  Thus, this example specifies 2 as the default width for all
borders, but overrides this value with 4 for the external border:

     emacs.BorderWidth: 2
     emacs.borderWidth: 4

   The order in which the lines appear in the file does not matter.
Also, command-line options always override the X resources file.

   Here is a list of X command-line options and their corresponding
resource names.

`-name NAME'
`--name=NAME'
     Use NAME as the resource name (and the title) for the initial
     Emacs frame.  This option does not affect subsequent frames, but
     Lisp programs can specify frame names when they create frames.

     If you don't specify this option, the default is to use the Emacs
     executable's name as the resource name.

`-xrm RESOURCE-VALUES'
`--xrm=RESOURCE-VALUES'
     Specify X resource values for this Emacs job (see below).

   For consistency, `-name' also specifies the name to use for other
resource values that do not belong to any particular frame.

   The resources that name Emacs invocations also belong to a class; its
name is `Emacs'.  If you write `Emacs' instead of `emacs', the resource
applies to all frames in all Emacs jobs, regardless of frame titles and
regardless of the name of the executable file.  Here is an example:

     Emacs.BorderWidth: 2
     Emacs.borderWidth: 4

   You can specify a string of additional resource values for Emacs to
use with the command line option `-xrm RESOURCES'.  The text RESOURCES
should have the same format that you would use inside a file of X
resources.  To include multiple resource specifications in RESOURCES,
put a newline between them, just as you would in a file.  You can also
use `#include "FILENAME"' to include a file full of resource
specifications.  Resource values specified with `-xrm' take precedence
over all other resource specifications.

   One way to experiment with the effect of different resource settings
is to use the `editres' program.  Select `Get Tree' from the `Commands'
menu, then click on an Emacs frame.  This will display a tree showing
the structure of X toolkit widgets used in an Emacs frame.  Select one
of them, such as `menubar', then select `Show Resource Box' from the
`Commands' menu.  This displays a list of all the meaningful X
resources for that widget, and allows you to edit them.  Changes take
effect when you click on the `Apply' button.  (See the `editres' man
page for more details.)


File: emacs,  Node: Table of Resources,  Next: Face Resources,  Prev: Resources,  Up: X Resources

D.2 Table of X Resources for Emacs
==================================

This table lists the resource names that designate options for Emacs,
not counting those for the appearance of the menu bar, each with the
class that it belongs to:

`background' (class `Background')
     Background color name.

`bitmapIcon' (class `BitmapIcon')
     Use a bitmap icon (a picture of a gnu) if `on', let the window
     manager choose an icon if `off'.

`borderColor' (class `BorderColor')
     Color name for the external border.

`borderWidth' (class `BorderWidth')
     Width in pixels of the external border.

`cursorColor' (class `Foreground')
     Color name for text cursor (point).

`cursorBlink' (class `CursorBlink')
     Specifies whether to make the cursor blink. The default is `on'.
     Use `off' or `false' to turn cursor blinking off.

`font' (class `Font')
     Font name (or fontset name, *note Fontsets::) for `default' font.

`foreground' (class `Foreground')
     Color name for text.

`geometry' (class `Geometry')
     Window size and position.  Be careful not to specify this resource
     as `emacs*geometry', because that may affect individual menus as
     well as the Emacs frame itself.

     If this resource specifies a position, that position applies only
     to the initial Emacs frame (or, in the case of a resource for a
     specific frame name, only that frame).  However, the size, if
     specified here, applies to all frames.

`fullscreen' (class `Fullscreen')
     The desired fullscreen size.  The value can be one of `fullboth',
     `fullwidth' or `fullheight', which correspond to the command-line
     options `-fs', `-fw', and `-fh' (*note Window Size X::).

     Note that this applies to the initial frame only.

`iconName' (class `Title')
     Name to display in the icon.

`internalBorder' (class `BorderWidth')
     Width in pixels of the internal border.

`lineSpacing' (class `LineSpacing')
     Additional space ("leading") between lines, in pixels.

`menuBar' (class `MenuBar')
     Give frames menu bars if `on'; don't have menu bars if `off'.
     *Note Lucid Resources::, and *Note LessTif Resources::, for how to
     control the appearance of the menu bar if you have one.

`minibuffer' (class `Minibuffer')
     If `none', don't make a minibuffer in this frame.  It will use a
     separate minibuffer frame instead.

`paneFont' (class `Font')
     Font name for menu pane titles, in non-toolkit versions of Emacs.

`pointerColor' (class `Foreground')
     Color of the mouse cursor.

`privateColormap' (class `PrivateColormap')
     If `on', use a private color map, in the case where the "default
     visual" of class PseudoColor and Emacs is using it.

`reverseVideo' (class `ReverseVideo')
     Switch foreground and background default colors if `on', use
     colors as specified if `off'.

`screenGamma' (class `ScreenGamma')
     Gamma correction for colors, equivalent to the frame parameter
     `screen-gamma'.

`scrollBarWidth' (class `ScrollBarWidth')
     The scroll bar width in pixels, equivalent to the frame parameter
     `scroll-bar-width'.

`selectionFont' (class `SelectionFont')
     Font name for pop-up menu items, in non-toolkit versions of Emacs.
     (For toolkit versions, see *Note Lucid Resources::, also see
     *Note LessTif Resources::.)

`selectionTimeout' (class `SelectionTimeout')
     Number of milliseconds to wait for a selection reply.  If the
     selection owner doesn't reply in this time, we give up.  A value
     of 0 means wait as long as necessary.

`synchronous' (class `Synchronous')
     Run Emacs in synchronous mode if `on'.  Synchronous mode is useful
     for debugging X problems.

`title' (class `Title')
     Name to display in the title bar of the initial Emacs frame.

`toolBar' (class `ToolBar')
     Number of lines to reserve for the tool bar.  A zero value
     suppresses the tool bar.  If the value is non-zero and
     `auto-resize-tool-bars' is non-`nil', the tool bar's size will be
     changed automatically so that all tool bar items are visible.
     If the value of `auto-resize-tool-bars' is `grow-only', the tool
     bar expands automatically, but does not contract automatically.
     To contract the tool bar, you must redraw the frame by entering
     `C-l'.

`useXIM' (class `UseXIM')
     Turn off use of X input methods (XIM) if `false' or `off'.  This
     is only relevant if your Emacs is actually built with XIM support.
     It is potentially useful to turn off XIM for efficiency,
     especially slow X client/server links.

`verticalScrollBars' (class `ScrollBars')
     Give frames scroll bars if `on'; don't have scroll bars if `off'.

`visualClass' (class `VisualClass')
     Specify the "visual" that X should use.  This tells X how to handle
     colors.

     The value should start with one of `TrueColor', `PseudoColor',
     `DirectColor', `StaticColor', `GrayScale', and `StaticGray',
     followed by `-DEPTH', where DEPTH is the number of color planes.
     Most terminals only allow a few "visuals," and the `dpyinfo'
     program outputs information saying which ones.


File: emacs,  Node: Face Resources,  Next: Lucid Resources,  Prev: Table of Resources,  Up: X Resources

D.3 X Resources for Faces
=========================

You can use resources to customize the appearance of particular faces
(*note Faces::):

`FACE.attributeForeground'
     Foreground color for face FACE.

`FACE.attributeBackground'
     Background color for face FACE.

`FACE.attributeUnderline'
     Underline flag for face FACE.  Use `on' or `true' for yes.

`FACE.attributeStrikeThrough'
`FACE.attributeOverline'
`FACE.attributeBox'
`FACE.attributeInverse'
     Likewise, for other boolean font attributes.

`FACE.attributeStipple'
     The name of a pixmap data file to use for the stipple pattern, or
     `false' to not use stipple for the face FACE.

`FACE.attributeBackgroundPixmap'
     The background pixmap for the face FACE.  Should be a name of a
     pixmap file or `false'.

`FACE.attributeFont'
     Font name (full XFD name or valid X abbreviation) for face FACE.
     Instead of this, you can specify the font through separate
     attributes.

   Instead of using `attributeFont' to specify a font name, you can
select a font through these separate attributes:

`FACE.attributeFamily'
     Font family for face FACE.

`FACE.attributeHeight'
     Height of the font to use for face FACE: either an integer
     specifying the height in units of 1/10pt, or a floating point
     number that specifies a scale factor to scale the underlying face's
     default font, or a function to be called with the default height
     which will return a new height.

`FACE.attributeWidth'
`FACE.attributeWeight'
`FACE.attributeSlant'
     Each of these resources corresponds to a like-named font attribute,
     and you write the resource value the same as the symbol you would
     use for the font attribute value.

`FACE.attributeBold'
     Bold flag for face FACE--instead of `attributeWeight'.  Use `on'
     or `true' for yes.

`FACE.attributeItalic'
     Italic flag for face FACE--instead of `attributeSlant'.


File: emacs,  Node: Lucid Resources,  Next: LessTif Resources,  Prev: Face Resources,  Up: X Resources

D.4 Lucid Menu X Resources
==========================

If the Emacs installed at your site was built to use the X toolkit with
the Lucid menu widgets, then the menu bar is a separate widget and has
its own resources.  The resource names contain `pane.menubar'
(following, as always, the name of the Emacs invocation, or `Emacs',
which stands for all Emacs invocations).  Specify them like this:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.RESOURCE:  VALUE

For example, to specify the font `8x16' for the menu-bar items, write
this:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.font:  8x16

Resources for _non-menubar_ toolkit pop-up menus have `menu*' instead
of `pane.menubar'.  For example, to specify the font `8x16' for the
pop-up menu items, write this:

     Emacs.menu*.font:	8x16

For dialog boxes, use `dialog*':

     Emacs.dialog*.font:	8x16

The Lucid menus can display multilingual text in your locale.  For more
information about fontsets see the man page for `XCreateFontSet'.  To
enable multilingual menu text you specify a `fontSet' resource instead
of the font resource.  If both `font' and `fontSet' resources are
specified, the `fontSet' resource is used.

   Thus, to specify `-*-helvetica-medium-r-*--*-120-*-*-*-*-*-*,*' for
both the popup and menu bar menus, write this:

     Emacs*menu*fontSet:  -*-helvetica-medium-r-*--*-120-*-*-*-*-*-*,*

The `*menu*' as a wildcard matches `pane.menubar' and `menu...'.

   Experience shows that on some systems you may need to add `shell.'
before the `pane.menubar' or `menu*'.  On some other systems, you must
not add `shell.'.  The generic wildcard approach should work on both
kinds of systems.

   Here is a list of the specific resources for menu bars and pop-up
menus:

`font'
     Font for menu item text.

`fontSet'
     Fontset for menu item text.

`foreground'
     Color of the foreground.

`background'
     Color of the background.

`buttonForeground'
     In the menu bar, the color of the foreground for a selected item.

`horizontalSpacing'
     Horizontal spacing in pixels between items.  Default is 3.

`verticalSpacing'
     Vertical spacing in pixels between items.  Default is 2.

`arrowSpacing'
     Horizontal spacing between the arrow (which indicates a submenu)
     and the associated text.  Default is 10.

`shadowThickness'
     Thickness of shadow line around the widget.  Default is 1.

     Also determines the thickness of shadow lines around other objects,
     for instance 3D buttons and arrows.  If you have the impression
     that the arrows in the menus do not stand out clearly enough or
     that the difference between "in" and "out" buttons is difficult to
     see, set this to 2.  If you have no problems with visibility, the
     default probably looks better.  The background color may also have
     some effect on the contrast.

`margin'
     The margin of the menu bar, in characters.  Default is 1.


File: emacs,  Node: LessTif Resources,  Next: GTK resources,  Prev: Lucid Resources,  Up: X Resources

D.5 LessTif Menu X Resources
============================

If the Emacs installed at your site was built to use the X toolkit with
the LessTif or Motif widgets, then the menu bar, the dialog boxes, the
pop-up menus, and the file-selection box are separate widgets and have
their own resources.

   The resource names for the menu bar contain `pane.menubar'
(following, as always, the name of the Emacs invocation, or `Emacs',
which stands for all Emacs invocations).  Specify them like this:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.SUBWIDGET.RESOURCE:  VALUE

   Each individual string in the menu bar is a subwidget; the
subwidget's name is the same as the menu item string.  For example, the
word `File' in the menu bar is part of a subwidget named
`emacs.pane.menubar.File'.  Most likely, you want to specify the same
resources for the whole menu bar.  To do this, use `*' instead of a
specific subwidget name.  For example, to specify the font `8x16' for
the menu-bar items, write this:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.*.fontList:  8x16

This also specifies the resource value for submenus.

   Each item in a submenu in the menu bar also has its own name for X
resources; for example, the `File' submenu has an item named `Save
(current buffer)'.  A resource specification for a submenu item looks
like this:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.popup_*.MENU.ITEM.RESOURCE: VALUE

For example, here's how to specify the font for the `Save (current
buffer)' item:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.popup_*.File.Save (current buffer).fontList: 8x16

For an item in a second-level submenu, such as `Complete Word' under
`Spell Checking' under `Tools', the resource fits this template:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.popup_*.popup_*.MENU.RESOURCE: VALUE

For example,

     Emacs.pane.menubar.popup_*.popup_*.Spell Checking.Complete Word: VALUE

(This should be one long line.)

   It's impossible to specify a resource for all the menu-bar items
without also specifying it for the submenus as well.  So if you want the
submenu items to look different from the menu bar itself, you must ask
for that in two steps.  First, specify the resource for all of them;
then, override the value for submenus alone.  Here is an example:

     Emacs.pane.menubar.*.fontList:  8x16
     Emacs.pane.menubar.popup_*.fontList: 8x16

For LessTif pop-up menus, use `menu*' instead of `pane.menubar'.  For
example, to specify the font `8x16' for the pop-up menu items, write
this:

     Emacs.menu*.fontList:  8x16

For LessTif dialog boxes, use `dialog' instead of `menu':

     Emacs.dialog*.fontList: 8x16
     Emacs.dialog*.foreground: hotpink

   To specify resources for the LessTif file-selection box, use `fsb*',
like this:

     Emacs.fsb*.fontList: 8x16

   Here is a list of the specific resources for LessTif menu bars and
pop-up menus:

`armColor'
     The color to show in an armed button.

`fontList'
     The font to use.

`marginBottom'
`marginHeight'
`marginLeft'
`marginRight'
`marginTop'
`marginWidth'
     Amount of space to leave around the item, within the border.

`borderWidth'
     The width of the border around the menu item, on all sides.

`shadowThickness'
     The width of the border shadow.

`bottomShadowColor'
     The color for the border shadow, on the bottom and the right.

`topShadowColor'
     The color for the border shadow, on the top and the left.


File: emacs,  Node: GTK resources,  Prev: LessTif Resources,  Up: X Resources

D.6 GTK resources
=================

If Emacs was built to use the GTK widget set, then the menu bar, tool
bar, scroll bar and the dialogs are customized with the standard GTK
customization file, `~/.gtkrc-2.0', or with the Emacs specific file
`~/.emacs.d/gtkrc'.  We recommend that you use `~/.emacs.d/gtkrc' for
customizations, since `~/.gtkrc-2.0' seems to be ignored when running
GConf with GNOME.  These files apply only to GTK widget features.  To
customize Emacs font, background, faces, etc., use the normal X
resources (*note Resources::).

   Some GTK themes override these mechanisms, which means that using
these mechanisms will not work to customize them.

   In these files you first define a style and say what it means; then
you specify to apply the style to various widget types (*note GTK
widget names::).  Here is an example of how to change the font for
Emacs menus:

     # Define the style `menufont'.
     style "menufont"
     {
       font_name = "helvetica bold 14"  # This is a Pango font name
     }

     # Specify that widget type `*emacs-menuitem*' uses `menufont'.
     widget "*emacs-menuitem*" style "menufont"

   Here is a more elaborate example, showing how to change the parts of
the scroll bar:

     style "scroll"
     {
       fg[NORMAL] = "red"     # The arrow color.
       bg[NORMAL] = "yellow"  # The thumb and background around the arrow.
       bg[ACTIVE] = "blue"    # The trough color.
       bg[PRELIGHT] = "white" # The thumb color when the mouse is over it.
     }

     widget "*verticalScrollBar*" style "scroll"

   There are also parameters that affect GTK as a whole.  For example,
the property `gtk-font-name' sets the default font for GTK.  You must
use Pango font names (*note GTK styles::).  A GTK resources file that
just sets a default font looks like this:

     gtk-font-name = "courier 12"

   The GTK resources file is fully described in the GTK API document.
This can be found in
`PREFIX/share/gtk-doc/html/gtk/gtk-resource-files.html', where `prefix'
is the directory in which the GTK libraries were installed (usually
`/usr' or `/usr/local').  You can also find the document online, at
`http://developer.gnome.org/doc/API/2.0/gtk/gtk-Resource-Files.html'.

* Menu:

* GTK widget names::      How widgets in GTK are named in general.
* GTK Names in Emacs::    GTK widget names in Emacs.
* GTK styles::            What can be customized in a GTK widget.


File: emacs,  Node: GTK widget names,  Next: GTK Names in Emacs,  Up: GTK resources

D.6.1 GTK widget names
----------------------

A GTK widget is specified by its "widget class" and "widget name".  The
widget class is the type of the widget: for example, `GtkMenuBar'.  The
widget name is the name given to a specific widget.  A widget always
has a class, but need not have a name.

   "Absolute names" are sequences of widget names or widget classes,
corresponding to hierarchies of widgets embedded within other widgets.
For example, if a `GtkWindow' named `top' contains a `GtkVBox' named
`box', which in turn contains a `GtkMenuBar' called `menubar', the
absolute class name of the menu-bar widget is
`GtkWindow.GtkVBox.GtkMenuBar', and its absolute widget name is
`top.box.menubar'.

   When assigning a style to a widget, you can use the absolute class
name or the absolute widget name.

   There are two commands to specify changes for widgets:

`widget_class'
     specifies a style for widgets based on the absolute class name.

`widget'
     specifies a style for widgets based on the absolute class name, or
     just the class.

You must specify the class and the style in double-quotes, and put
these commands at the top level in the GTK customization file, like
this:

     style "menufont"
     {
       font_name = "helvetica bold 14"
     }

     widget "top.box.menubar" style "menufont"
     widget_class "GtkWindow.GtkVBox.GtkMenuBar" style "menufont"

   Matching of absolute names uses shell wildcard syntax: `*' matches
zero or more characters and `?' matches one character.  This example
assigns `base_style' to all widgets:

     widget "*" style "base_style"

   Given the absolute class name `GtkWindow.GtkVBox.GtkMenuBar' and the
corresponding absolute widget name `top.box.menubar', all these
examples specify `my_style' for the menu bar:

     widget_class "GtkWindow.GtkVBox.GtkMenuBar" style "my_style"
     widget_class "GtkWindow.*.GtkMenuBar" style "my_style"
     widget_class "*GtkMenuBar" style "my_style"
     widget "top.box.menubar" style "my_style"
     widget "*box*menubar" style "my_style"
     widget "*menubar" style "my_style"
     widget "*menu*" style "my_style"


File: emacs,  Node: GTK Names in Emacs,  Next: GTK styles,  Prev: GTK widget names,  Up: GTK resources

D.6.2 GTK Widget Names in Emacs
-------------------------------

In Emacs, the top level widget for a frame is a `GtkWindow' that
contains a `GtkVBox'.  The `GtkVBox' contains the `GtkMenuBar' and a
`GtkFixed' widget.  The vertical scroll bars, `GtkVScrollbar', are
contained in the `GtkFixed' widget.  The text you write in Emacs is
drawn in the `GtkFixed' widget.

   Dialogs in Emacs are `GtkDialog' widgets.  The file dialog is a
`GtkFileSelection' widget.

To set a style for the menu bar using the absolute class name, use:

     widget_class "GtkWindow.GtkVBox.GtkMenuBar" style "my_style"

For the scroll bar, the absolute class name is:

     widget_class
       "GtkWindow.GtkVBox.GtkFixed.GtkVScrollbar"
          style "my_style"

The names for the emacs widgets, and their classes, are:

`emacs-filedialog'         `GtkFileSelection'
`emacs-dialog'             `GtkDialog'
`Emacs'                    `GtkWindow'
`pane'                     `GtkVHbox'
`emacs'                    `GtkFixed'
`verticalScrollBar'        `GtkVScrollbar'
`emacs-toolbar'            `GtkToolbar'
`menubar'                  `GtkMenuBar'
`emacs-menuitem'           anything in menus

Thus, for Emacs you can write the two examples above as:

     widget "Emacs.pane.menubar" style "my_style"
     widget "Emacs.pane.emacs.verticalScrollBar" style "my_style"

   GTK absolute names are quite strange when it comes to menus and
dialogs.  The names do not start with `Emacs', as they are
free-standing windows and not contained (in the GTK sense) by the Emacs
GtkWindow.  To customize the dialogs and menus, use wildcards like this:

     widget "*emacs-dialog*" style "my_dialog_style"
     widget "*emacs-filedialog* style "my_file_style"
     widget "*emacs-menuitem* style "my_menu_style"

   If you specify a customization in `~/.emacs.d/gtkrc', then it
automatically applies only to Emacs, since other programs don't read
that file.  For example, the drop down menu in the file dialog can not
be customized by any absolute widget name, only by an absolute class
name.  This is because the widgets in the drop down menu do not have
names and the menu is not contained in the Emacs GtkWindow.  To have
all menus in Emacs look the same, use this in `~/.emacs.d/gtkrc':

     widget_class "*Menu*" style "my_menu_style"


File: emacs,  Node: GTK styles,  Prev: GTK Names in Emacs,  Up: GTK resources

D.6.3 GTK styles
----------------

In a GTK style you specify the appearance widgets shall have.  You can
specify foreground and background color, background pixmap and font.
The edit widget (where you edit the text) in Emacs is a GTK widget, but
trying to specify a style for the edit widget will have no effect.
This is so that Emacs compiled for GTK is compatible with Emacs
compiled for other X toolkits.  The settings for foreground, background
and font for the edit widget is taken from the X resources; *note
Resources::.  Here is an example of two style declarations, `default'
and `ruler':

     pixmap_path "/usr/share/pixmaps:/usr/include/X11/pixmaps"

     style "default"
     {
       font_name = "helvetica 12"

       bg[NORMAL] = { 0.83, 0.80, 0.73 }
       bg[SELECTED] = { 0.0, 0.55, 0.55 }
       bg[INSENSITIVE] = { 0.77, 0.77, 0.66 }
       bg[ACTIVE] = { 0.0, 0.55, 0.55 }
       bg[PRELIGHT] = { 0.0, 0.55, 0.55 }

       fg[NORMAL] = "black"
       fg[SELECTED] = { 0.9, 0.9, 0.9 }
       fg[ACTIVE] = "black"
       fg[PRELIGHT] = { 0.9, 0.9, 0.9 }

       base[INSENSITIVE] = "#777766"
       text[INSENSITIVE] = { 0.60, 0.65, 0.57 }

       bg_pixmap[NORMAL] = "background.xpm"
       bg_pixmap[INSENSITIVE] = "background.xpm"
       bg_pixmap[ACTIVE] = "background.xpm"
       bg_pixmap[PRELIGHT] = "<none>"

     }

     style "ruler" = "default"
     {
       font_name = "helvetica 8"
     }

   The style `ruler' inherits from `default'.  This way you can build
on existing styles.  The syntax for fonts and colors is described below.

   As this example shows, it is possible to specify several values for
foreground and background depending on the widget's "state".  The
possible states are:

`NORMAL'
     This is the default state for widgets.

`ACTIVE'
     This is the state for a widget that is ready to do something.  It
     is also for the trough of a scroll bar, i.e.  `bg[ACTIVE] = "red"'
     sets the scroll bar trough to red.  Buttons that have been pressed
     but not released yet ("armed") are in this state.

`PRELIGHT'
     This is the state for a widget that can be manipulated, when the
     mouse pointer is over it--for example when the mouse is over the
     thumb in the scroll bar or over a menu item.  When the mouse is
     over a button that is not pressed, the button is in this state.

`SELECTED'
     This is the state for data that has been selected by the user.  It
     can be selected text or items selected in a list.  This state is
     not used in Emacs.

`INSENSITIVE'
     This is the state for widgets that are visible, but they can not be
     manipulated in the usual way--for example, buttons that can't be
     pressed, and disabled menu items.  To display disabled menu items
     in yellow, use `fg[INSENSITIVE] = "yellow"'.

   Here are the things that can go in a style declaration:

`bg[STATE] = COLOR'
     This specifies the background color for the widget.  Note that
     editable text doesn't use `bg'; it uses `base' instead.

`base[STATE] = COLOR'
     This specifies the background color for editable text.  In Emacs,
     this color is used for the background of the text fields in the
     file dialog.

`bg_pixmap[STATE] = "PIXMAP"'
     This specifies an image background (instead of a background color).
     PIXMAP should be the image file name.  GTK can use a number of
     image file formats, including XPM, XBM, GIF, JPEG and PNG.  If you
     want a widget to use the same image as its parent, use `<parent>'.
     If you don't want any image, use `<none>'.  `<none>' is the way
     to cancel a background image inherited from a parent style.

     You can't specify the file by its absolute file name.  GTK looks
     for the pixmap file in directories specified in `pixmap_path'.
     `pixmap_path' is a colon-separated list of directories within
     double quotes, specified at the top level in a `gtkrc' file (i.e.
     not inside a style definition; see example above):

          pixmap_path "/usr/share/pixmaps:/usr/include/X11/pixmaps"

`fg[STATE] = COLOR'
     This specifies the foreground color for widgets to use.  It is the
     color of text in menus and buttons, and the color for the arrows in
     the scroll bar.  For editable text, use `text'.

`text[STATE] = COLOR'
     This is the color for editable text.  In Emacs, this color is used
     for the text fields in the file dialog.

`font_name = "FONT"'
     This specifies the font for text in the widget.  FONT is a Pango
     font name, for example `Sans Italic 10', `Helvetica Bold 12',
     `Courier 14', `Times 18'.  See below for exact syntax.  The names
     are case insensitive.

   There are three ways to specify a color: by name, in hexadecimal
form, and with an RGB triplet.

A color name is written within double quotes, for example `"red"'.

Hexadecimal form is the same as in X: `#RRRRGGGGBBBB', where all three
color specs must have the same number of hex digits (1, 2, 3 or 4).

An RGB triplet looks like `{ R, G, B }', where R, G and B are either
integers in the range 0-65535 or floats in the range 0.0-1.0.

   Pango font names have the form "FAMILY-LIST STYLE-OPTIONS SIZE."  FAMILY-LIST
is a comma separated list of font families optionally terminated by a
comma.  This way you can specify several families and the first one
found will be used.  FAMILY corresponds to the second part in an X font
name, for example in

     -adobe-times-medium-r-normal--12-120-75-75-p-64-iso10646-1

the family name is `times'.

STYLE-OPTIONS is a whitespace separated list of words where each word
is a style, variant, weight, or stretch.  The default value for all of
these is `normal'.

A `style' corresponds to the fourth part of an X font name.  In X font
names it is the character `r', `i' or `o'; in Pango font names the
corresponding values are `normal', `italic', or `oblique'.

A `variant' is either `normal' or `small-caps'.  Small caps is a font
with the lower case characters replaced by smaller variants of the
capital characters.

Weight describes the "boldness" of a font.  It corresponds to the third
part of an X font name.  It is one of `ultra-light', `light', `normal',
`bold', `ultra-bold', or `heavy'.

Stretch gives the width of the font relative to other designs within a
family.  It corresponds to the fifth part of an X font name.  It is one
of `ultra-condensed', `extra-condensed', `condensed', `semi-condensed',
`normal', `semi-expanded', `expanded', `extra-expanded', or
`ultra-expanded'.

SIZE is a decimal number that describes the font size in points.


File: emacs,  Node: Antinews,  Next: Mac OS,  Prev: X Resources,  Up: Top

Appendix E Emacs 21 Antinews
****************************

For those users who live backwards in time, here is information about
downgrading to Emacs version 21.4.  We hope you will enjoy the greater
simplicity that results from the absence of many Emacs 22.0.99 features.

   * The buffer position and line number are now displayed at the end of
     the mode line, where they can be more easily seen.

   * The mode line of the selected window is no longer displayed with a
     special face.  All mode lines are created equal.  Meanwhile, you
     can use the variable `mode-line-inverse-video' to control whether
     mode lines are highlighted at all--`nil' means don't highlight
     them.

   * Clicking on a link with the left mouse button (`mouse-1') will
     always set point at the position clicked, instead of following the
     link.  If you want to follow the link, use the middle mouse button
     (`mouse-2').

   * Emacs is tired of X droppings.  If you drop a file or a piece of
     text onto an Emacs window, nothing will happen.

   * On an xterm, even if you enable Xterm Mouse mode, Emacs provides a
     more convincing simulation of a text terminal by not responding to
     mouse clicks on the mode line, header line, or display margin.

   * For simplicity, windows always have fringes.  We wouldn't want to
     in-fringe anyone's windows.  Likewise, horizontal scrolling always
     works in the same automatic way.

   * The horizontal-bar cursor shape has been removed.

   * If command line arguments are given, Emacs will not display a
     splash screen, so that you can immediately get on with your
     editing.  The command-line option `--no-splash' is therefore
     obsolete, and has been removed.

   * These command line options have also been removed: `--color',
     `--fullwidth', `--fullheight', `--fullscreen',
     `--no-blinking-cursor', `--no-desktop', and `-Q'.

   * The `--geometry' option applies only to the initial frame, and the
     `-f' option will not read arguments for interactive functions.

   * We have standardized on one location for the user init file: the
     file named `.emacs' in your home directory.  Emacs will not look
     for the init file in `~/.emacs.d/init.el'.  Similarly, don't try
     putting `.emacs_SHELL' as `init_SHELL.sh' in `~/.emacs.d'; Emacs
     won't find it.

   * Emacs will not read `~/.abbrev_defs' automatically.  If you want
     to load abbrev definitions from a file, you must always do so
     explicitly.

   * When you are logged in as root, all files now give you writable
     buffers, reflecting the fact that you can write any files.

   * The maximum size of buffers and integer variables has been halved.
     On 32-bit machines, the maximum buffer size is now 128 megabytes.

   * An unquoted `$' in a file name is now an error, if the following
     name is not recognized as an environment variable.  Thus, the file
     name `foo$bar' would probably be an error.  Meanwhile, the
     `setenv' command does not expand `$' at all.

   * If a single command accumulates too much undo information, Emacs
     never discards it.  If Emacs runs out of memory as a result, it
     will handle this by crashing.

   * Many commands have been removed from the menus or rearranged.

   * The `C-h' (help) subcommands have been rearranged--especially
     those that display specific files.  Type `C-h C-h' to see a list
     of these commands; that will show you what is different.

   * The `C-h v' and `C-h f' commands no longer show a hyperlink to the
     C source code, even if it is available.  If you want to find the
     source code, grep for it.

   * The apropos commands will not accept a list of words to match, in
     order to encourage you to be more specific.  Also, the user option
     `apropos-sort-by-scores' has been removed.

   * The minibuffer prompt is now displayed using the default face.
     The colon is enough to show you what part is the prompt.

   * Minibuffer completion commands always complete the entire
     minibuffer contents, just as if you had typed them at the end of
     the minibuffer, no matter where point is actually located.

   * The command `backward-kill-sexp' is now bound to `C-M-delete' and
     `C-M-backspace'.  Be careful when using these key sequences!  It
     may shut down your X server, or reboot your operating system.

   * Commands to set the mark at a place away from point, including
     `M-@', `M-h', etc., don't do anything special when you repeat
     them.  In most cases, typing these commands multiple times is
     equivalent to typing them once.  `M-h' ignores numeric arguments.

   * The user option `set-mark-command-repeat-pop' has been removed.

   * `C-<SPC> C-<SPC>' has no special meaning-it just sets the mark
     twice.  Neither does `C-u C-x C-x', which simply exchanges point
     and mark like `C-x C-x'.

   * The function `sentence-end' has been eliminated in favor of a more
     straightforward approach: directly setting the variable
     `sentence-end'.  For example, to end each sentence with a single
     space, use

          (setq sentence-end "[.?!][]\"')}]*\\($\\|[ \t]\\)[ \t\n]*")

   * The variable `fill-nobreak-predicate' is no longer customizable,
     and it can only hold a single function.

   * Nobreak spaces and hyphens are displayed just like normal
     characters, and the user option `nobreak-char-display' has been
     removed.

   * `C-w' in an incremental search always grabs an entire word into
     the search string.  More precisely, it grabs text through the next
     end of a word.

   * Yanking now preserves all text properties that were in the killed
     text.  The variable `yank-excluded-properties' has been removed.

   * Occur mode, Info mode, and Comint-derived modes now control
     fontification in their own way, and `M-x font-lock-mode' has
     nothing to do with it.  To control fontification in Info mode, use
     the variable `Info-fontify'.

   * `M-x shell' is now completely standard in regard to scrolling
     behavior.  It no longer has the option of scrolling the input line
     to the bottom of the window the way a text terminal running a
     shell does.

   * The Grep package has been merged with Compilation mode.  Many
     grep-specific commands and user options have thus been eliminated.
     Also, `M-x grep' never tries the GNU grep `-H' option, and instead
     silently appends `/dev/null' to the command line.

   * In Dired's `!' command, `*' and `?' now cause substitution of the
     file names wherever they appear--not only when they are surrounded
     by whitespace.

   * When a file is managed with version control, the command `C-x C-q'
     (whose general meaning is to make a buffer read-only or writable)
     now does so by checking the file in or out.  Checking the file out
     makes the buffer writable; checking it in makes the buffer
     read-only.

     You can still use `C-x v v' to do these operations if you wish;
     its meaning is unchanged.  If you want to control the buffer's
     read-only flag without performing any version control operation,
     use `M-x toggle-read-only'.

   * SGML mode does not handle XML syntax, and does not have indentation
     support.

   * Many Info mode commands have been removed.  Incremental search in
     Info searches only the current node.

   * Many `etags' features for customizing parsing using regexps have
     been removed.

   * The Emacs server now runs a small C program called `emacsserver',
     rather than trying to handle everything in Emacs Lisp.  Now there
     can only be one Emacs server running at a time.  The `server-mode'
     command and `server-name' user option have been eliminated.

   * The `emacsclient' program no longer accepts the `--eval',
     `--display' and `--server-file' command line options, and can only
     establish local connections using Unix domain sockets.

   * The command `quail-show-key', for showing how to input a
     character, has been removed.

   * The default value of `keyboard-coding-system' is always `nil',
     regardless of your locale settings.  If you want some other value,
     set it yourself.

   * Unicode support and unification between Latin-N character sets
     have been removed.  Cutting and pasting X selections does not
     support "extended segments", so there are certain coding systems
     it cannot handle.

   * The input methods for Emacs are included in a separate distribution
     called "Leim."  To use this, you must extract the Leim tar file on
     top of the Emacs distribution, into the same directory, before you
     build Emacs.

   * The following input methods have been eliminated: belarusian,
     bulgarian-bds, bulgarian-phonetic, chinese-sisheng, croatian,
     dutch, georgian, latin-alt-postfix, latin-postfix, latin-prefix,
     latvian-keyboard, lithuanian-numeric, lithuanian-keyboard,
     malayalam-inscript, rfc1345, russian-computer, sgml, slovenian,
     tamil-inscript ucs, ukrainian-computer, vietnamese-telex, and
     welsh.

   * The following language environments have been eliminated:
     Belarusian, Bulgarian, Chinese-EUC-TW, Croatian, French, Georgian,
     Italian, Latin-6, Latin-7, Latvian, Lithuanian, Malayalam,
     Russian, Russian, Slovenian, Swedish, Tajik, Tamil, UTF-8,
     Ukrainian, Ukrainian, Welsh, and Windows-1255.

   * The `code-pages' library, which contained various 8-bit coding
     systems, has been removed.

   * The Kmacro package has been replaced with a simple and elegant
     keyboard macro system.  Use `C-x (' to start a new keyboard macro,
     `C-x )' to end the macro, and `C-x e' to execute the last macro.
     Use `M-x name-last-kbd-macro' to name the most recently defined
     macro.

   * Emacs no longer displays your breakpoints in the source buffer, so
     you have to remember where you left them.  It can be difficult to
     inspect the state of your debugged program from the command line,
     so Emacs tries to demonstrate this in the GUD buffer.

   * The Calc, CUA, Ibuffer, Ido, Password, Printing, Reveal,
     Ruler-mode, SES, Table, Tramp, and URL packages have been removed.
     The Benchmark, Cfengine, Conf, Dns, Flymake, Thumbs, and Wdired
     modes have also been removed.

   * The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual and the Introduction to
     Programming in Emacs Lisp are now distributed separately, not in
     the Emacs distribution.

   * On MS Windows, there is no longer any support for tooltips, images,
     sound, different mouse pointer shapes, or pointing devices with
     more than 3 buttons.  If you want these features, consider
     switching to another operating system.  But even if you don't want
     these features, you should still switch--for freedom's sake.

   * Emacs will not use Unicode for clipboard operations on MS Windows.

   * To keep up with decreasing computer memory capacity and disk
     space, many other functions and files have been eliminated in
     Emacs 21.4.


File: emacs,  Node: Mac OS,  Next: Microsoft Windows,  Prev: Antinews,  Up: Top

Appendix F Emacs and Mac OS
***************************

This section briefly describes the peculiarities of using Emacs under
Mac OS with native window system support.  For Mac OS X, Emacs can be
built either without window system support, with X11, or with Carbon
API.  This section only applies to the Carbon build.  For Mac OS
Classic, Emacs can be built with or without Carbon API, and this
section applies to either of them because they run on the native window
system.

   Emacs built on Mac OS X supports most of its major features except
display support of PostScript images.  The following features of Emacs
are not supported on Mac OS Classic: unexec (`dump-emacs'),
asynchronous subprocesses (`start-process'), and networking
(`open-network-stream').  As a result, packages such as Gnus, GUD, and
Comint do not work.  Synchronous subprocesses (`call-process') are
supported on non-Carbon build, but specially-crafted external programs
are needed.  Since external programs to handle commands such as
`print-buffer' and `diff' are not available on Mac OS Classic, they are
not supported.  Non-Carbon build on Mac OS Classic does not support some
features such as file dialogs, drag-and-drop, and Unicode menus.

* Menu:

* Input: Mac Input.                Keyboard and mouse input on Mac.
* Intl: Mac International.         International character sets on Mac.
* Env: Mac Environment Variables.  Setting environment variables for Emacs.
* Directories: Mac Directories.    Volumes and directories on Mac.
* Font: Mac Font Specs.            Specifying fonts on Mac.
* Functions: Mac Functions.        Mac-specific Lisp functions.


File: emacs,  Node: Mac Input,  Next: Mac International,  Up: Mac OS

F.1 Keyboard and Mouse Input on Mac
===================================

On Mac, Emacs can use <control>, <command>, <option>, and laptop
<function> keys as any of Emacs modifier keys except <SHIFT> (i.e.,
<ALT>, <CTRL>, <HYPER>, <META>, and <SUPER>).  The assignment is
controlled by the variables `mac-control-modifier',
`mac-command-modifier', `mac-option-modifier', and
`mac-function-modifier'.  The value for each of these variables can be
one of the following symbols: `alt', `control', `hyper', `meta',
`super', and `nil' (no particular assignment).  By default, the
<control> key works as <CTRL>, and the <command> key as <META>.

   For the <option> key, if `mac-option-modifier' is set to `nil',
which is the default, the key works as the normal <option> key, i.e.,
dead-key processing will work.  This is useful for entering non-ASCII
Latin characters directly from the Mac keyboard, for example.

   Emacs recognizes the setting in the Keyboard control panel (Mac OS
Classic) or the International system preference pane (Mac OS X) and
supports international and alternative keyboard layouts (e.g., Dvorak).
Selecting one of the layouts from the keyboard layout pull-down menu
will affect how the keys typed on the keyboard are interpreted.

   Mac OS intercepts and handles certain key combinations (e.g.,
<command>-<SPC> for switching input languages).  These will not be
passed to Emacs.  One can disable this interception by setting
`mac-pass-command-to-system' or `mac-pass-control-to-system' to `nil'.

   Especially for one-button mice, the multiple button feature can be
emulated by setting `mac-emulate-three-button-mouse' to `t' or
`reverse'.  If set to `t' (`reverse', respectively), pressing the mouse
button with the <option> key is recognized as the second (third)
button, and that with the <command> key is recognized as the third
(second) button.

   For multi-button mice, the wheel button and the secondary button are
recognized as the second and the third button, respectively.  If
`mac-wheel-button-is-mouse-2' is set to `nil', their roles are
exchanged.


File: emacs,  Node: Mac International,  Next: Mac Environment Variables,  Prev: Mac Input,  Up: Mac OS

F.2 International Character Set Support on Mac
==============================================

Mac uses non-standard encodings for the upper 128 single-byte
characters.  They also deviate from the ISO 2022 standard by using
character codes in the range 128-159.  The coding systems `mac-roman',
`mac-centraleurroman', and `mac-cyrillic' are used to represent these
Mac encodings.

   You can use input methods provided either by LEIM (*note Input
Methods::) or Mac OS to enter international characters.  To use the
former, see the International Character Set Support section of the
manual (*note International::).

   Emacs on Mac OS automatically changes the value of
`keyboard-coding-system' according to the current keyboard layout.  So
users don't need to set it manually, and even if set, it will be
changed when the keyboard layout change is detected next time.

   The Mac clipboard and the Emacs kill ring (*note Killing::) are
synchronized by default: you can yank a piece of text and paste it into
another Mac application, or cut or copy one in another Mac application
and yank it into a Emacs buffer.  This feature can be disabled by
setting `x-select-enable-clipboard' to `nil'.  One can still do copy
and paste with another application from the Edit menu.

   On Mac, the role of the coding system for selection that is set by
`set-selection-coding-system' (*note Communication Coding::) is
two-fold.  First, it is used as a preferred coding system for the
traditional text flavor that does not specify any particular encodings
and is mainly used by applications on Mac OS Classic.  Second, it
specifies the intermediate encoding for the UTF-16 text flavor that is
mainly used by applications on Mac OS X.

   When pasting UTF-16 text data from the clipboard, it is first
converted to the encoding specified by the selection coding system
using the converter in the Mac OS system, and then decoded into the
Emacs internal encoding using the converter in Emacs.  If the first
conversion failed, then the UTF-16 data is directly converted to Emacs
internal encoding using the converter in Emacs.  Copying UTF-16 text to
the clipboard goes through the inverse path.  The reason for this
two-pass decoding is to avoid subtle differences in Unicode mappings
between the Mac OS system and Emacs such as various kinds of hyphens,
and to minimize users' customization.  For example, users that mainly
use Latin characters would prefer Greek characters to be decoded into
the `mule-unicode-0100-24ff' charset, but Japanese users would prefer
them to be decoded into the `japanese-jisx0208' charset.  Since the
coding system for selection is automatically set according to the
system locale setting, users usually don't have to set it manually.

   The default language environment (*note Language Environments::) is
set according to the locale setting at the startup time.  On Mac OS,
the locale setting is consulted in the following order:

  1. Environment variables `LC_ALL', `LC_CTYPE' and `LANG' as in other
     systems.

  2. Preference `AppleLocale' that is set by default on Mac OS X 10.3
     and later.

  3. Preference `AppleLanguages' that is set by default on Mac OS X
     10.1 and later.

  4. Variable `mac-system-locale' that is derived from the system
     language and region codes.  This variable is available on all
     supported Mac OS versions including Mac OS Classic.

   The default values of almost all variables about coding systems are
also set according to the language environment.  So usually you don't
have to customize these variables manually.


File: emacs,  Node: Mac Environment Variables,  Next: Mac Directories,  Prev: Mac International,  Up: Mac OS

F.3 Environment Variables and Command Line Arguments.
=====================================================

On Mac OS X, when Emacs is run in a terminal, it inherits the values of
environment variables from the shell from which it is invoked.
However, when it is run from the Finder as a GUI application, it only
inherits environment variable values defined in the file
`~/.MacOSX/environment.plist' that affects all the applications invoked
from the Finder or the `open' command.

   Command line arguments are specified like

     /Applications/Emacs.app/Contents/MacOS/Emacs -g 80x25 &

if Emacs is installed at `/Applications/Emacs.app'.  If Emacs is
invoked like this, then it also inherits the values of environment
variables from the shell from which it is invoked.

   On Mac OS Classic, environment variables and command line arguments
for Emacs can be set by modifying the `STR#' resources 128 and 129,
respectively.  A common environment variable that one may want to set
is `HOME'.

   The way to set an environment variable is by adding a string of the
form

     ENV_VAR=VALUE

to resource `STR#' number 128 using `ResEdit'. To set up the program to
use unibyte characters exclusively, for example, add the string

     EMACS_UNIBYTE=1

   Although Emacs on Mac does not support X resources (*note X
Resources::) directly, one can use the Preferences system in place of X
resources.  For example, adding the line

     Emacs.cursorType: bar

to `~/.Xresources' in X11 corresponds to the execution of

     defaults write org.gnu.Emacs Emacs.cursorType bar

on Mac OS X.  One can use boolean or numeric values as well as string
values as follows:

     defaults write org.gnu.Emacs Emacs.toolBar -bool false
     defaults write org.gnu.Emacs Emacs.lineSpacing -int 3

Try `M-x man RET defaults RET' for the usage of the `defaults' command.
Alternatively, if you have Developer Tools installed on Mac OS X, you
can use Property List Editor to edit the file
`~/Library/Preferences/org.gnu.Emacs.plist'.


File: emacs,  Node: Mac Directories,  Next: Mac Font Specs,  Prev: Mac Environment Variables,  Up: Mac OS

F.4 Volumes and Directories on Mac
==================================

This node applies to Mac OS Classic only.

   The directory structure in Mac OS Classic is seen by Emacs as

     /VOLUMENAME/FILENAME

   So when Emacs requests a file name, doing file name completion on
`/' will display all volumes on the system.  You can use `..' to go up
a directory level.

   On Mac OS Classic, to access files and folders on the desktop, look
in the folder `Desktop Folder' in your boot volume (this folder is
usually invisible in the Mac `Finder').

   On Mac OS Classic, Emacs creates the Mac folder
`:Preferences:Emacs:' in the `System Folder' and uses it as the
temporary directory.  Emacs maps the directory name `/tmp/' to that.
Therefore it is best to avoid naming a volume `tmp'.  If everything
works correctly, the program should leave no files in it when it exits.
You should be able to set the environment variable `TMPDIR' to use
another directory but this folder will still be created.


File: emacs,  Node: Mac Font Specs,  Next: Mac Functions,  Prev: Mac Directories,  Up: Mac OS

F.5 Specifying Fonts on Mac
===========================

It is rare that you need to specify a font name in Emacs; usually you
specify face attributes instead.  For example, you can use 14pt Courier
by customizing the default face attributes for all frames:

     (set-face-attribute 'default nil
                         :family "courier" :height 140)

Alternatively, an interactive one is also available (*note Face
Customization::).

   But when you do need to specify a font name in Emacs on Mac, use a
standard X font name:

     -MAKER-FAMILY-WEIGHT-SLANT-WIDTHTYPE-STYLE...
     ...-PIXELS-HEIGHT-HORIZ-VERT-SPACING-WIDTH-CHARSET

*Note Font X::.  Wildcards are supported as they are on X.

   Emacs on Mac OS Classic uses QuickDraw Text routines for drawing
texts by default.  Emacs on Mac OS X uses ATSUI (Apple Type Services
for Unicode Imaging) as well as QuickDraw Text, and most of the
characters other than Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ones are drawn using
the former by default.

   ATSUI-compatible fonts have maker name `apple' and charset
`iso10646-1'.  For example, 12-point Monaco can be specified by the
name:

     -apple-monaco-medium-r-normal--12-*-*-*-*-*-iso10646-1

   Note that these names must be specified using a format containing all
14 `-'s (not by `-apple-monaco-medium-r-normal--12-*-iso10646-1', for
instance), because every ATSUI-compatible font is a scalable one.

   QuickDraw Text fonts have maker name `apple' and various charset
names other than `iso10646-1'.  Native Apple fonts in Mac Roman
encoding has charset `mac-roman'.  You can specify a `mac-roman' font
for ASCII characters like

     (add-to-list
      'default-frame-alist
      '(font . "-apple-monaco-medium-r-normal--13-*-*-*-*-*-mac-roman"))

but that does not extend to ISO-8859-1: specifying a `mac-roman' font
for Latin-1 characters introduces wrong glyphs.

   Native Apple Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese, Japanese,
Korean, Central European, Cyrillic, Symbol, and Dingbats fonts have the
charsets `big5-0', `gb2312.1980-0', `jisx0208.1983-sjis' and
`jisx0201.1976-0', `ksc5601.1989-0', `mac-centraleurroman',
`mac-cyrillic', `mac-symbol', and `mac-dingbats', respectively.

   The use of `create-fontset-from-fontset-spec' (*note Defining
Fontsets::) for defining fontsets often results in wrong ones especially
when using only OS-bundled QuickDraw Text fonts.  The recommended way to
use them is to create a fontset using
`create-fontset-from-mac-roman-font':

     (create-fontset-from-mac-roman-font
      "-apple-courier-medium-r-normal--13-*-*-*-*-*-mac-roman"
      nil "foo")

and then optionally specifying Chinese, Japanese, or Korean font
families using `set-fontset-font':

     (set-fontset-font "fontset-foo"
     		  'chinese-gb2312 '("song" . "gb2312.1980-0"))

   Single-byte fonts converted from GNU fonts in BDF format, which are
not in the Mac Roman encoding, have foundry, family, and character sets
encoded in the names of their font suitcases.  E.g., the font suitcase
`ETL-Fixed-ISO8859-1' contains fonts which can be referred to by the
name `-ETL-fixed-*-iso8859-1'.

   Mac OS X 10.2 or later can use two types of text renderings: Quartz
2D (aka Core Graphics) and QuickDraw.  By default, Emacs uses the
former on such versions.  It can be changed by setting
`mac-allow-anti-aliasing' to `t' (Quartz 2D) or `nil' (QuickDraw).
Both ATSUI and QuickDraw Text drawings are affected by the value of
this variable.

   Appearance of text in small sizes will also be affected by the "Turn
off text smoothing for font sizes N and smaller" setting in the General
pane (Mac OS X 10.1 or 10.2) or in the Appearance pane (10.3 or later)
of the System Preferences.  This threshold can alternatively be set
just for Emacs (i.e., not as the system-wide setting) using the
`defaults' command:

     defaults write org.gnu.Emacs AppleAntiAliasingThreshold N


File: emacs,  Node: Mac Functions,  Prev: Mac Font Specs,  Up: Mac OS

F.6 Mac-Specific Lisp Functions
===============================

The function `do-applescript' takes a string argument, executes it as
an AppleScript command, and returns the result as a string.

   The function `mac-file-name-to-posix' takes a Mac file name and
returns the GNU or Unix equivalent.  The function
`posix-file-name-to-mac' performs the opposite conversion.  They are
useful for constructing AppleScript commands to be passed to
`do-applescript'.

   The functions `mac-set-file-creator', `mac-get-file-creator',
`mac-set-file-type', and `mac-get-file-type' can be used to set and get
creator and file codes.

   The function `mac-get-preference' returns the preferences value
converted to a Lisp object for a specified key and application.


File: emacs,  Node: Microsoft Windows,  Next: Manifesto,  Prev: Mac OS,  Up: Top

Appendix G Emacs and Microsoft Windows/MS-DOS
*********************************************

This section describes peculiarities of using Emacs on Microsoft
Windows.  Some of these peculiarities are also relevant to Microsoft's
older MS-DOS "operating system" (also known as "MS-DOG").  However,
Emacs features that are relevant _only_ to MS-DOS are described in a
separate section (*note MS-DOS::).

   The behavior of Emacs on MS-Windows is reasonably similar to what is
documented in the rest of the manual, including support for long file
names, multiple frames, scroll bars, mouse menus, and subprocesses.
However, a few special considerations apply, and they are described
here.

* Menu:

* Text and Binary::     Text files use CRLF to terminate lines.
* Windows Files::       File-name conventions on Windows.
* ls in Lisp::          Emulation of `ls' for Dired.
* Windows HOME::        Where Emacs looks for your `.emacs'.
* Windows Keyboard::    Windows-specific keyboard features.
* Windows Mouse::       Windows-specific mouse features.
* Windows Processes::   Running subprocesses on Windows.
* Windows Printing::    How to specify the printer on MS-Windows.
* Windows Misc::        Miscellaneous Windows features.

* MS-DOS::              Using Emacs on MS-DOS (otherwise known as "MS-DOG").


File: emacs,  Node: Text and Binary,  Next: Windows Files,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.1 Text Files and Binary Files
===============================

GNU Emacs uses newline characters to separate text lines.  This is the
convention used on GNU, Unix, and other Posix-compliant systems.

   By contrast, MS-DOS and MS-Windows normally use carriage-return
linefeed, a two-character sequence, to separate text lines.  (Linefeed
is the same character as newline.)  Therefore, convenient editing of
typical files with Emacs requires conversion of these end-of-line (EOL)
sequences.  And that is what Emacs normally does: it converts
carriage-return linefeed into newline when reading files, and converts
newline into carriage-return linefeed when writing files.  The same
mechanism that handles conversion of international character codes does
this conversion also (*note Coding Systems::).

   One consequence of this special format-conversion of most files is
that character positions as reported by Emacs (*note Position Info::) do
not agree with the file size information known to the operating system.

   In addition, if Emacs recognizes from a file's contents that it uses
newline rather than carriage-return linefeed as its line separator, it
does not perform EOL conversion when reading or writing that file.
Thus, you can read and edit files from GNU and Unix systems on MS-DOS
with no special effort, and they will retain their Unix-style
end-of-line convention after you edit them.

   The mode line indicates whether end-of-line translation was used for
the current buffer.  If MS-DOS end-of-line translation is in use for the
buffer, the MS-Windows build of Emacs displays a backslash `\' after
the coding system mnemonic near the beginning of the mode line (*note
Mode Line::).  If no EOL translation was performed, the string `(Unix)'
is displayed instead of the backslash, to alert you that the file's EOL
format is not the usual carriage-return linefeed.

   To visit a file and specify whether it uses DOS-style or Unix-style
end-of-line, specify a coding system (*note Text Coding::).  For
example, `C-x <RET> c unix <RET> C-x C-f foobar.txt' visits the file
`foobar.txt' without converting the EOLs; if some line ends with a
carriage-return linefeed pair, Emacs will display `^M' at the end of
that line.  Similarly, you can direct Emacs to save a buffer in a
specified EOL format with the `C-x <RET> f' command.  For example, to
save a buffer with Unix EOL format, type `C-x <RET> f unix <RET> C-x
C-s'.  If you visit a file with DOS EOL conversion, then save it with
Unix EOL format, that effectively converts the file to Unix EOL style,
like `dos2unix'.

   When you use NFS, Samba, or some other similar method to access file
systems that reside on computers using GNU or Unix systems, Emacs
should not perform end-of-line translation on any files in these file
systems--not even when you create a new file.  To request this,
designate these file systems as "untranslated" file systems by calling
the function `add-untranslated-filesystem'.  It takes one argument: the
file system name, including a drive letter and optionally a directory.
For example,

     (add-untranslated-filesystem "Z:")

designates drive Z as an untranslated file system, and

     (add-untranslated-filesystem "Z:\\foo")

designates directory `\foo' on drive Z as an untranslated file system.

   Most often you would use `add-untranslated-filesystem' in your
`.emacs' file, or in `site-start.el' so that all the users at your site
get the benefit of it.

   To countermand the effect of `add-untranslated-filesystem', use the
function `remove-untranslated-filesystem'.  This function takes one
argument, which should be a string just like the one that was used
previously with `add-untranslated-filesystem'.

   Designating a file system as untranslated does not affect character
set conversion, only end-of-line conversion.  Essentially, it directs
Emacs to create new files with the Unix-style convention of using
newline at the end of a line.  *Note Coding Systems::.

   Some kinds of files should not be converted at all, because their
contents are not really text.  Therefore, Emacs on MS-Windows
distinguishes certain files as "binary files".  (This distinction is
not part of MS-Windows; it is made by Emacs only.)  Binary files
include executable programs, compressed archives, etc.  Emacs uses the
file name to decide whether to treat a file as binary: the variable
`file-name-buffer-file-type-alist' defines the file-name patterns that
indicate binary files.  If a file name matches one of the patterns for
binary files (those whose associations are of the type `(PATTERN . t)',
Emacs reads and writes that file using the `no-conversion' coding
system (*note Coding Systems::) which turns off _all_ coding-system
conversions, not only the EOL conversion.
`file-name-buffer-file-type-alist' also includes file-name patterns for
files which are known to be Windows-style text files with
carriage-return linefeed EOL format, such as `CONFIG.SYS'; Emacs always
writes those files with Windows-style EOLs.

   If a file which belongs to an untranslated file system matches one of
the file-name patterns in `file-name-buffer-file-type-alist', the EOL
conversion is determined by `file-name-buffer-file-type-alist'.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows Files,  Next: ls in Lisp,  Prev: Text and Binary,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.2 File Names on MS-Windows
============================

MS-Windows and MS-DOS normally use a backslash, `\', to separate name
units within a file name, instead of the slash used on other systems.
Emacs on MS-DOS/MS-Windows permits use of either slash or backslash,
and also knows about drive letters in file names.

   On MS-DOS/MS-Windows, file names are case-insensitive, so Emacs by
default ignores letter-case in file names during completion.

   If the variable `w32-get-true-file-attributes' is non-`nil' (the
default), Emacs tries to determine the accurate link counts for files.
This option is only useful on NTFS volumes, and it considerably slows
down Dired and other features, so use it only on fast machines.


File: emacs,  Node: ls in Lisp,  Next: Windows HOME,  Prev: Windows Files,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.3 Emulation of `ls' on MS-Windows
===================================

Dired normally uses the external program `ls' (or its close work-alike)
to produce the directory listing displayed in Dired buffers (*note
Dired::).  However, MS-Windows and MS-DOS systems don't come with such
a program, although several ports of GNU `ls' are available.
Therefore, Emacs on those systems _emulates_ `ls' in Lisp, by using the
`ls-lisp.el' package.  While `ls-lisp.el' provides a reasonably full
emulation of `ls', there are some options and features peculiar to that
emulation; they are described in this section.

   The `ls' emulation supports many of the `ls' switches, but it
doesn't support all of them.  Here's the list of the switches it does
support: `-A', `-a', `-B', `-C', `-c', `-i', `-G', `-g', `-R', `-r',
`-S', `-s', `-t', `-U', `-u', and `-X'.  The `-F' switch is partially
supported (it appends the character that classifies the file, but does
not prevent symlink following).

   On MS-Windows and MS-DOS, `ls-lisp.el' is preloaded when Emacs is
built, so the Lisp emulation of `ls' is always used on those platforms.
If you have a ported `ls', setting
`ls-lisp-use-insert-directory-program' to a non-`nil' value will revert
to using an external program named by the variable
`insert-directory-program'.

   By default, `ls-lisp.el' uses a case-sensitive sort order for the
directory listing it produces; this is so the listing looks the same as
on other platforms.  If you wish that the files be sorted in
case-insensitive order, set the variable `ls-lisp-ignore-case' to a
non-`nil' value.

   By default, files and subdirectories are sorted together, to emulate
the behavior of `ls'.  However, native MS-Windows/MS-DOS file managers
list the directories before the files; if you want that behavior,
customize the option `ls-lisp-dirs-first' to a non-`nil' value.

   The variable `ls-lisp-verbosity' controls the file attributes that
`ls-lisp.el' displays.  The value should be a list that contains one or
more of the symbols `links', `uid', and `gid'.  `links' means display
the count of different file names that are associated with (a.k.a.
"links to") the file's data; this is only useful on NTFS volumes.
`uid' means display the numerical identifier of the user who owns the
file.  `gid' means display the numerical identifier of the file owner's
group.  The default value is `(links uid gid)' i.e. all the 3 optional
attributes are displayed.

   The variable `ls-lisp-emulation' controls the flavour of the `ls'
emulation by setting the defaults for the 3 options described above:
`ls-lisp-ignore-case', `ls-lisp-dirs-first', and `ls-lisp-verbosity'.
The value of this option can be one of the following symbols:

`GNU'
`nil'
     Emulate GNU systems; this is the default.  This sets
     `ls-lisp-ignore-case' and `ls-lisp-dirs-first' to `nil', and
     `ls-lisp-verbosity' to `(links uid gid)'.

`UNIX'
     Emulate Unix systems.  Like `GNU', but sets `ls-lisp-verbosity' to
     `(links uid)'.

`MacOS'
     Emulate MacOS.  Sets `ls-lisp-ignore-case' to `t', and
     `ls-lisp-dirs-first' and `ls-lisp-verbosity' to `nil'.

`MS-Windows'
     Emulate MS-Windows.  Sets `ls-lisp-ignore-case' and
     `ls-lisp-dirs-first' to `t', and `ls-lisp-verbosity' to `(links)'
     on Windows NT/2K/XP/2K3 and to `nil' on Windows 9X.  Note that the
     default emulation is _not_ `MS-Windows', even on Windows, since
     many users of Emacs on those platforms prefer the GNU defaults.

Any other value of `ls-lisp-emulation' means the same as `GNU'.  Note
that this option needs to be set _before_ `ls-lisp.el' is loaded, which
means that on MS-Windows and MS-DOS you will have to set the value from
your `.emacs' file and then restart Emacs, since `ls-lisp.el' is
preloaded.

   The variable `ls-lisp-support-shell-wildcards' controls how
file-name patterns are supported: if it is non-`nil' (the default),
they are treated as shell-style wildcards; otherwise they are treated
as Emacs regular expressions.

   The variable `ls-lisp-format-time-list' defines how to format the
date and time of files.  _The value of this variable is ignored_,
unless Emacs cannot determine the current locale.  (However, if the
value of `ls-lisp-use-localized-time-format' is non-`nil', Emacs obeys
`ls-lisp-format-time-list' even if the current locale is available; see
below.)

   The value of `ls-lisp-format-time-list' is a list of 2 strings.  The
first string is used if the file was modified within the current year,
while the second string is used for older files.  In each of these two
strings you can use `%'-sequences to substitute parts of the time.  For
example:
     ("%b %e %H:%M" "%b %e  %Y")

Note that the strings substituted for these `%'-sequences depend on the
current locale.  *Note Time Parsing: (elisp)Time Parsing, for more
about format time specs.

   Normally, Emacs formats the file time stamps in either traditional
or ISO-style time format.  However, if the value of the variable
`ls-lisp-use-localized-time-format' is non-`nil', Emacs formats file
time stamps according to what `ls-lisp-format-time-list' specifies.
The `%'-sequences in `ls-lisp-format-time-list' produce
locale-dependent month and day names, which might cause misalignment of
columns in Dired display.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows HOME,  Next: Windows Keyboard,  Prev: ls in Lisp,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.4 HOME Directory on MS-Windows
================================

The Windows equivalent of the `HOME' directory is the "user-specific
application data directory".  The actual location depends on your
Windows version and system configuration; typical values are
`C:\Documents and Settings\USERNAME\Application Data' on Windows 2K/XP
and later, and either `C:\WINDOWS\Application Data' or
`C:\WINDOWS\Profiles\USERNAME\Application Data' on the older Windows
9X/ME systems.

   The home directory is where your init file `.emacs' is stored.  When
Emacs starts, it first checks whether the environment variable `HOME'
is set.  If it is, it looks for the init file in the directory pointed
by `HOME'.  If `HOME' is not defined, Emacs checks for an existing
`.emacs' file in `C:\', the root directory of drive `C:'(1).  If
there's no such file in `C:\', Emacs next uses the Windows system calls
to find out the exact location of your application data directory.  If
that fails as well, Emacs falls back to `C:\'.

   Whatever the final place is, Emacs sets the value of the `HOME'
environment variable to point to it, and it will use that location for
other files and directories it normally creates in the user's home
directory.

   You can always find out where Emacs thinks is your home directory's
location by typing `C-x d ~/ <RET>'.  This should present the list of
files in the home directory, and show its full name on the first line.
Likewise, to visit your init file, type `C-x C-f ~/.emacs <RET>'.

   Because MS-DOS does not allow file names with leading dots, and
because older Windows systems made it hard to create files with such
names, the Windows port of Emacs supports an alternative name `_emacs'
as a fallback, if such a file exists in the home directory, whereas
`.emacs' does not.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The check in `C:\' is in preference to the application data
directory for compatibility with older versions of Emacs, which didn't
check the application data directory.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows Keyboard,  Next: Windows Mouse,  Prev: Windows HOME,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.5 Keyboard Usage on MS-Windows
================================

This section describes the Windows-specific features related to
keyboard input in Emacs.

   Many key combinations (known as "keyboard shortcuts") that have
conventional uses in MS-Windows programs conflict with traditional
Emacs key bindings.  (These Emacs key bindings were established years
before Microsoft was founded.)  Examples of conflicts include `C-c',
`C-x', `C-z', `C-a', and `W-<SPC>'.  You can redefine some of them with
meanings more like the MS-Windows meanings by enabling CUA Mode (*note
CUA Bindings::).

   The <F10> key on Windows activates the menu bar in a way that makes
it possible to use the menus without a mouse.  In this mode, the arrow
keys traverse the menus, <RET> selects a highlighted menu item, and
<ESC> closes the menu.

   By default, the key labeled <Alt> is mapped as the <META> key.  If
you wish it to produce the `Alt' modifier instead, set the variable
`w32-alt-is-meta' to a `nil' value.

   By default, the <CapsLock> key only affects normal character keys
(it converts lower-case characters to their upper-case variants).
However, if you set the variable `w32-capslock-is-shiftlock' to a
non-`nil' value, the <CapsLock> key will affect non-character keys as
well, as if you pressed the <Shift> key while typing the non-character
key.

   If the variable `w32-enable-caps-lock' is set to a `nil' value, the
<CapsLock> key produces the symbol `capslock' instead of the shifted
version of they keys.  The default value is `t'.

   Similarly, if `w32-enable-num-lock' is `nil', the <NumLock> key will
produce the symbol `kp-numlock'.  The default is `t', which causes
<NumLock> to work as expected: toggle the meaning of the keys on the
numeric keypad.

   The variable `w32-apps-modifier' controls the effect of the <Apps>
key (usually located between the right <Alt> and the right <Ctrl>
keys).  Its value can be one of the symbols `hyper', `super', `meta',
`alt', `control', or `shift' for the respective modifier, or `nil' to
appear as the key `apps'.  The default is `nil'.

   The variable `w32-lwindow-modifier' determines the effect of the
left Windows key (usually labeled with <start> and the Windows logo).
If its value is `nil' (the default), the key will produce the symbol
`lwindow'.  Setting it to one of the symbols `hyper', `super', `meta',
`alt', `control', or `shift' will produce the respective modifier.  A
similar variable `w32-rwindow-modifier' controls the effect of the right
Windows key, and `w32-scroll-lock-modifier' does the same for the
<ScrLock> key.  If these variables are set to `nil', the right Windows
key produces the symbol `rwindow' and <ScrLock> produces the symbol
`scroll'.

   Emacs compiled as a native Windows application normally turns off
the Windows feature that tapping the <ALT> key invokes the Windows
menu.  The reason is that the <ALT> serves as <META> in Emacs.  When
using Emacs, users often press the <META> key temporarily and then
change their minds; if this has the effect of bringing up the Windows
menu, it alters the meaning of subsequent commands.  Many users find
this frustrating.

   You can re-enable Windows' default handling of tapping the <ALT> key
by setting `w32-pass-alt-to-system' to a non-`nil' value.

   The variables `w32-pass-lwindow-to-system' and
`w32-pass-rwindow-to-system' determine whether the respective keys are
passed to Windows or swallowed by Emacs.  If the value is `nil', the
respective key is silently swallowed by Emacs, otherwise it is passed
to Windows.  The default is `t' for both of these variables.  Passing
each of these keys to Windows produces its normal effect: for example,
`<Lwindow>' opens the `Start' menu, etc.(1)

   The variable `w32-recognize-altgr' controls whether the <AltGr> key
(if it exists on your keyboard), or its equivalent, the combination of
the right <Alt> and left <Ctrl> keys pressed together, is recognized as
the <AltGr> key.  The default is `t', which means these keys produce
`AltGr'; setting it to `nil' causes <AltGr> or the equivalent key
combination to be interpreted as the combination of <CTRL> and <META>
modifiers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Some combinations of the "Windows" keys with other keys are
caught by Windows at low level in a way that Emacs currently cannot
prevent.  For example, `<Lwindow> r' always pops up the Windows `Run'
dialog.  Customizing the value of `w32-phantom-key-code' might help in
some cases, though.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows Mouse,  Next: Windows Processes,  Prev: Windows Keyboard,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.6 Mouse Usage on MS-Windows
=============================

This section describes the Windows-specific variables related to mouse.

   The variable `w32-mouse-button-tolerance' specifies the time
interval, in milliseconds, for faking middle mouse button press on
2-button mice.  If both mouse buttons are depressed within this time
interval, Emacs generates a middle mouse button click event instead of
a double click on one of the buttons.

   If the variable `w32-pass-extra-mouse-buttons-to-system' is
non-`nil', Emacs passes the fourth and fifth mouse buttons to Windows.

   The variable `w32-swap-mouse-buttons' controls which of the 3 mouse
buttons generates the `mouse-2' events.  When it is `nil' (the
default), the middle button generates `mouse-2' and the right button
generates `mouse-3' events.  If this variable is non-`nil', the roles
of these two buttons are reversed.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows Processes,  Next: Windows Printing,  Prev: Windows Mouse,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.7 Subprocesses on Windows 9X/ME and Windows NT/2K/XP
======================================================

Emacs compiled as a native Windows application (as opposed to the DOS
version) includes full support for asynchronous subprocesses.  In the
Windows version, synchronous and asynchronous subprocesses work fine on
both Windows 9X/ME and Windows NT/2K/XP as long as you run only 32-bit
Windows applications.  However, when you run a DOS application in a
subprocess, you may encounter problems or be unable to run the
application at all; and if you run two DOS applications at the same
time in two subprocesses, you may have to reboot your system.

   Since the standard command interpreter (and most command line
utilities) on Windows 9X are DOS applications, these problems are
significant when using that system.  But there's nothing we can do
about them; only Microsoft can fix them.

   If you run just one DOS application subprocess, the subprocess should
work as expected as long as it is "well-behaved" and does not perform
direct screen access or other unusual actions.  If you have a CPU
monitor application, your machine will appear to be 100% busy even when
the DOS application is idle, but this is only an artifact of the way CPU
monitors measure processor load.

   You must terminate the DOS application before you start any other DOS
application in a different subprocess.  Emacs is unable to interrupt or
terminate a DOS subprocess.  The only way you can terminate such a
subprocess is by giving it a command that tells its program to exit.

   If you attempt to run two DOS applications at the same time in
separate subprocesses, the second one that is started will be suspended
until the first one finishes, even if either or both of them are
asynchronous.

   If you can go to the first subprocess, and tell it to exit, the
second subprocess should continue normally.  However, if the second
subprocess is synchronous, Emacs itself will be hung until the first
subprocess finishes.  If it will not finish without user input, then
you have no choice but to reboot if you are running on Windows 9X.  If
you are running on Windows NT/2K/XP, you can use a process viewer
application to kill the appropriate instance of NTVDM instead (this
will terminate both DOS subprocesses).

   If you have to reboot Windows 9X in this situation, do not use the
`Shutdown' command on the `Start' menu; that usually hangs the system.
Instead, type `CTL-ALT-<DEL>' and then choose `Shutdown'.  That usually
works, although it may take a few minutes to do its job.

   The variable `w32-quote-process-args' controls how Emacs quotes the
process arguments.  Non-`nil' means quote with the `"' character.  If
the value is a character, use that character to escape any quote
characters that appear; otherwise chose a suitable escape character
based on the type of the program.

   The function `w32-shell-execute' can be useful for writing
customized commands that run MS-Windows applications registered to
handle a certain standard Windows operation for a specific type of
document or file.  This function is a wrapper around the Windows
`ShellExecute' API.  See the MS-Windows API documentation for more
details.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows Printing,  Next: Windows Misc,  Prev: Windows Processes,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.8 Printing and MS-Windows
===========================

Printing commands, such as `lpr-buffer' (*note Printing::) and
`ps-print-buffer' (*note PostScript::) work in MS-DOS and MS-Windows by
sending the output to one of the printer ports, if a Posix-style `lpr'
program is unavailable.  The same Emacs variables control printing on
all systems, but in some cases they have different default values on
MS-DOS and MS-Windows.

   Emacs on Windows automatically determines your default printer and
sets the variable PRINTER-NAME to that printer's name.  But in some
rare cases this can fail, or you may wish to use a different printer
from within Emacs.  The rest of this section explains how to tell Emacs
which printer to use.

   If you want to use your local printer, then set the Lisp variable
`lpr-command' to `""' (its default value on Windows) and `printer-name'
to the name of the printer port--for example, `"PRN"', the usual local
printer port or `"LPT2"', or `"COM1"' for a serial printer.  You can
also set `printer-name' to a file name, in which case "printed" output
is actually appended to that file.  If you set `printer-name' to
`"NUL"', printed output is silently discarded (sent to the system null
device).

   You can also use a printer shared by another machine by setting
`printer-name' to the UNC share name for that printer--for example,
`"//joes_pc/hp4si"'.  (It doesn't matter whether you use forward
slashes or backslashes here.)  To find out the names of shared
printers, run the command `net view' from the command prompt to obtain
a list of servers, and `net view SERVER-NAME' to see the names of
printers (and directories) shared by that server.  Alternatively, click
the `Network Neighborhood' icon on your desktop, and look for machines
which share their printers via the network.

   If the printer doesn't appear in the output of `net view', or if
setting `printer-name' to the UNC share name doesn't produce a hardcopy
on that printer, you can use the `net use' command to connect a local
print port such as `"LPT2"' to the networked printer.  For example,
typing `net use LPT2: \\joes_pc\hp4si'(1) causes Windows to "capture"
the `LPT2' port and redirect the printed material to the printer
connected to the machine `joes_pc'.  After this command, setting
`printer-name' to `"LPT2"' should produce the hardcopy on the networked
printer.

   With some varieties of Windows network software, you can instruct
Windows to capture a specific printer port such as `"LPT2"', and
redirect it to a networked printer via the `Control Panel->Printers'
applet instead of `net use'.

   If you set `printer-name' to a file name, it's best to use an
absolute file name.  Emacs changes the working directory according to
the default directory of the current buffer, so if the file name in
`printer-name' is relative, you will end up with several such files,
each one in the directory of the buffer from which the printing was
done.

   If the value of `printer-name' is correct, but printing does not
produce the hardcopy on your printer, it is possible that your printer
does not support printing plain text (some cheap printers omit this
functionality).  In that case, try the PostScript print commands,
described below.

   The commands `print-buffer' and `print-region' call the `pr'
program, or use special switches to the `lpr' program, to produce
headers on each printed page.  MS-DOS and MS-Windows don't normally
have these programs, so by default, the variable `lpr-headers-switches'
is set so that the requests to print page headers are silently ignored.
Thus, `print-buffer' and `print-region' produce the same output as
`lpr-buffer' and `lpr-region', respectively.  If you do have a suitable
`pr' program (for example, from GNU Coreutils), set
`lpr-headers-switches' to `nil'; Emacs will then call `pr' to produce
the page headers, and print the resulting output as specified by
`printer-name'.

   Finally, if you do have an `lpr' work-alike, you can set the
variable `lpr-command' to `"lpr"'.  Then Emacs will use `lpr' for
printing, as on other systems.  (If the name of the program isn't
`lpr', set `lpr-command' to specify where to find it.)  The variable
`lpr-switches' has its standard meaning when `lpr-command' is not `""'.
If the variable `printer-name' has a string value, it is used as the
value for the `-P' option to `lpr', as on Unix.

   A parallel set of variables, `ps-lpr-command', `ps-lpr-switches',
and `ps-printer-name' (*note PostScript Variables::), defines how
PostScript files should be printed.  These variables are used in the
same way as the corresponding variables described above for
non-PostScript printing.  Thus, the value of `ps-printer-name' is used
as the name of the device (or file) to which PostScript output is sent,
just as `printer-name' is used for non-PostScript printing.  (There are
two distinct sets of variables in case you have two printers attached
to two different ports, and only one of them is a PostScript printer.)

   The default value of the variable `ps-lpr-command' is `""', which
causes PostScript output to be sent to the printer port specified by
`ps-printer-name', but `ps-lpr-command' can also be set to the name of
a program which will accept PostScript files.  Thus, if you have a
non-PostScript printer, you can set this variable to the name of a
PostScript interpreter program (such as Ghostscript).  Any switches
that need to be passed to the interpreter program are specified using
`ps-lpr-switches'.  (If the value of `ps-printer-name' is a string, it
will be added to the list of switches as the value for the `-P' option.
This is probably only useful if you are using `lpr', so when using an
interpreter typically you would set `ps-printer-name' to something
other than a string so it is ignored.)

   For example, to use Ghostscript for printing on the system's default
printer, put this in your `.emacs' file:

     (setq ps-printer-name t)
     (setq ps-lpr-command "D:/gs6.01/bin/gswin32c.exe")
     (setq ps-lpr-switches '("-q" "-dNOPAUSE" "-dBATCH"
     			"-sDEVICE=mswinpr2"
     			"-sPAPERSIZE=a4"))

(This assumes that Ghostscript is installed in the `D:/gs6.01'
directory.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Note that the `net use' command requires the UNC share name to be
typed with the Windows-style backslashes, while the value of
`printer-name' can be set with either forward- or backslashes.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows Misc,  Next: MS-DOS,  Prev: Windows Printing,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.9 Miscellaneous Windows-specific features
===========================================

This section describes miscellaneous Windows-specific features.

   The variable `w32-use-visible-system-caret' is a flag that
determines whether to make the system caret visible.  The default is
`nil', which means Emacs draws its own cursor to indicate the position
of point.  A non-`nil' value means Emacs will indicate point location
by the system caret; this facilitates use of screen reader software.
When this variable is non-`nil', other variables affecting the cursor
display have no effect.

   The variable `w32-grab-focus-on-raise', if set to a non-`nil' value
causes a frame to grab focus when it is raised.  The default is `t',
which fits well with the Windows default click-to-focus policy.

   The variable `w32-list-proportional-fonts' controls whether
proportional fonts are included in the font selection dialog.  If its
value is non-`nil', these fonts will be included.  The default is `nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS,  Prev: Windows Misc,  Up: Microsoft Windows

G.10 Emacs and MS-DOS
=====================

This section briefly describes the peculiarities of using Emacs on the
MS-DOS "operating system" (also known as "MS-DOG").  Information about
peculiarities common to MS-DOS and Microsoft's current operating
systems Windows (also known as "Losedows) is in *Note Microsoft
Windows::.

   If you build Emacs for MS-DOS, the binary will also run on Windows
3.X, Windows NT, Windows 9X/ME, Windows 2000/XP, or OS/2 as a DOS
application; all of this chapter applies for all of those systems, if
you use an Emacs that was built for MS-DOS.

   *Note Text and Binary::, for information about Emacs' special
handling of text files under MS-DOS (and Windows).

* Menu:

* Keyboard: MS-DOS Keyboard.   Keyboard conventions on MS-DOS.
* Mouse: MS-DOS Mouse.         Mouse conventions on MS-DOS.
* Display: MS-DOS Display.     Fonts, frames and display size on MS-DOS.
* Files: MS-DOS File Names.    File name conventions on MS-DOS.
* Printing: MS-DOS Printing.   Printing specifics on MS-DOS.
* I18N: MS-DOS and MULE.       Support for internationalization on MS-DOS.
* Processes: MS-DOS Processes. Running subprocesses on MS-DOS.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS Keyboard,  Next: MS-DOS Mouse,  Up: MS-DOS

G.10.1 Keyboard Usage on MS-DOS
-------------------------------

The key that is called <DEL> in Emacs (because that's how it is
designated on most workstations) is known as <BS> (backspace) on a PC.
That is why the PC-specific terminal initialization remaps the <BS> key
to act as <DEL>; the <DELETE> key is remapped to act as `C-d' for the
same reasons.

   Emacs built for MS-DOS recognizes `C-<BREAK>' as a quit character,
just like `C-g'.  This is because Emacs cannot detect that you have
typed `C-g' until it is ready for more input.  As a consequence, you
cannot use `C-g' to stop a running command (*note Quitting::).  By
contrast, `C-<BREAK>' _is_ detected as soon as you type it (as `C-g' is
on other systems), so it can be used to stop a running command and for
emergency escape (*note Emergency Escape::).

   The PC keyboard maps use the left <ALT> key as the <META> key.  You
have two choices for emulating the <SUPER> and <HYPER> keys: choose
either the right <CTRL> key or the right <ALT> key by setting the
variables `dos-hyper-key' and `dos-super-key' to 1 or 2 respectively.
If neither `dos-super-key' nor `dos-hyper-key' is 1, then by default
the right <ALT> key is also mapped to the <META> key.  However, if the
MS-DOS international keyboard support program `KEYB.COM' is installed,
Emacs will _not_ map the right <ALT> to <META>, since it is used for
accessing characters like `~' and `@' on non-US keyboard layouts; in
this case, you may only use the left <ALT> as <META> key.

   The variable `dos-keypad-mode' is a flag variable that controls what
key codes are returned by keys in the numeric keypad.  You can also
define the keypad <ENTER> key to act like `C-j', by putting the
following line into your `_emacs' file:

     ;; Make the <ENTER> key from the numeric keypad act as `C-j'.
     (define-key function-key-map [kp-enter] [?\C-j])


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS Mouse,  Next: MS-DOS Display,  Prev: MS-DOS Keyboard,  Up: MS-DOS

G.10.2 Mouse Usage on MS-DOS
----------------------------

Emacs on MS-DOS supports a mouse (on the default terminal only).  The
mouse commands work as documented, including those that use menus and
the menu bar (*note Menu Bar::).   Scroll bars don't work in MS-DOS
Emacs.  PC mice usually have only two buttons; these act as `Mouse-1'
and `Mouse-2', but if you press both of them together, that has the
effect of `Mouse-3'.  If the mouse does have 3 buttons, Emacs detects
that at startup, and all the 3 buttons function normally, as on X.

   Help strings for menu-bar and pop-up menus are displayed in the echo
area when the mouse pointer moves across the menu items.  Highlighting
of mouse-sensitive text (*note Mouse References::) is also supported.

   Some versions of mouse drivers don't report the number of mouse
buttons correctly.  For example, mice with a wheel report that they
have 3 buttons, but only 2 of them are passed to Emacs; the clicks on
the wheel, which serves as the middle button, are not passed.  In these
cases, you can use the `M-x msdos-set-mouse-buttons' command to tell
Emacs how many mouse buttons to expect.  You could make such a setting
permanent by adding this fragment to your `_emacs' init file:

     ;; Treat the mouse like a 2-button mouse.
     (msdos-set-mouse-buttons 2)

   Emacs built for MS-DOS supports clipboard operations when it runs on
Windows.  Commands that put text on the kill ring, or yank text from
the ring, check the Windows clipboard first, just as Emacs does on the
X Window System (*note Mouse Commands::).  Only the primary selection
and the cut buffer are supported by MS-DOS Emacs on Windows; the
secondary selection always appears as empty.

   Due to the way clipboard access is implemented by Windows, the
length of text you can put into the clipboard is limited by the amount
of free DOS memory that is available to Emacs.  Usually, up to 620KB of
text can be put into the clipboard, but this limit depends on the system
configuration and is lower if you run Emacs as a subprocess of another
program.  If the killed text does not fit, Emacs outputs a message
saying so, and does not put the text into the clipboard.

   Null characters also cannot be put into the Windows clipboard.  If
the killed text includes null characters, Emacs does not put such text
into the clipboard, and displays in the echo area a message to that
effect.

   The variable `dos-display-scancodes', when non-`nil', directs Emacs
to display the ASCII value and the keyboard scan code of each
keystroke; this feature serves as a complement to the `view-lossage'
command, for debugging.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS Display,  Next: MS-DOS File Names,  Prev: MS-DOS Mouse,  Up: MS-DOS

G.10.3 Display on MS-DOS
------------------------

Display on MS-DOS cannot use font variants, like bold or italic, but it
does support multiple faces, each of which can specify a foreground and
a background color.  Therefore, you can get the full functionality of
Emacs packages that use fonts (such as `font-lock', Enriched Text mode,
and others) by defining the relevant faces to use different colors.
Use the `list-colors-display' command (*note Frame Parameters::) and
the `list-faces-display' command (*note Faces::) to see what colors and
faces are available and what they look like.

   *Note MS-DOS and MULE::, later in this chapter, for information on
how Emacs displays glyphs and characters that aren't supported by the
native font built into the DOS display.

   When Emacs starts, it changes the cursor shape to a solid box.  This
is for compatibility with other systems, where the box cursor is the
default in Emacs.  This default shape can be changed to a bar by
specifying the `cursor-type' parameter in the variable
`default-frame-alist' (*note Creating Frames::).  The MS-DOS terminal
doesn't support a vertical-bar cursor, so the bar cursor is horizontal,
and the `WIDTH' parameter, if specified by the frame parameters,
actually determines its height.  For this reason, the `bar' and `hbar'
cursor types produce the same effect on MS-DOS.  As an extension, the
bar cursor specification can include the starting scan line of the
cursor as well as its width, like this:

      '(cursor-type bar WIDTH . START)

In addition, if the WIDTH parameter is negative, the cursor bar begins
at the top of the character cell.

   The MS-DOS terminal can only display a single frame at a time.  The
Emacs frame facilities work on MS-DOS much as they do on text-only
terminals (*note Frames::).  When you run Emacs from a DOS window on
MS-Windows, you can make the visible frame smaller than the full
screen, but Emacs still cannot display more than a single frame at a
time.

   The `mode4350' command switches the display to 43 or 50 lines,
depending on your hardware; the `mode25' command switches to the
default 80x25 screen size.

   By default, Emacs only knows how to set screen sizes of 80 columns by
25, 28, 35, 40, 43 or 50 rows.  However, if your video adapter has
special video modes that will switch the display to other sizes, you can
have Emacs support those too.  When you ask Emacs to switch the frame to
N rows by M columns dimensions, it checks if there is a variable called
`screen-dimensions-NxM', and if so, uses its value (which must be an
integer) as the video mode to switch to.  (Emacs switches to that video
mode by calling the BIOS `Set Video Mode' function with the value of
`screen-dimensions-NxM' in the `AL' register.)  For example, suppose
your adapter will switch to 66x80 dimensions when put into video mode
85.  Then you can make Emacs support this screen size by putting the
following into your `_emacs' file:

     (setq screen-dimensions-66x80 85)

   Since Emacs on MS-DOS can only set the frame size to specific
supported dimensions, it cannot honor every possible frame resizing
request.  When an unsupported size is requested, Emacs chooses the next
larger supported size beyond the specified size.  For example, if you
ask for 36x80 frame, you will get 40x80 instead.

   The variables `screen-dimensions-NxM' are used only when they
exactly match the specified size; the search for the next larger
supported size ignores them.  In the above example, even if your VGA
supports 38x80 dimensions and you define a variable
`screen-dimensions-38x80' with a suitable value, you will still get
40x80 screen when you ask for a 36x80 frame.  If you want to get the
38x80 size in this case, you can do it by setting the variable named
`screen-dimensions-36x80' with the same video mode value as
`screen-dimensions-38x80'.

   Changing frame dimensions on MS-DOS has the effect of changing all
the other frames to the new dimensions.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS File Names,  Next: MS-DOS Printing,  Prev: MS-DOS Display,  Up: MS-DOS

G.10.4 File Names on MS-DOS
---------------------------

On MS-DOS, file names are case-insensitive and limited to eight
characters, plus optionally a period and three more characters.  Emacs
knows enough about these limitations to handle file names that were
meant for other operating systems.  For instance, leading dots `.'  in
file names are invalid in MS-DOS, so Emacs transparently converts them
to underscores `_'; thus your default init file (*note Init File::) is
called `_emacs' on MS-DOS.  Excess characters before or after the
period are generally ignored by MS-DOS itself; thus, if you visit the
file `LongFileName.EvenLongerExtension', you will silently get
`longfile.eve', but Emacs will still display the long file name on the
mode line.  Other than that, it's up to you to specify file names which
are valid under MS-DOS; the transparent conversion as described above
only works on file names built into Emacs.

   The above restrictions on the file names on MS-DOS make it almost
impossible to construct the name of a backup file (*note Backup Names::)
without losing some of the original file name characters.  For example,
the name of a backup file for `docs.txt' is `docs.tx~' even if single
backup is used.

   If you run Emacs as a DOS application under Windows 9X, Windows ME,
or Windows 2000/XP, you can turn on support for long file names.  If
you do that, Emacs doesn't truncate file names or convert them to lower
case; instead, it uses the file names that you specify, verbatim.  To
enable long file name support, set the environment variable `LFN' to
`y' before starting Emacs.  Unfortunately, Windows NT doesn't allow DOS
programs to access long file names, so Emacs built for MS-DOS will only
see their short 8+3 aliases.

   MS-DOS has no notion of home directory, so Emacs on MS-DOS pretends
that the directory where it is installed is the value of the `HOME'
environment variable.  That is, if your Emacs binary, `emacs.exe', is
in the directory `c:/utils/emacs/bin', then Emacs acts as if `HOME'
were set to `c:/utils/emacs'.  In particular, that is where Emacs looks
for the init file `_emacs'.  With this in mind, you can use `~' in file
names as an alias for the home directory, as you would on GNU or Unix.
You can also set `HOME' variable in the environment before starting
Emacs; its value will then override the above default behavior.

   Emacs on MS-DOS handles the directory name `/dev' specially, because
of a feature in the emulator libraries of DJGPP that pretends I/O
devices have names in that directory.  We recommend that you avoid
using an actual directory named `/dev' on any disk.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS Printing,  Next: MS-DOS and MULE,  Prev: MS-DOS File Names,  Up: MS-DOS

G.10.5 Printing and MS-DOS
--------------------------

Printing commands, such as `lpr-buffer' (*note Printing::) and
`ps-print-buffer' (*note PostScript::) can work on MS-DOS by sending
the output to one of the printer ports, if a Posix-style `lpr' program
is unavailable.  The same Emacs variables control printing on all
systems, but in some cases they have different default values on MS-DOS.

   *Note Windows Printing::, for details about setting up printing to a
networked printer.

   Some printers expect DOS codepage encoding of non-ASCII text, even
though they are connected to a Windows machine which uses a different
encoding for the same locale.  For example, in the Latin-1 locale, DOS
uses codepage 850 whereas Windows uses codepage 1252.  *Note MS-DOS and
MULE::.  When you print to such printers from Windows, you can use the
`C-x RET c' (`universal-coding-system-argument') command before `M-x
lpr-buffer'; Emacs will then convert the text to the DOS codepage that
you specify.  For example, `C-x RET c cp850-dos RET M-x lpr-region RET'
will print the region while converting it to the codepage 850 encoding.
You may need to create the `cpNNN' coding system with `M-x
codepage-setup'.

   For backwards compatibility, the value of `dos-printer'
(`dos-ps-printer'), if it has a value, overrides the value of
`printer-name' (`ps-printer-name'), on MS-DOS.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS and MULE,  Next: MS-DOS Processes,  Prev: MS-DOS Printing,  Up: MS-DOS

G.10.6 International Support on MS-DOS
--------------------------------------

Emacs on MS-DOS supports the same international character sets as it
does on GNU, Unix and other platforms (*note International::),
including coding systems for converting between the different character
sets.  However, due to incompatibilities between MS-DOS/MS-Windows and
other systems, there are several DOS-specific aspects of this support
that you should be aware of.  This section describes these aspects.

   The description below is largely specific to the MS-DOS port of
Emacs, especially where it talks about practical implications for Emacs
users.  For other operating systems, see the `code-pages.el' package,
which implements support for MS-DOS- and MS-Windows-specific encodings
for all platforms other than MS-DOS.

`M-x dos-codepage-setup'
     Set up Emacs display and coding systems as appropriate for the
     current DOS codepage.

`M-x codepage-setup'
     Create a coding system for a certain DOS codepage.

   MS-DOS is designed to support one character set of 256 characters at
any given time, but gives you a variety of character sets to choose
from.  The alternative character sets are known as "DOS codepages".
Each codepage includes all 128 ASCII characters, but the other 128
characters (codes 128 through 255) vary from one codepage to another.
Each DOS codepage is identified by a 3-digit number, such as 850, 862,
etc.

   In contrast to X, which lets you use several fonts at the same time,
MS-DOS normally doesn't allow use of several codepages in a single
session.  MS-DOS was designed to load a single codepage at system
startup, and require you to reboot in order to change it(1).  Much the
same limitation applies when you run DOS executables on other systems
such as MS-Windows.

   If you invoke Emacs on MS-DOS with the `--unibyte' option (*note
Initial Options::), Emacs does not perform any conversion of non-ASCII
characters.  Instead, it reads and writes any non-ASCII characters
verbatim, and sends their 8-bit codes to the display verbatim.  Thus,
unibyte Emacs on MS-DOS supports the current codepage, whatever it may
be, but cannot even represent any other characters.

   For multibyte operation on MS-DOS, Emacs needs to know which
characters the chosen DOS codepage can display.  So it queries the
system shortly after startup to get the chosen codepage number, and
stores the number in the variable `dos-codepage'.  Some systems return
the default value 437 for the current codepage, even though the actual
codepage is different.  (This typically happens when you use the
codepage built into the display hardware.)  You can specify a different
codepage for Emacs to use by setting the variable `dos-codepage' in
your init file.

   Multibyte Emacs supports only certain DOS codepages: those which can
display Far-Eastern scripts, like the Japanese codepage 932, and those
that encode a single ISO 8859 character set.

   The Far-Eastern codepages can directly display one of the MULE
character sets for these countries, so Emacs simply sets up to use the
appropriate terminal coding system that is supported by the codepage.
The special features described in the rest of this section mostly
pertain to codepages that encode ISO 8859 character sets.

   For the codepages which correspond to one of the ISO character sets,
Emacs knows the character set name based on the codepage number.  Emacs
automatically creates a coding system to support reading and writing
files that use the current codepage, and uses this coding system by
default.  The name of this coding system is `cpNNN', where NNN is the
codepage number.(2)

   All the `cpNNN' coding systems use the letter `D' (for "DOS") as
their mode-line mnemonic.  Since both the terminal coding system and
the default coding system for file I/O are set to the proper `cpNNN'
coding system at startup, it is normal for the mode line on MS-DOS to
begin with `-DD\-'.  *Note Mode Line::.  Far-Eastern DOS terminals do
not use the `cpNNN' coding systems, and thus their initial mode line
looks like the Emacs default.

   Since the codepage number also indicates which script you are using,
Emacs automatically runs `set-language-environment' to select the
language environment for that script (*note Language Environments::).

   If a buffer contains a character belonging to some other ISO 8859
character set, not the one that the chosen DOS codepage supports, Emacs
displays it using a sequence of ASCII characters.  For example, if the
current codepage doesn't have a glyph for the letter `o`' (small `o'
with a grave accent), it is displayed as `{`o}', where the braces serve
as a visual indication that this is a single character.  (This may look
awkward for some non-Latin characters, such as those from Greek or
Hebrew alphabets, but it is still readable by a person who knows the
language.)  Even though the character may occupy several columns on the
screen, it is really still just a single character, and all Emacs
commands treat it as one.

   Not all characters in DOS codepages correspond to ISO 8859
characters--some are used for other purposes, such as box-drawing
characters and other graphics.  Emacs maps these characters to two
special character sets called `eight-bit-control' and
`eight-bit-graphic', and displays them as their IBM glyphs.  However,
you should be aware that other systems might display these characters
differently, so you should avoid them in text that might be copied to a
different operating system, or even to another DOS machine that uses a
different codepage.

   Emacs supports many other characters sets aside from ISO 8859, but it
cannot display them on MS-DOS.  So if one of these multibyte characters
appears in a buffer, Emacs on MS-DOS displays them as specified by the
`dos-unsupported-character-glyph' variable; by default, this glyph is
an empty triangle.  Use the `C-u C-x =' command to display the actual
code and character set of such characters.  *Note Position Info::.

   By default, Emacs defines a coding system to support the current
codepage.  To define a coding system for some other codepage (e.g., to
visit a file written on a DOS machine in another country), use the `M-x
codepage-setup' command.  It prompts for the 3-digit code of the
codepage, with completion, then creates the coding system for the
specified codepage.  You can then use the new coding system to read and
write files, but you must specify it explicitly for the file command
when you want to use it (*note Text Coding::).

   These coding systems are also useful for visiting a file encoded
using a DOS codepage, using Emacs running on some other operating
system.

   MS-Windows provides its own codepages, which are different from the
DOS codepages for the same locale.  For example, DOS codepage 850
supports the same character set as Windows codepage 1252; DOS codepage
855 supports the same character set as Windows codepage 1251, etc.  The
MS-Windows version of Emacs uses the current codepage for display when
invoked with the `-nw' option.  Support for codepages in the Windows
port of Emacs is part of the `code-pages.el' package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Normally, one particular codepage is burnt into the display
memory, while other codepages can be installed by modifying system
configuration files, such as `CONFIG.SYS', and rebooting.  While there
is third-party software that allows changing the codepage without
rebooting, we describe here how a stock MS-DOS system behaves.

   (2) The standard Emacs coding systems for ISO 8859 are not quite
right for the purpose, because typically the DOS codepage does not
match the standard ISO character codes.  For example, the letter `c,'
(`c' with cedilla) has code 231 in the standard Latin-1 character set,
but the corresponding DOS codepage 850 uses code 135 for this glyph.


File: emacs,  Node: MS-DOS Processes,  Prev: MS-DOS and MULE,  Up: MS-DOS

G.10.7 Subprocesses on MS-DOS
-----------------------------

Because MS-DOS is a single-process "operating system," asynchronous
subprocesses are not available.  In particular, Shell mode and its
variants do not work.  Most Emacs features that use asynchronous
subprocesses also don't work on MS-DOS, including Shell mode and GUD.
When in doubt, try and see; commands that don't work output an error
message saying that asynchronous processes aren't supported.

   Compilation under Emacs with `M-x compile', searching files with
`M-x grep' and displaying differences between files with `M-x diff' do
work, by running the inferior processes synchronously.  This means you
cannot do any more editing until the inferior process finishes.

   Spell checking also works, by means of special support for
synchronous invocation of the `ispell' program.  This is slower than the
asynchronous invocation on other platforms

   Instead of the Shell mode, which doesn't work on MS-DOS, you can use
the `M-x eshell' command.  This invokes the Eshell package that
implements a Posix-like shell entirely in Emacs Lisp.

   By contrast, Emacs compiled as a native Windows application *does*
support asynchronous subprocesses.  *Note Windows Processes::.

   Printing commands, such as `lpr-buffer' (*note Printing::) and
`ps-print-buffer' (*note PostScript::), work in MS-DOS by sending the
output to one of the printer ports.  *Note MS-DOS Printing::.

   When you run a subprocess synchronously on MS-DOS, make sure the
program terminates and does not try to read keyboard input.  If the
program does not terminate on its own, you will be unable to terminate
it, because MS-DOS provides no general way to terminate a process.
Pressing `C-c' or `C-<BREAK>' might sometimes help in these cases.

   Accessing files on other machines is not supported on MS-DOS.  Other
network-oriented commands such as sending mail, Web browsing, remote
login, etc., don't work either, unless network access is built into
MS-DOS with some network redirector.

   Dired on MS-DOS uses the `ls-lisp' package where other platforms use
the system `ls' command.  Therefore, Dired on MS-DOS supports only some
of the possible options you can mention in the `dired-listing-switches'
variable.  The options that work are `-A', `-a', `-c', `-i', `-r', `-S',
`-s', `-t', and `-u'.


File: emacs,  Node: Manifesto,  Prev: Microsoft Windows,  Up: Top

The GNU Manifesto
*****************

     The GNU Manifesto which appears below was written by Richard
     Stallman at the beginning of the GNU project, to ask for
     participation and support.  For the first few years, it was
     updated in minor ways to account for developments, but now it
     seems best to leave it unchanged as most people have seen it.

     Since that time, we have learned about certain common
     misunderstandings that different wording could help avoid.
     Footnotes added in 1993 help clarify these points.

     For up-to-date information about available GNU software, please see
     our web site, `http://www.gnu.org'.  For software tasks and other
     ways to contribute, see `http://www.gnu.org/help'.

What's GNU?  Gnu's Not Unix!
============================

GNU, which stands for Gnu's Not Unix, is the name for the complete
Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it
away free to everyone who can use it.(1) Several other volunteers are
helping me.  Contributions of time, money, programs and equipment are
greatly needed.

   So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor
commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator,
a linker, and around 35 utilities.  A shell (command interpreter) is
nearly completed.  A new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled
itself and may be released this year.  An initial kernel exists but
many more features are needed to emulate Unix.  When the kernel and
compiler are finished, it will be possible to distribute a GNU system
suitable for program development.  We will use TeX as our text
formatter, but an nroff is being worked on.  We will use the free,
portable X window system as well.  After this we will add a portable
Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of other
things, plus on-line documentation.  We hope to supply, eventually,
everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more.

   GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to
Unix.  We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our
experience with other operating systems.  In particular, we plan to
have longer file names, file version numbers, a crashproof file system,
file name completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and
perhaps eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several
Lisp programs and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen.  Both C
and Lisp will be available as system programming languages.  We will
try to support UUCP, MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for
communication.

   GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with
virtual memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run
on.  The extra effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left
to someone who wants to use it on them.

   To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word
`GNU' when it is the name of this project.

Why I Must Write GNU
====================

I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I must
share it with other people who like it.  Software sellers want to divide
the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share with
others.  I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this way.  I
cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a software
license agreement.  For years I worked within the Artificial
Intelligence Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities,
but eventually they had gone too far: I could not remain in an
institution where such things are done for me against my will.

   So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have
decided to put together a sufficient body of free software so that I
will be able to get along without any software that is not free.  I
have resigned from the AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent
me from giving GNU away.

Why GNU Will Be Compatible with Unix
====================================

Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad.  The essential
features of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what
Unix lacks without spoiling them.  And a system compatible with Unix
would be convenient for many other people to adopt.

How GNU Will Be Available
=========================

GNU is not in the public domain.  Everyone will be permitted to modify
and redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to restrict its
further redistribution.  That is to say, proprietary modifications will
not be allowed.  I want to make sure that all versions of GNU remain
free.

Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help
=======================================

I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and want
to help.

   Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system
software.  It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them
to feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel
as comrades.  The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the
sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used
essentially forbid programmers to treat others as friends.  The
purchaser of software must choose between friendship and obeying the
law.  Naturally, many decide that friendship is more important.  But
those who believe in law often do not feel at ease with either choice.
They become cynical and think that programming is just a way of making
money.

   By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can
be hospitable to everyone and obey the law.  In addition, GNU serves as
an example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in
sharing.  This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if
we use software that is not free.  For about half the programmers I
talk to, this is an important happiness that money cannot replace.

How You Can Contribute
======================

I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and money.
I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work.

   One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU
will run on them at an early date.  The machines should be complete,
ready to use systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not
in need of sophisticated cooling or power.

   I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time
work for GNU.  For most projects, such part-time distributed work would
be very hard to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not
work together.  But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this
problem is absent.  A complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility
programs, each of which is documented separately.  Most interface
specifications are fixed by Unix compatibility.  If each contributor
can write a compatible replacement for a single Unix utility, and make
it work properly in place of the original on a Unix system, then these
utilities will work right when put together.  Even allowing for Murphy
to create a few unexpected problems, assembling these components will
be a feasible task.  (The kernel will require closer communication and
will be worked on by a small, tight group.)

   If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full
or part time.  The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but
I'm looking for people for whom building community spirit is as
important as making money.  I view this as a way of enabling dedicated
people to devote their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them
the need to make a living in another way.

Why All Computer Users Will Benefit
===================================

Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system
software free, just like air.(2)

   This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix
license.  It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming
effort will be avoided.  This effort can go instead into advancing the
state of the art.

   Complete system sources will be available to everyone.  As a result,
a user who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them
himself, or hire any available programmer or company to make them for
him.  Users will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company
which owns the sources and is in sole position to make changes.

   Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment
by encouraging all students to study and improve the system code.
Harvard's computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be
installed on the system if its sources were not on public display, and
upheld it by actually refusing to install certain programs.  I was very
much inspired by this.

   Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software
and what one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted.

   Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including
licensing of copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through
the cumbersome mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is,
which programs) a person must pay for.  And only a police state can
force everyone to obey them.  Consider a space station where air must
be manufactured at great cost: charging each breather per liter of air
may be fair, but wearing the metered gas mask all day and all night is
intolerable even if everyone can afford to pay the air bill.  And the
TV cameras everywhere to see if you ever take the mask off are
outrageous.  It's better to support the air plant with a head tax and
chuck the masks.

   Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as
breathing, and as productive.  It ought to be as free.

Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals
==============================================

     "Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't
     rely on any support."

     "You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the
     support."

   If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free
without service, a company to provide just service to people who have
obtained GNU free ought to be profitable.(3)

   We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming
work and mere handholding.  The former is something one cannot rely on
from a software vendor.  If your problem is not shared by enough
people, the vendor will tell you to get lost.

   If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way
is to have all the necessary sources and tools.  Then you can hire any
available person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any
individual.  With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of
consideration for most businesses.  With GNU this will be easy.  It is
still possible for there to be no available competent person, but this
problem cannot be blamed on distribution arrangements.  GNU does not
eliminate all the world's problems, only some of them.

   Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need
handholding: doing things for them which they could easily do
themselves but don't know how.

   Such services could be provided by companies that sell just
hand-holding and repair service.  If it is true that users would rather
spend money and get a product with service, they will also be willing
to buy the service having got the product free.  The service companies
will compete in quality and price; users will not be tied to any
particular one.  Meanwhile, those of us who don't need the service
should be able to use the program without paying for the service.

     "You cannot reach many people without advertising, and you must
     charge for the program to support that."

     "It's no use advertising a program people can get free."

   There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be
used to inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU.  But
it may be true that one can reach more microcomputer users with
advertising.  If this is really so, a business which advertises the
service of copying and mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful
enough to pay for its advertising and more.  This way, only the users
who benefit from the advertising pay for it.

   On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and
such companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not
really necessary to spread GNU.  Why is it that free market advocates
don't want to let the free market decide this?(4)

     "My company needs a proprietary operating system to get a
     competitive edge."

   GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of
competition.  You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but
neither will your competitors be able to get an edge over you.  You and
they will compete in other areas, while benefiting mutually in this
one.  If your business is selling an operating system, you will not
like GNU, but that's tough on you.  If your business is something else,
GNU can save you from being pushed into the expensive business of
selling operating systems.

   I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many
manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each.(5)

     "Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?"

   If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution.
Creativity can be a social contribution, but only in so far as society
is free to use the results.  If programmers deserve to be rewarded for
creating innovative programs, by the same token they deserve to be
punished if they restrict the use of these programs.

     "Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his
     creativity?"

   There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to
maximize one's income, as long as one does not use means that are
destructive.  But the means customary in the field of software today
are based on destruction.

   Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of
it is destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the
ways that the program can be used.  This reduces the amount of wealth
that humanity derives from the program.  When there is a deliberate
choice to restrict, the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction.

   The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to
become wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become
poorer from the mutual destructiveness.  This is Kantian ethics; or,
the Golden Rule.  Since I do not like the consequences that result if
everyone hoards information, I am required to consider it wrong for one
to do so.  Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity
does not justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that
creativity.

     "Won't programmers starve?"

   I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer.  Most of us
cannot manage to get any money for standing on the street and making
faces.  But we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives
standing on the street making faces, and starving.  We do something
else.

   But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's
implicit assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers
cannot possibly be paid a cent.  Supposedly it is all or nothing.

   The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be
possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as
now.

   Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software.
It is the most common basis because it brings in the most money.  If it
were prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would
move to other bases of organization which are now used less often.
There are always numerous ways to organize any kind of business.

   Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it
is now.  But that is not an argument against the change.  It is not
considered an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they
now do.  If programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice
either.  (In practice they would still make considerably more than
that.)

     "Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is
     used?"

   "Control over the use of one's ideas" really constitutes control over
other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more
difficult.

   People who have studied the issue of intellectual property rights(6)
carefully (such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to
intellectual property.  The kinds of supposed intellectual property
rights that the government recognizes were created by specific acts of
legislation for specific purposes.

   For example, the patent system was established to encourage
inventors to disclose the details of their inventions.  Its purpose was
to help society rather than to help inventors.  At the time, the life
span of 17 years for a patent was short compared with the rate of
advance of the state of the art.  Since patents are an issue only among
manufacturers, for whom the cost and effort of a license agreement are
small compared with setting up production, the patents often do not do
much harm.  They do not obstruct most individuals who use patented
products.

   The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors
frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction.  This
practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have
survived even in part.  The copyright system was created expressly for
the purpose of encouraging authorship.  In the domain for which it was
invented--books, which could be copied economically only on a printing
press--it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals
who read the books.

   All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society
because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole
would benefit by granting them.  But in any particular situation, we
have to ask: are we really better off granting such license?  What kind
of act are we licensing a person to do?

   The case of programs today is very different from that of books a
hundred years ago.  The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is
from one neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source
code and object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is
used rather than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in
which a person who enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole
both materially and spiritually; in which a person should not do so
regardless of whether the law enables him to.

     "Competition makes things get done better."

   The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we
encourage everyone to run faster.  When capitalism really works this
way, it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it
always works this way.  If the runners forget why the reward is offered
and become intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other
strategies--such as, attacking other runners.  If the runners get into
a fist fight, they will all finish late.

   Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners
in a fist fight.  Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem
to object to fights; he just regulates them ("For every ten yards you
run, you can fire one shot").  He really ought to break them up, and
penalize runners for even trying to fight.

     "Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?"

   Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary
incentive.  Programming has an irresistible fascination for some
people, usually the people who are best at it.  There is no shortage of
professional musicians who keep at it even though they have no hope of
making a living that way.

   But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate
to the situation.  Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become
less.  So the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced
monetary incentive?  My experience shows that they will.

   For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked
at the Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could
have had anywhere else.  They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards:
fame and appreciation, for example.  And creativity is also fun, a
reward in itself.

   Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same
interesting work for a lot of money.

   What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other
than riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they
will come to expect and demand it.  Low-paying organizations do poorly
in competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly
if the high-paying ones are banned.

     "We need the programmers desperately.  If they demand that we stop
     helping our neighbors, we have to obey."

   You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand.
Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute!

     "Programmers need to make a living somehow."

   In the short run, this is true.  However, there are plenty of ways
that programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a
program.  This way is customary now because it brings programmers and
businessmen the most money, not because it is the only way to make a
living.  It is easy to find other ways if you want to find them.  Here
are a number of examples.

   A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of
operating systems onto the new hardware.

   The sale of teaching, hand-holding and maintenance services could
also employ programmers.

   People with new ideas could distribute programs as freeware(7),
asking for donations from satisfied users, or selling hand-holding
services.  I have met people who are already working this way
successfully.

   Users with related needs can form users' groups, and pay dues.  A
group would contract with programming companies to write programs that
the group's members would like to use.

   All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax:

     Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay x percent of the
     price as a software tax.  The government gives this to an agency
     like the NSF to spend on software development.

     But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development
     himself, he can take a credit against the tax.  He can donate to
     the project of his own choosing--often, chosen because he hopes to
     use the results when it is done.  He can take a credit for any
     amount of donation up to the total tax he had to pay.

     The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of the
     tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on.

     The consequences:

        * The computer-using community supports software development.

        * This community decides what level of support is needed.

        * Users who care which projects their share is spent on can
          choose this for themselves.

   In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the
post-scarcity world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to
make a living.  People will be free to devote themselves to activities
that are fun, such as programming, after spending the necessary ten
hours a week on required tasks such as legislation, family counseling,
robot repair and asteroid prospecting.  There will be no need to be
able to make a living from programming.

   We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole
society must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this
has translated itself into leisure for workers because much
nonproductive activity is required to accompany productive activity.
The main causes of this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against
competition.  Free software will greatly reduce these drains in the
area of software production.  We must do this, in order for technical
gains in productivity to translate into less work for us.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The wording here was careless.  The intention was that nobody
would have to pay for _permission_ to use the GNU system.  But the
words don't make this clear, and people often interpret them as saying
that copies of GNU should always be distributed at little or no charge.
That was never the intent; later on, the manifesto mentions the
possibility of companies providing the service of distribution for a
profit.  Subsequently I have learned to distinguish carefully between
"free" in the sense of freedom and "free" in the sense of price.  Free
software is software that users have the freedom to distribute and
change.  Some users may obtain copies at no charge, while others pay to
obtain copies--and if the funds help support improving the software, so
much the better.  The important thing is that everyone who has a copy
has the freedom to cooperate with others in using it.

   (2) This is another place I failed to distinguish carefully between
the two different meanings of "free."  The statement as it stands is
not false--you can get copies of GNU software at no charge, from your
friends or over the net.  But it does suggest the wrong idea.

   (3) Several such companies now exist.

   (4) The Free Software Foundation raises most of its funds from a
distribution service, although it is a charity rather than a company.
If _no one_ chooses to obtain copies by ordering from the FSF, it will
be unable to do its work.  But this does not mean that proprietary
restrictions are justified to force every user to pay.  If a small
fraction of all the users order copies from the FSF, that is sufficient
to keep the FSF afloat.  So we ask users to choose to support us in
this way.  Have you done your part?

   (5) A group of computer companies recently pooled funds to support
maintenance of the GNU C Compiler.

   (6) In the 80s I had not yet realized how confusing it was to speak
of "the issue" of "intellectual property."  That term is obviously
biased; more subtle is the fact that it lumps together various
disparate laws which raise very different issues.  Nowadays I urge
people to reject the term "intellectual property" entirely, lest it
lead others to suppose that those laws form one coherent issue.  The
way to be clear is to discuss patents, copyrights, and trademarks
separately.  See `http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml' for more
explanation of how this term spreads confusion and bias.

   (7) Subsequently we have discovered the need to distinguish between
"free software" and "freeware".  The term "freeware" means software you
are free to redistribute, but usually you are not free to study and
change the source code, so most of it is not free software.  See
`http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html' for more
explanation.


File: emacs,  Node: Glossary,  Next: Key Index,  Prev: Intro,  Up: Top

Glossary
********

Abbrev
     An abbrev is a text string which expands into a different text
     string when present in the buffer.  For example, you might define
     a few letters as an abbrev for a long phrase that you want to
     insert frequently.  *Note Abbrevs::.

Aborting
     Aborting means getting out of a recursive edit (q.v.).  The
     commands `C-]' and `M-x top-level' are used for this.  *Note
     Quitting::.

Alt
     Alt is the name of a modifier bit which a keyboard input character
     may have.  To make a character Alt, type it while holding down the
     <ALT> key.  Such characters are given names that start with `Alt-'
     (usually written `A-' for short).  (Note that many terminals have a
     key labeled <ALT> which is really a <META> key.)  *Note Alt: User
     Input.

Argument
     See `numeric argument.'

ASCII character
     An ASCII character is either an ASCII control character or an ASCII
     printing character.  *Note User Input::.

ASCII control character
     An ASCII control character is the Control version of an upper-case
     letter, or the Control version of one of the characters `@[\]^_?'.

ASCII printing character
     ASCII printing characters include letters, digits, space, and these
     punctuation characters: `!@#$%^& *()_-+=|\~` {}[]:;"' <>,.?/'.

Auto Fill Mode
     Auto Fill mode is a minor mode in which text that you insert is
     automatically broken into lines of a given maximum width.  *Note
     Filling::.

Auto Saving
     Auto saving is the practice of saving the contents of an Emacs
     buffer in a specially-named file, so that the information will not
     be lost if the buffer is lost due to a system error or user error.
     *Note Auto Save::.

Autoloading
     Emacs automatically loads Lisp libraries when a Lisp program
     requests a function or a variable from those libraries.  This is
     called `autoloading'.  *Note Lisp Libraries::.

Backtrace
     A backtrace is a trace of a series of function calls showing how a
     program arrived to a certain point.  It is used mainly for finding
     and correcting bugs (q.v.).  Emacs can display a backtrace when it
     signals an error or when you type `C-g' (see `quitting').  *Note
     Checklist::.

Backup File
     A backup file records the contents that a file had before the
     current editing session.  Emacs makes backup files automatically
     to help you track down or cancel changes you later regret making.
     *Note Backup::.

Balancing Parentheses
     Emacs can balance parentheses (or other matching delimiters) either
     manually or automatically.  You do manual balancing with the
     commands to move over parenthetical groupings (*note Moving by
     Parens::).  Automatic balancing works by blinking or highlighting
     the delimiter that matches the one you just inserted (*note
     Matching Parens: Matching.).

Balanced Expressions
     A balanced expression is a syntactically recognizable expression,
     such as a symbol, number, string constant, block, or parenthesized
     expression in C.  *Note Balanced Expressions: Expressions.

Balloon Help
     See `tooltips.'

Base Buffer
     A base buffer is a buffer whose text is shared by an indirect
     buffer (q.v.).

Bind
     To bind a key sequence means to give it a binding (q.v.).  *Note
     Rebinding::.

Binding
     A key sequence gets its meaning in Emacs by having a binding,
     which is a command (q.v.), a Lisp function that is run when the
     user types that sequence.  *Note Binding: Commands.  Customization
     often involves rebinding a character to a different command
     function.  The bindings of all key sequences are recorded in the
     keymaps (q.v.).  *Note Keymaps::.

Blank Lines
     Blank lines are lines that contain only whitespace.  Emacs has
     several commands for operating on the blank lines in the buffer.

Bookmark
     Bookmarks are akin to registers (q.v.) in that they record
     positions in buffers to which you can return later.  Unlike
     registers, bookmarks persist between Emacs sessions.

Border
     A border is a thin space along the edge of the frame, used just for
     spacing, not for displaying anything.  An Emacs frame has an
     ordinary external border, outside of everything including the menu
     bar, plus an internal border that surrounds the text windows and
     their scroll bars and separates them from the menu bar and tool
     bar.  You can customize both borders with options and resources
     (*note Borders X::).  Borders are not the same as fringes (q.v.).

Buffer
     The buffer is the basic editing unit; one buffer corresponds to
     one text being edited.  You can have several buffers, but at any
     time you are editing only one, the `current buffer,' though
     several can be visible when you are using multiple windows (q.v.).
     Most buffers are visiting (q.v.) some file.  *Note Buffers::.

Buffer Selection History
     Emacs keeps a buffer selection history which records how recently
     each Emacs buffer has been selected.  This is used for choosing a
     buffer to select.  *Note Buffers::.

Bug
     A bug is an incorrect or unreasonable behavior of a program, or
     inaccurate or confusing documentation.  Emacs developers treat bug
     reports, both in Emacs code and its documentation, very seriously
     and ask you to report any bugs you find.  *Note Bugs::.

Button Down Event
     A button down event is the kind of input event generated right
     away when you press down on a mouse button.  *Note Mouse Buttons::.

By Default
     See `default.'

Byte Compilation
     See `compilation.'

`C-'
     `C-' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for Control.
     *Note C-: User Input.

`C-M-'
     `C-M-' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for
     Control-Meta.  *Note C-M-: User Input.

Case Conversion
     Case conversion means changing text from upper case to lower case
     or vice versa.  *Note Case::, for the commands for case conversion.

Character
     Characters form the contents of an Emacs buffer; see *Note Text
     Characters::.  Also, key sequences (q.v.) are usually made up of
     characters (though they may include other input events as well).
     *Note User Input::.

Character Set
     Emacs supports a number of character sets, each of which
     represents a particular alphabet or script.  *Note International::.

Character Terminal
     See `text-only terminal.'

Click Event
     A click event is the kind of input event generated when you press a
     mouse button and release it without moving the mouse.  *Note Mouse
     Buttons::.

Clipboard
     A clipboard is a buffer provided by the window system for
     transferring text between applications.  On the X Window system,
     the clipboard is provided in addition to the primary selection
     (q.v.); on MS-Windows and Mac, the clipboard is used _instead_ of
     the primary selection.  *Note Clipboard::.

Coding System
     A coding system is an encoding for representing text characters in
     a file or in a stream of information.  Emacs has the ability to
     convert text to or from a variety of coding systems when reading
     or writing it.  *Note Coding Systems::.

Command
     A command is a Lisp function specially defined to be able to serve
     as a key binding in Emacs.  When you type a key sequence (q.v.),
     its binding (q.v.) is looked up in the relevant keymaps (q.v.) to
     find the command to run.  *Note Commands::.

Command History
     See `minibuffer history.'

Command Name
     A command name is the name of a Lisp symbol which is a command
     (*note Commands::).  You can invoke any command by its name using
     `M-x' (*note M-x: M-x.).

Comment
     A comment is text in a program which is intended only for humans
     reading the program, and which is marked specially so that it will
     be ignored when the program is loaded or compiled.  Emacs offers
     special commands for creating, aligning and killing comments.
     *Note Comments::.

Common Lisp
     Common Lisp is a dialect of Lisp (q.v.) much larger and more
     powerful than Emacs Lisp.  Emacs provides a subset of Common Lisp
     in the CL package.  *Note Common Lisp: (cl)Top.

Compilation
     Compilation is the process of creating an executable program from
     source code.  Emacs has commands for compiling files of Emacs Lisp
     code (*note Byte Compilation: (elisp)Byte Compilation.) and
     programs in C and other languages (*note Compilation::).

Complete Key
     A complete key is a key sequence which fully specifies one action
     to be performed by Emacs.  For example, `X' and `C-f' and `C-x m'
     are complete keys.  Complete keys derive their meanings from being
     bound (q.v.) to commands (q.v.).  Thus, `X' is conventionally
     bound to a command to insert `X' in the buffer; `C-x m' is
     conventionally bound to a command to begin composing a mail
     message.  *Note Keys::.

Completion
     Completion is what Emacs does when it automatically fills out an
     abbreviation for a name into the entire name.  Completion is done
     for minibuffer (q.v.) arguments when the set of possible valid
     inputs is known; for example, on command names, buffer names, and
     file names.  Completion occurs when <TAB>, <SPC> or <RET> is
     typed.  *Note Completion::.

Continuation Line
     When a line of text is longer than the width of the window, it
     takes up more than one screen line when displayed.  We say that the
     text line is continued, and all screen lines used for it after the
     first are called continuation lines.  *Note Continuation Lines::.
     A related Emacs feature is `filling' (q.v.).

Control Character
     A control character is a character that you type by holding down
     the <CTRL> key.  Some control characters also have their own keys,
     so that you can type them without using <CTRL>.  For example,
     <RET>, <TAB>, <ESC> and <DEL> are all control characters.  *Note
     User Input::.

Copyleft
     A copyleft is a notice giving the public legal permission to
     redistribute and modify a program or other work of art, but
     requiring modified versions to carry similar permission.
     Copyright is normally used to keep users divided and helpless;
     with copyleft we turn that around to empower users and encourage
     them to cooperate.

     The particular form of copyleft used by the GNU project is called
     the GNU General Public License.  *Note Copying::.

<CTRL>
     The <CTRL> or "control" key is what you hold down in order to
     enter a control character (q.v.).

Current Buffer
     The current buffer in Emacs is the Emacs buffer on which most
     editing commands operate.  You can select any Emacs buffer as the
     current one.  *Note Buffers::.

Current Line
     The current line is the line that point is on (*note Point::).

Current Paragraph
     The current paragraph is the paragraph that point is in.  If point
     is between two paragraphs, the current paragraph is the one that
     follows point.  *Note Paragraphs::.

Current Defun
     The current defun is the defun (q.v.) that point is in.  If point
     is between defuns, the current defun is the one that follows point.
     *Note Defuns::.

Cursor
     The cursor is the rectangle on the screen which indicates the
     position called point (q.v.) at which insertion and deletion takes
     place.  The cursor is on or under the character that follows
     point.  Often people speak of `the cursor' when, strictly
     speaking, they mean `point.'  *Note Cursor: Point.

Customization
     Customization is making minor changes in the way Emacs works.  It
     is often done by setting variables (*note Variables::) or faces
     (*note Face Customization::), or by rebinding key sequences (*note
     Keymaps::).

Cut and Paste
     See `killing' and `yanking.'

Default Argument
     The default for an argument is the value that will be assumed if
     you do not specify one.  When the minibuffer is used to read an
     argument, the default argument is used if you just type <RET>.
     *Note Minibuffer::.

Default
     A default is the value that is used for a certain purpose if and
     when you do not specify a value to use.

Default Directory
     When you specify a file name that does not start with `/' or `~',
     it is interpreted relative to the current buffer's default
     directory.  (On MS-Windows and MS-DOS, file names which start with
     a drive letter `X:' are treated as absolute, not relative.)  *Note
     Default Directory: Minibuffer File.

Defun
     A defun is a major definition at the top level in a program.  The
     name `defun' comes from Lisp, where most such definitions use the
     construct `defun'.  *Note Defuns::.

<DEL>
     <DEL> is a character that runs the command to delete one character
     of text before the cursor.  It is typically either the <DELETE>
     key or the <BACKSPACE> key, whichever one is easy to type.  *Note
     DEL: Erasing.

Deletion
     Deletion means erasing text without copying it into the kill ring
     (q.v.).  The alternative is killing (q.v.).  *Note Deletion:
     Killing.

Deletion of Files
     Deleting a file means erasing it from the file system.  *Note Misc
     File Ops: Misc File Ops.

Deletion of Messages
     Deleting a message means flagging it to be eliminated from your
     mail file.  Until you expunge (q.v.) the Rmail file, you can still
     undelete the messages you have deleted.  *Note Rmail Deletion::.

Deletion of Windows
     Deleting a window means eliminating it from the screen.  Other
     windows expand to use up the space.  The deleted window can never
     come back, but no actual text is thereby lost.  *Note Windows::.

Directory
     File directories are named collections in the file system, within
     which you can place individual files or subdirectories.  *Note
     Directories::.

Dired
     Dired is the Emacs facility that displays the contents of a file
     directory and allows you to "edit the directory," performing
     operations on the files in the directory.  *Note Dired::.

Disabled Command
     A disabled command is one that you may not run without special
     confirmation.  The usual reason for disabling a command is that it
     is confusing for beginning users.  *Note Disabling::.

Down Event
     Short for `button down event' (q.v.).

Drag Event
     A drag event is the kind of input event generated when you press a
     mouse button, move the mouse, and then release the button.  *Note
     Mouse Buttons::.

Dribble File
     A dribble file is a file into which Emacs writes all the
     characters that you type on the keyboard.  Dribble files are used
     to make a record for debugging Emacs bugs.  Emacs does not make a
     dribble file unless you tell it to.  *Note Bugs::.

Echo Area
     The echo area is the bottom line of the screen, used for echoing
     the arguments to commands, for asking questions, and showing brief
     messages (including error messages).  The messages are stored in
     the buffer `*Messages*' so you can review them later.  *Note Echo
     Area::.

Echoing
     Echoing is acknowledging the receipt of input events by displaying
     them (in the echo area).  Emacs never echoes single-character key
     sequences; longer key sequences echo only if you pause while typing
     them.

Electric
     We say that a character is electric if it is normally
     self-inserting (q.v.), but the current major mode (q.v.) redefines
     it to do something else as well.  For example, some programming
     language major modes define particular delimiter characters to
     reindent the line or insert one or more newlines in addition to
     self-insertion.

End Of Line
     End of line is a character or a sequence of characters that
     indicate the end of a text line.  On GNU and Unix systems, this is
     a newline (q.v.), but other systems have other conventions.  *Note
     end-of-line: Coding Systems.  Emacs can recognize several
     end-of-line conventions in files and convert between them.

Environment Variable
     An environment variable is one of a collection of variables stored
     by the operating system, each one having a name and a value.
     Emacs can access environment variables set by its parent shell,
     and it can set variables in the environment it passes to programs
     it invokes.  *Note Environment::.

EOL
     See `end of line.'

Error
     An error occurs when an Emacs command cannot execute in the current
     circumstances.  When an error occurs, execution of the command
     stops (unless the command has been programmed to do otherwise) and
     Emacs reports the error by displaying an error message (q.v.).
     Type-ahead is discarded.  Then Emacs is ready to read another
     editing command.

Error Message
     An error message is a single line of output displayed by Emacs
     when the user asks for something impossible to do (such as,
     killing text forward when point is at the end of the buffer).
     They appear in the echo area, accompanied by a beep.

<ESC>
     <ESC> is a character used as a prefix for typing Meta characters on
     keyboards lacking a <META> key.  Unlike the <META> key (which,
     like the <SHIFT> key, is held down while another character is
     typed), you press the <ESC> key as you would press a letter key,
     and it applies to the next character you type.

Expression
     See `balanced expression.'

Expunging
     Expunging an Rmail file or Dired buffer or a Gnus newsgroup buffer
     is an operation that truly discards the messages or files you have
     previously flagged for deletion.

Face
     A face is a style of displaying characters.  It specifies
     attributes such as font family and size, foreground and background
     colors, underline and strike-through, background stipple, etc.
     Emacs provides features to associate specific faces with portions
     of buffer text, in order to display that text as specified by the
     face attributes.  *Note Faces::.

File Locking
     Emacs uses file locking to notice when two different users start
     to edit one file at the same time.  *Note Interlocking::.

File Name
     A file name is a name that refers to a file.  File names may be
     relative or absolute; the meaning of a relative file name depends
     on the current directory, but an absolute file name refers to the
     same file regardless of which directory is current.  On GNU and
     Unix systems, an absolute file name starts with a slash (the root
     directory) or with `~/' or `~USER/' (a home directory).  On
     MS-Windows/MS-DOS, an absolute file name can also start with a
     drive letter and a colon `D:'.

     Some people use the term "pathname" for file names, but we do not;
     we use the word "path" only in the term "search path" (q.v.).

File-Name Component
     A file-name component names a file directly within a particular
     directory.  On GNU and Unix systems, a file name is a sequence of
     file-name components, separated by slashes.  For example, `foo/bar'
     is a file name containing two components, `foo' and `bar'; it
     refers to the file named `bar' in the directory named `foo' in the
     current directory.  MS-DOS/MS-Windows file names can also use
     backslashes to separate components, as in `foo\bar'.

Fill Prefix
     The fill prefix is a string that should be expected at the
     beginning of each line when filling is done.  It is not regarded
     as part of the text to be filled.  *Note Filling::.

Filling
     Filling text means shifting text between consecutive lines so that
     all the lines are approximately the same length.  *Note Filling::.
     Some other editors call this feature `line wrapping.'

Font Lock
     Font Lock is a mode that highlights parts of buffer text according
     to its syntax.  *Note Font Lock::.

Fontset
     A fontset is a named collection of fonts.  A fontset specification
     lists character sets and which font to use to display each of
     them.  Fontsets make it easy to change several fonts at once by
     specifying the name of a fontset, rather than changing each font
     separately.  *Note Fontsets::.

Formatted Text
     Formatted text is text that displays with formatting information
     while you edit.  Formatting information includes fonts, colors,
     and specified margins.  *Note Formatted Text::.

Formfeed Character
     See `page.'

Frame
     A frame is a rectangular cluster of Emacs windows.  Emacs starts
     out with one frame, but you can create more.  You can subdivide
     each frame into Emacs windows (q.v.).  When you are using a window
     system (q.v.), all the frames can be visible at the same time.
     *Note Frames::.  Some other editors use the term "window" for this,
     but in Emacs a window means something else.

Fringe
     On a graphical display (q.v.), there's a narrow portion of the
     frame (q.v.) between the text area and the window's border.  Emacs
     displays the fringe using a special face (q.v.) called `fringe'.
     *Note fringe: Faces.

FTP
     FTP is an acronym for File Transfer Protocol.  Emacs uses an FTP
     client program to provide access to remote files (q.v.).

Function Key
     A function key is a key on the keyboard that sends input but does
     not correspond to any character.  *Note Function Keys::.

Global
     Global means "independent of the current environment; in effect
     throughout Emacs."  It is the opposite of local (q.v.).  Particular
     examples of the use of `global' appear below.

Global Abbrev
     A global definition of an abbrev (q.v.) is effective in all major
     modes that do not have local (q.v.) definitions for the same
     abbrev.  *Note Abbrevs::.

Global Keymap
     The global keymap (q.v.) contains key bindings that are in effect
     except when overridden by local key bindings in a major mode's
     local keymap (q.v.).  *Note Keymaps::.

Global Mark Ring
     The global mark ring records the series of buffers you have
     recently set a mark (q.v.) in.  In many cases you can use this to
     backtrack through buffers you have been editing in, or in which
     you have found tags (see `tags table').  *Note Global Mark Ring::.

Global Substitution
     Global substitution means replacing each occurrence of one string
     by another string throughout a large amount of text.  *Note
     Replace::.

Global Variable
     The global value of a variable (q.v.) takes effect in all buffers
     that do not have their own local (q.v.) values for the variable.
     *Note Variables::.

Graphic Character
     Graphic characters are those assigned pictorial images rather than
     just names.  All the non-Meta (q.v.) characters except for the
     Control (q.v.) characters are graphic characters.  These include
     letters, digits, punctuation, and spaces; they do not include
     <RET> or <ESC>.  In Emacs, typing a graphic character inserts that
     character (in ordinary editing modes).  *Note Inserting Text::.

Graphical Display
     A graphical display is one that can display images and multiple
     fonts.  Usually it also has a window system (q.v.).

Highlighting
     Highlighting text means displaying it with a different foreground
     and/or background color to make it stand out from the rest of the
     text in the buffer.

     Emacs uses highlighting in several ways.  When you mark a region
     with the mouse, the region is always highlighted.  Optionally
     Emacs can also highlight the region whenever it is active (*note
     Transient Mark::).  Incremental search also highlights matches
     (*note Incremental Search::).  See also `font lock'.

Hardcopy
     Hardcopy means printed output.  Emacs has commands for making
     printed listings of text in Emacs buffers.  *Note Printing::.

<HELP>
     <HELP> is the Emacs name for `C-h' or <F1>.  You can type <HELP>
     at any time to ask what options you have, or to ask what any
     command does.  *Note Help::.

Help Echo
     Help echo is a short message displayed in the echo area when the
     mouse pointer is located on portions of display that require some
     explanations.  Emacs displays help echo for menu items, parts of
     the mode line, tool-bar buttons, etc.  On graphics displays, the
     messages can be displayed as tooltips (q.v.).  *Note Tooltips::.

Hook
     A hook is a list of functions to be called on specific occasions,
     such as saving a buffer in a file, major mode activation, etc.  By
     customizing the various hooks, you can modify Emacs's behavior
     without changing any of its code.  *Note Hooks::.

Hyper
     Hyper is the name of a modifier bit which a keyboard input
     character may have.  To make a character Hyper, type it while
     holding down the <HYPER> key.  Such characters are given names
     that start with `Hyper-' (usually written `H-' for short).  *Note
     Hyper: User Input.

Iff
     "Iff" means "if and only if."  This terminology comes from
     mathematics.

Inbox
     An inbox is a file in which mail is delivered by the operating
     system.  Rmail transfers mail from inboxes to Rmail files (q.v.)
     in which the mail is then stored permanently or until explicitly
     deleted.  *Note Rmail Inbox::.

Incremental Search
     Emacs provides an incremental search facility, whereby Emacs
     searches for the string as you type it.  *Note Incremental
     Search::.

Indentation
     Indentation means blank space at the beginning of a line.  Most
     programming languages have conventions for using indentation to
     illuminate the structure of the program, and Emacs has special
     commands to adjust indentation.  *Note Indentation::.

Indirect Buffer
     An indirect buffer is a buffer that shares the text of another
     buffer, called its base buffer (q.v.).  *Note Indirect Buffers::.

Info
     Info is the hypertext format used by the GNU project for writing
     documentation.

Input Event
     An input event represents, within Emacs, one action taken by the
     user on the terminal.  Input events include typing characters,
     typing function keys, pressing or releasing mouse buttons, and
     switching between Emacs frames.  *Note User Input::.

Input Method
     An input method is a system for entering non-ASCII text characters
     by typing sequences of ASCII characters (q.v.).  *Note Input
     Methods::.

Insertion
     Insertion means copying text into the buffer, either from the
     keyboard or from some other place in Emacs.

Interlocking
     Interlocking is a feature for warning when you start to alter a
     file that someone else is already editing.  *Note Interlocking:
     Interlocking.

Isearch
     See `incremental search.'

Justification
     Justification means adding extra spaces within lines of text to
     make them extend exactly to a specified width.  *Note Format
     Justification::.

Keybinding
     See `binding.'

Keyboard Macro
     Keyboard macros are a way of defining new Emacs commands from
     sequences of existing ones, with no need to write a Lisp program.
     *Note Keyboard Macros::.

Keyboard Shortcut
     A keyboard shortcut is a key sequence (q.v.) which invokes a
     command.  What some programs call "assigning a keyboard shortcut,"
     Emacs calls "binding a key sequence."  See `binding.'

Key Sequence
     A key sequence (key, for short) is a sequence of input events
     (q.v.)  that are meaningful as a single unit.  If the key sequence
     is enough to specify one action, it is a complete key (q.v.); if
     it is not enough, it is a prefix key (q.v.).  *Note Keys::.

Keymap
     The keymap is the data structure that records the bindings (q.v.)
     of key sequences to the commands that they run.  For example, the
     global keymap binds the character `C-n' to the command function
     `next-line'.  *Note Keymaps::.

Keyboard Translation Table
     The keyboard translation table is an array that translates the
     character codes that come from the terminal into the character
     codes that make up key sequences.

Kill Ring
     The kill ring is where all text you have killed recently is saved.
     You can reinsert any of the killed text still in the ring; this is
     called yanking (q.v.).  *Note Yanking::.

Killing
     Killing means erasing text and saving it on the kill ring so it
     can be yanked (q.v.) later.  Some other systems call this
     "cutting."  Most Emacs commands that erase text perform killing,
     as opposed to deletion (q.v.).  *Note Killing::.

Killing a Job
     Killing a job (such as, an invocation of Emacs) means making it
     cease to exist.  Any data within it, if not saved in a file, is
     lost.  *Note Exiting::.

Language Environment
     Your choice of language environment specifies defaults for the
     input method (q.v.) and coding system (q.v.).  *Note Language
     Environments::.  These defaults are relevant if you edit non-ASCII
     text (*note International::).

Line Wrapping
     See `filling.'

Lisp
     Lisp is a programming language.  Most of Emacs is written in a
     dialect of Lisp, called Emacs Lisp, that is extended with special
     features which make it especially suitable for text editing tasks.

List
     A list is, approximately, a text string beginning with an open
     parenthesis and ending with the matching close parenthesis.  In C
     mode and other non-Lisp modes, groupings surrounded by other kinds
     of matched delimiters appropriate to the language, such as braces,
     are also considered lists.  Emacs has special commands for many
     operations on lists.  *Note Moving by Parens::.

Local
     Local means "in effect only in a particular context"; the relevant
     kind of context is a particular function execution, a particular
     buffer, or a particular major mode.  It is the opposite of `global'
     (q.v.).  Specific uses of `local' in Emacs terminology appear
     below.

Local Abbrev
     A local abbrev definition is effective only if a particular major
     mode is selected.  In that major mode, it overrides any global
     definition for the same abbrev.  *Note Abbrevs::.

Local Keymap
     A local keymap is used in a particular major mode; the key bindings
     (q.v.) in the current local keymap override global bindings of the
     same key sequences.  *Note Keymaps::.

Local Variable
     A local value of a variable (q.v.) applies to only one buffer.
     *Note Locals::.

`M-'
     `M-' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for <META>, one
     of the modifier keys that can accompany any character.  *Note M-:
     User Input.

`M-C-'
     `M-C-' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for
     Control-Meta; it means the same thing as `C-M-'.  If your terminal
     lacks a real <META> key, you type a Control-Meta character by
     typing <ESC> and then typing the corresponding Control character.
     *Note C-M-: User Input.

`M-x'
     `M-x' is the key sequence which is used to call an Emacs command by
     name.  This is how you run commands that are not bound to key
     sequences.  *Note M-x: M-x.

Mail
     Mail means messages sent from one user to another through the
     computer system, to be read at the recipient's convenience.  Emacs
     has commands for composing and sending mail, and for reading and
     editing the mail you have received.  *Note Sending Mail::.  *Note
     Rmail::, for how to read mail.

Mail Composition Method
     A mail composition method is a program runnable within Emacs for
     editing and sending a mail message.  Emacs lets you select from
     several alternative mail composition methods.  *Note Mail
     Methods::.

Major Mode
     The Emacs major modes are a mutually exclusive set of options,
     each of which configures Emacs for editing a certain sort of text.
     Ideally, each programming language has its own major mode.  *Note
     Major Modes::.

Margin
     The space between the usable part of a window (including the
     fringe) and the window edge.

Mark
     The mark points to a position in the text.  It specifies one end
     of the region (q.v.), point being the other end.  Many commands
     operate on all the text from point to the mark.  Each buffer has
     its own mark.  *Note Mark::.

Mark Ring
     The mark ring is used to hold several recent previous locations of
     the mark, just in case you want to move back to them.  Each buffer
     has its own mark ring; in addition, there is a single global mark
     ring (q.v.).  *Note Mark Ring::.

Menu Bar
     The menu bar is the line at the top of an Emacs frame.  It contains
     words you can click on with the mouse to bring up menus, or you
     can use a keyboard interface to navigate it.  *Note Menu Bars::.

Message
     See `mail.'

Meta
     Meta is the name of a modifier bit which you can use in a command
     character.  To enter a meta character, you hold down the <META>
     key while typing the character.  We refer to such characters with
     names that start with `Meta-' (usually written `M-' for short).
     For example, `M-<' is typed by holding down <META> and at the same
     time typing `<' (which itself is done, on most terminals, by
     holding down <SHIFT> and typing `,').  *Note Meta: User Input.

     On some terminals, the <META> key is actually labeled <ALT> or
     <EDIT>.

Meta Character
     A Meta character is one whose character code includes the Meta bit.

Minibuffer
     The minibuffer is the window that appears when necessary inside the
     echo area (q.v.), used for reading arguments to commands.  *Note
     Minibuffer::.

Minibuffer History
     The minibuffer history records the text you have specified in the
     past for minibuffer arguments, so you can conveniently use the
     same text again.  *Note Minibuffer History::.

Minor Mode
     A minor mode is an optional feature of Emacs which can be switched
     on or off independently of all other features.  Each minor mode
     has a command to turn it on or off.  *Note Minor Modes::.

Minor Mode Keymap
     A minor mode keymap is a keymap that belongs to a minor mode and is
     active when that mode is enabled.  Minor mode keymaps take
     precedence over the buffer's local keymap, just as the local
     keymap takes precedence over the global keymap.  *Note Keymaps::.

Mode Line
     The mode line is the line at the bottom of each window (q.v.),
     giving status information on the buffer displayed in that window.
     *Note Mode Line::.

Modified Buffer
     A buffer (q.v.) is modified if its text has been changed since the
     last time the buffer was saved (or since when it was created, if it
     has never been saved).  *Note Saving::.

Moving Text
     Moving text means erasing it from one place and inserting it in
     another.  The usual way to move text is by killing (q.v.) it and
     then yanking (q.v.) it.  *Note Killing::.

MULE
     MULE refers to the Emacs features for editing multilingual
     non-ASCII text using multibyte characters (q.v.).  *Note
     International::.

Multibyte Character
     A multibyte character is a character that takes up several bytes
     in a buffer.  Emacs uses multibyte characters to represent
     non-ASCII text, since the number of non-ASCII characters is much
     more than 256.  *Note International Characters: International
     Chars.

Named Mark
     A named mark is a register (q.v.) in its role of recording a
     location in text so that you can move point to that location.
     *Note Registers::.

Narrowing
     Narrowing means creating a restriction (q.v.) that limits editing
     in the current buffer to only a part of the text in the buffer.
     Text outside that part is inaccessible for editing until the
     boundaries are widened again, but it is still there, and saving
     the file saves it all.  *Note Narrowing::.

Newline
     Control-J characters in the buffer terminate lines of text and are
     therefore also called newlines.  *Note Newline: Text Characters.

`nil'
     `nil' is a value usually interpreted as a logical "false."  Its
     opposite is `t', interpreted as "true."

Numeric Argument
     A numeric argument is a number, specified before a command, to
     change the effect of the command.  Often the numeric argument
     serves as a repeat count.  *Note Arguments::.

Overwrite Mode
     Overwrite mode is a minor mode.  When it is enabled, ordinary text
     characters replace the existing text after point rather than
     pushing it to the right.  *Note Minor Modes::.

Page
     A page is a unit of text, delimited by formfeed characters (ASCII
     control-L, code 014) coming at the beginning of a line.  Some Emacs
     commands are provided for moving over and operating on pages.
     *Note Pages::.

Paragraph
     Paragraphs are the medium-size unit of human-language text.  There
     are special Emacs commands for moving over and operating on
     paragraphs.  *Note Paragraphs::.

Parsing
     We say that certain Emacs commands parse words or expressions in
     the text being edited.  Really, all they know how to do is find
     the other end of a word or expression.  *Note Syntax::.

Point
     Point is the place in the buffer at which insertion and deletion
     occur.  Point is considered to be between two characters, not at
     one character.  The terminal's cursor (q.v.) indicates the
     location of point.  *Note Point::.

Prefix Argument
     See `numeric argument.'

Prefix Key
     A prefix key is a key sequence (q.v.) whose sole function is to
     introduce a set of longer key sequences.  `C-x' is an example of
     prefix key; any two-character sequence starting with `C-x' is
     therefore a legitimate key sequence.  *Note Keys::.

Primary Rmail File
     Your primary Rmail file is the file named `RMAIL' in your home
     directory.  That's where Rmail stores your incoming mail, unless
     you specify a different file name.  *Note Rmail::.

Primary Selection
     The primary selection is one particular X selection (q.v.); it is
     the selection that most X applications use for transferring text
     to and from other applications.

     The Emacs kill commands set the primary selection and the yank
     command uses the primary selection when appropriate.  *Note
     Killing::.

Prompt
     A prompt is text used to ask the user for input.  Displaying a
     prompt is called prompting.  Emacs prompts always appear in the
     echo area (q.v.).  One kind of prompting happens when the
     minibuffer is used to read an argument (*note Minibuffer::); the
     echoing which happens when you pause in the middle of typing a
     multi-character key sequence is also a kind of prompting (*note
     Echo Area::).

Query-Replace
     Query-replace is an interactive string replacement feature
     provided by Emacs.  *Note Query Replace::.

Quitting
     Quitting means canceling a partially typed command or a running
     command, using `C-g' (or `C-<BREAK>' on MS-DOS).  *Note Quitting::.

Quoting
     Quoting means depriving a character of its usual special
     significance.  The most common kind of quoting in Emacs is with
     `C-q'.  What constitutes special significance depends on the
     context and on convention.  For example, an "ordinary" character
     as an Emacs command inserts itself; so in this context, a special
     character is any character that does not normally insert itself
     (such as <DEL>, for example), and quoting it makes it insert
     itself as if it were not special.  Not all contexts allow quoting.
     *Note Quoting: Inserting Text.

Quoting File Names
     Quoting a file name turns off the special significance of
     constructs such as `$', `~' and `:'.  *Note Quoted File Names::.

Read-Only Buffer
     A read-only buffer is one whose text you are not allowed to change.
     Normally Emacs makes buffers read-only when they contain text which
     has a special significance to Emacs; for example, Dired buffers.
     Visiting a file that is write-protected also makes a read-only
     buffer.  *Note Buffers::.

Rectangle
     A rectangle consists of the text in a given range of columns on a
     given range of lines.  Normally you specify a rectangle by putting
     point at one corner and putting the mark at the diagonally
     opposite corner.  *Note Rectangles::.

Recursive Editing Level
     A recursive editing level is a state in which part of the
     execution of a command involves asking you to edit some text.
     This text may or may not be the same as the text to which the
     command was applied.  The mode line indicates recursive editing
     levels with square brackets (`[' and `]').  *Note Recursive Edit::.

Redisplay
     Redisplay is the process of correcting the image on the screen to
     correspond to changes that have been made in the text being edited.
     *Note Redisplay: Screen.

Regexp
     See `regular expression.'

Region
     The region is the text between point (q.v.) and the mark (q.v.).
     Many commands operate on the text of the region.  *Note Region:
     Mark.

Register
     Registers are named slots in which text or buffer positions or
     rectangles can be saved for later use.  *Note Registers::.  A
     related Emacs feature is `bookmarks' (q.v.).

Regular Expression
     A regular expression is a pattern that can match various text
     strings; for example, `a[0-9]+' matches `a' followed by one or more
     digits.  *Note Regexps::.

Remote File
     A remote file is a file that is stored on a system other than your
     own.  Emacs can access files on other computers provided that they
     are connected to the same network as your machine, and (obviously)
     that you have a supported method to gain access to those files.
     *Note Remote Files::.

Repeat Count
     See `numeric argument.'

Replacement
     See `global substitution.'

Restriction
     A buffer's restriction is the amount of text, at the beginning or
     the end of the buffer, that is temporarily inaccessible.  Giving a
     buffer a nonzero amount of restriction is called narrowing (q.v.);
     removing a restriction is called widening (q.v.).  *Note
     Narrowing::.

<RET>
     <RET> is a character that in Emacs runs the command to insert a
     newline into the text.  It is also used to terminate most arguments
     read in the minibuffer (q.v.).  *Note Return: User Input.

Reverting
     Reverting means returning to the original state.  Emacs lets you
     revert a buffer by re-reading its file from disk.  *Note
     Reverting::.

Rmail File
     An Rmail file is a file containing text in a special format used by
     Rmail for storing mail.  *Note Rmail::.

Saving
     Saving a buffer means copying its text into the file that was
     visited (q.v.) in that buffer.  This is the way text in files
     actually gets changed by your Emacs editing.  *Note Saving::.

Scroll Bar
     A scroll bar is a tall thin hollow box that appears at the side of
     a window.  You can use mouse commands in the scroll bar to scroll
     the window.  The scroll bar feature is supported only under
     windowing systems.  *Note Scroll Bars::.

Scrolling
     Scrolling means shifting the text in the Emacs window so as to see
     a different part of the buffer.  *Note Scrolling::.

Searching
     Searching means moving point to the next occurrence of a specified
     string or the next match for a specified regular expression.
     *Note Search::.

Search Path
     A search path is a list of directory names, to be used for
     searching for files for certain purposes.  For example, the
     variable `load-path' holds a search path for finding Lisp library
     files.  *Note Lisp Libraries::.

Secondary Selection
     The secondary selection is one particular X selection; some X
     applications can use it for transferring text to and from other
     applications.  Emacs has special mouse commands for transferring
     text using the secondary selection.  *Note Secondary Selection::.

Selected Frame
     The selected frame is the one your input currently operates on.
     *Note Frames::.

Selected Window
     The selected frame is the one your input currently operates on.
     *Note Basic Window::.

Selecting a Buffer
     Selecting a buffer means making it the current (q.v.) buffer.
     *Note Select Buffer::.

Selection
     Windowing systems allow an application program to specify
     selections whose values are text.  A program can also read the
     selections that other programs have set up.  This is the principal
     way of transferring text between window applications.  Emacs has
     commands to work with the primary (q.v.) selection and the
     secondary (q.v.)  selection, and also with the clipboard (q.v.).

Self-Documentation
     Self-documentation is the feature of Emacs which can tell you what
     any command does, or give you a list of all commands related to a
     topic you specify.  You ask for self-documentation with the help
     character, `C-h'.  *Note Help::.

Self-Inserting Character
     A character is self-inserting if typing that character inserts that
     character in the buffer.  Ordinary printing and whitespace
     characters are self-inserting in Emacs, except in certain special
     major modes.

Sentences
     Emacs has commands for moving by or killing by sentences.  *Note
     Sentences::.

Sexp
     A sexp (short for "s-expression") is the basic syntactic unit of
     Lisp in its textual form: either a list, or Lisp atom.  Sexps are
     also the balanced expressions (q.v.) of the Lisp language; this is
     why the commands for editing balanced expressions have `sexp' in
     their name.  *Note Sexps: Expressions.

Simultaneous Editing
     Simultaneous editing means two users modifying the same file at
     once.  Simultaneous editing, if not detected, can cause one user
     to lose his or her work.  Emacs detects all cases of simultaneous
     editing, and warns one of the users to investigate.  *Note
     Interlocking: Interlocking.

<SPC>
     <SPC> is the space character, which you enter by pressing the
     space bar.

Speedbar
     The speedbar is a special tall frame that provides fast access to
     Emacs buffers, functions within those buffers, Info nodes, and
     other interesting parts of text within Emacs.  *Note Speedbar::.

Spell Checking
     Spell checking means checking correctness of the written form of
     each one of the words in a text.  Emacs uses the Ispell
     spelling-checker program to check the spelling of parts of a
     buffer via a convenient user interface.  *Note Spelling::.

String
     A string is a kind of Lisp data object which contains a sequence of
     characters.  Many Emacs variables are intended to have strings as
     values.  The Lisp syntax for a string consists of the characters
     in the string with a `"' before and another `"' after.  A `"' that
     is part of the string must be written as `\"' and a `\' that is
     part of the string must be written as `\\'.  All other characters,
     including newline, can be included just by writing them inside the
     string; however, backslash sequences as in C, such as `\n' for
     newline or `\241' using an octal character code, are allowed as
     well.

String Substitution
     See `global substitution'.

Syntax Highlighting
     See `font lock.'

Syntax Table
     The syntax table tells Emacs which characters are part of a word,
     which characters balance each other like parentheses, etc.  *Note
     Syntax::.

Super
     Super is the name of a modifier bit which a keyboard input
     character may have.  To make a character Super, type it while
     holding down the <SUPER> key.  Such characters are given names
     that start with `Super-' (usually written `s-' for short).  *Note
     Super: User Input.

Suspending
     Suspending Emacs means stopping it temporarily and returning
     control to its parent process, which is usually a shell.  Unlike
     killing a job (q.v.), you can later resume the suspended Emacs job
     without losing your buffers, unsaved edits, undo history, etc.
     *Note Exiting::.

<TAB>
     <TAB> is the tab character.  In Emacs it is typically used for
     indentation or completion.

Tags Table
     A tags table is a file that serves as an index to the function
     definitions in one or more other files.  *Note Tags::.

Termscript File
     A termscript file contains a record of all characters sent by
     Emacs to the terminal.  It is used for tracking down bugs in Emacs
     redisplay.  Emacs does not make a termscript file unless you tell
     it to.  *Note Bugs::.

Text
     `Text' has two meanings (*note Text::):

        * Data consisting of a sequence of characters, as opposed to
          binary numbers, executable programs, and the like.  The basic
          contents of an Emacs buffer (aside from the text properties,
          q.v.) are always text in this sense.

        * Data consisting of written human language, as opposed to
          programs, or following the stylistic conventions of human
          language.

Text-only Terminal
     A text-only terminal is a display that is limited to displaying
     text in character units.  Such a terminal cannot control
     individual pixels it displays.  Emacs supports a subset of display
     features on text-only terminals.

Text Properties
     Text properties are annotations recorded for particular characters
     in the buffer.  Images in the buffer are recorded as text
     properties; they also specify formatting information.  *Note
     Editing Format Info::.

Tool Bar
     The tool bar is a line (sometimes multiple lines) of icons at the
     top of an Emacs frame.  Clicking on one of these icons executes a
     command.  You can think of this as a graphical relative of the
     menu bar (q.v.).  *Note Tool Bars::.

Tooltips
     Tooltips are small windows displaying a help echo (q.v.) text that
     explains parts of the display, lists useful options available via
     mouse clicks, etc.  *Note Tooltips::.

Top Level
     Top level is the normal state of Emacs, in which you are editing
     the text of the file you have visited.  You are at top level
     whenever you are not in a recursive editing level (q.v.) or the
     minibuffer (q.v.), and not in the middle of a command.  You can
     get back to top level by aborting (q.v.) and quitting (q.v.).
     *Note Quitting::.

Transposition
     Transposing two units of text means putting each one into the place
     formerly occupied by the other.  There are Emacs commands to
     transpose two adjacent characters, words, balanced expressions
     (q.v.) or lines (*note Transpose::).

Truncation
     Truncating text lines in the display means leaving out any text on
     a line that does not fit within the right margin of the window
     displaying it.  See also `continuation line.'  *Note Truncation:
     Continuation Lines.

TTY
     See `text-only terminal.'

Undoing
     Undoing means making your previous editing go in reverse, bringing
     back the text that existed earlier in the editing session.  *Note
     Undo::.

User Option
     A user option is a face (q.v.) or a variable (q.v.) that exists so
     that you can customize Emacs by setting it to a new value.  *Note
     Easy Customization::.

Variable
     A variable is an object in Lisp that can store an arbitrary value.
     Emacs uses some variables for internal purposes, and has others
     (known as `user options' (q.v.)) just so that you can set their
     values to control the behavior of Emacs.  The variables used in
     Emacs that you are likely to be interested in are listed in the
     Variables Index in this manual (*note Variable Index::).  *Note
     Variables::, for information on variables.

Version Control
     Version control systems keep track of multiple versions of a
     source file.  They provide a more powerful alternative to keeping
     backup files (q.v.).  *Note Version Control::.

Visiting
     Visiting a file means loading its contents into a buffer (q.v.)
     where they can be edited.  *Note Visiting::.

Whitespace
     Whitespace is any run of consecutive formatting characters (space,
     tab, newline, and backspace).

Widening
     Widening is removing any restriction (q.v.) on the current buffer;
     it is the opposite of narrowing (q.v.).  *Note Narrowing::.

Window
     Emacs divides a frame (q.v.) into one or more windows, each of
     which can display the contents of one buffer (q.v.) at any time.
     *Note Screen::, for basic information on how Emacs uses the screen.
     *Note Windows::, for commands to control the use of windows.  Some
     other editors use the term "window" for what we call a `frame'
     (q.v.) in Emacs.

Window System
     A window system is software that operates on a graphical display
     (q.v.), to subdivide the screen so that multiple applications can
     have their] own windows at the same time.  All modern operating
     systems include a window system.

Word Abbrev
     See `abbrev.'

Word Search
     Word search is searching for a sequence of words, considering the
     punctuation between them as insignificant.  *Note Word Search::.

WYSIWYG
     WYSIWYG stands for "What you see is what you get."  Emacs generally
     provides WYSIWYG editing for files of characters; in Enriched mode
     (*note Formatted Text::), it provides WYSIWYG editing for files
     that include text formatting information.

Yanking
     Yanking means reinserting text previously killed.  It can be used
     to undo a mistaken kill, or for copying or moving text.  Some other
     systems call this "pasting."  *Note Yanking::.


File: emacs,  Node: Acknowledgments,  Next: Screen,  Prev: Concept Index,  Up: Top

Acknowledgments
***************

Many people have contributed code included in the Free Software
Foundation's distribution of GNU Emacs.  To show our appreciation for
their public spirit, we list here in alphabetical order those who have
written substantial portions.

   * Per Abrahamsen wrote the customization buffer facilities, as well
     as `double.el' for typing accented characters not normally
     available from the keyboard, `xt-mouse.el' which handles mouse
     commands through Xterm, `gnus-cus.el' which implements
     customization commands for Gnus, `gnus-cite.el', a
     citation-parsing facility for news articles and `cpp.el' which
     hides or highlights parts of C programs according to preprocessor
     conditionals.

   * Tomas Abrahamsson wrote `artist.el', a package for producing ASCII
     art with a mouse or with keyboard keys.

   * Jay K. Adams wrote `jka-compr.el', providing automatic
     decompression and recompression for compressed files.

   * Ralf Angeli wrote `scroll-lock.el', a minor mode which keeps the
     point vertically fixed by scrolling the window when moving up and
     down in the buffer.

   * Joe Arceneaux wrote the original text property implementation, and
     implemented support for X11.

   * Miles Bader wrote `image-file.el', support code for visiting image
     files, `minibuf-eldef.el', a minor mode whereby the default value
     is shown in the minibuffer prompt only when appropriate, and
     `button.el', the library that implements clickable buttons.

   * David Bakhash wrote `strokes.el', a mode for controlling Emacs by
     moving the mouse in particular patterns.

   * Eli Barzilay wrote `calculator.el', a desktop calculator for Emacs.

   * Steven L. Baur wrote `footnote.el' which lets you include
     footnotes in email messages, and `gnus-audio.el' which provides
     sound effects for Gnus.

   * Alexander L. Belikoff, Sergey Berezin, David Edmondson, Andreas
     Fuchs, Mario Lang, Gergely Nagy, Michael Olson, and Alex Schroeder
     contributed ERC, an advanced Internet Relay Chat client.

   * Boaz Ben-Zvi wrote `profile.el', to time Emacs Lisp functions.

   * Anna M. Bigatti wrote `cal-html.el', which produces HTML calendars.

   * Ray Blaak wrote `delphi.el', a major mode for editing Delphi
     (Object Pascal) source code.

   * Jim Blandy wrote Emacs 19's input system, brought its
     configuration and build process up to the GNU coding standards,
     and contributed to the frame support and multi-face support.  Jim
     also wrote `tvi970.el', terminal support for the TeleVideo 970
     terminals.

   * Per Bothner wrote `term.el', a terminal emulator in an Emacs
     buffer.

   * Terrence M. Brannon wrote `landmark.el', a neural-network robot
     that learns landmarks.

   * Frank Bresz wrote `diff.el', a program to display `diff' output.

   * Peter Breton implemented:

        - `dirtrack' which does better tracking of directory changes in
          shell buffers,

        - `filecache.el' which records which directories your files are
          in,

        - `locate.el' which interfaces to the `locate' command,

        - `find-lisp.el', an Emacs Lisp emulation of the `find' program,

        - `net-utils.el', and

        - the "generic mode" feature.

   * Emmanuel Briot wrote `xml.el', an XML parser for Emacs.

   * Kevin Broadey wrote `foldout.el', providing folding extensions to
     Emacs's outline modes.

   * David M. Brown wrote `array.el', for editing arrays and other
     tabular data.

   * W/lodek Bzyl and Ryszard Kubiak wrote `ogonek.el', a package for
     changing the encoding of Polish characters.

   * Bill Carpenter provided `feedmail.el', a package for massaging
     outgoing mail messages and sending them through various popular
     mailers.

   * Per Cederqvist and Inge Wallin wrote `ewoc.el', an Emacs widget for
     manipulating object collections.

   * Hans Chalupsky wrote `advice.el', an overloading mechanism for
     Emacs Lisp functions, and `trace.el', a tracing facility for Emacs
     Lisp.

   * Chris Chase and Carsten Dominik wrote `idlwave.el', an editing mode
     for IDL and WAVE CL.

   * Bob Chassell wrote `texnfo-upd.el' and `makeinfo.el', modes and
     utilities for working with Texinfo files; and `page-ext.el',
     commands for extended page handling.

   * Andrew Choi wrote the Macintosh support code, and contributed
     `mac-win.el', support for the Mac window system.

   * James Clark wrote `sgml-mode.el', a mode for editing SGML
     documents, and contributed to Emacs's dumping procedures.

   * Mike Clarkson wrote `edt.el', an emulation of DEC's EDT editor.

   * Glynn Clements provided `gamegrid.el' and a couple of games that
     use it, Snake and Tetris.

   * Georges Brun-Cottan and Stefan Monnier wrote `easy-mmode.el', a
     package for easy definition of major and minor modes.

   * Andrew Csillag wrote M4 mode (`m4-mode.el').

   * Doug Cutting and Jamie Zawinski wrote `disass.el', a disassembler
     for compiled Emacs Lisp code.

   * Mathias Dahl wrote `image-dired.el', a package for viewing image
     files as "thumbnails."

   * Michael DeCorte wrote `emacs.csh', a C-shell script that starts a
     new Emacs job, or restarts a paused Emacs if one exists.

   * Gary Delp wrote `mailpost.el', an interface between RMAIL and the
     `/usr/uci/post' mailer.

   * Matthieu Devin wrote `delsel.el', a package to make newly-typed
     text replace the current selection.

   * Eric Ding contributed `goto-addr.el',

   * Jan Dja"rv added support for the GTK+ toolkit and X drag-and-drop.

   * Carsten Dominik wrote `reftex.el', a package for setting up labels
     and cross-references in LaTeX documents, and `org.el', a mode for
     maintaining notes, todo lists, and project planning.

   * Scott Draves wrote `tq.el', help functions for maintaining
     transaction queues between Emacs and its subprocesses.

   * Benjamin Drieu wrote `pong.el', an implementation of the classical
     pong game.

   * Viktor Dukhovni wrote support for dumping under SunOS version 4.

   * John Eaton co-wrote Octave mode.

   * Rolf Ebert co-wrote Ada mode (`ada-mode.el').

   * Stephen Eglen implemented `mspools.el', for use with Procmail,
     which tells you which mail folders have mail waiting in them, and
     `iswitchb.el', a feature for incremental reading and completion of
     buffer names.

   * Torbjo"rn Einarsson contributed the  Fortran 90 mode (`f90.el').

   * Tsugutomo Enami co-wrote the support for international character
     sets.

   * Hans Henrik Eriksen wrote `simula.el', a mode for editing SIMULA 87
     code.

   * Michael Ernst wrote `reposition.el', a command for recentering a
     function's source code and preceding comment on the screen.

   * Ata Etemadi wrote `cdl.el', functions for working with Common Data
     Language source code.

   * Frederick Farnbach implemented `morse.el', which converts text to
     Morse code.

   * Oscar Figueiredo wrote EUDC, the Emacs Unified Directory Client,
     which is an interface to directory servers via LDAP, CCSO PH/QI,
     or BBDB; and `ldap.el', the LDAP client interface.

   * Fred Fish wrote the support for dumping COFF executable files.

   * Karl Fogel wrote:

        - `bookmark.el', for creating named placeholders, saving them
          and jumping to them later,

        - `mail-hist.el', a history mechanism for outgoing mail
          messages, and

        - `saveplace.el', for preserving point's location in files
          between editing sessions.

   * Gary Foster wrote `crisp.el', the emulation for CRiSP and Brief
     editors, and `scroll-lock.el' (now `scroll-all.el') a mode for
     scrolling several buffers together.

   * Noah Friedman wrote `rlogin.el', an interface to Rlogin,
     `type-break.el', which reminds you to take periodic breaks from
     typing, and `eldoc-mode', a mode to show the defined parameters or
     the doc string for the Lisp function near point.  With Roland
     McGrath, he wrote `rsz-mini.el', a minor mode to automatically
     resize the minibuffer to fit the text it contains.

   * Keith Gabryelski wrote `hexl.el', a mode for editing binary files.

   * Kevin Gallagher rewrote and enhanced the EDT emulation, and wrote
     `flow-ctrl.el', a package for coping with unsuppressible XON/XOFF
     flow control.

   * Kevin Gallo added multiple-frame support for Windows NT and wrote
     `w32-win.el', support functions for the MS-Windows window system.

   * Juan Leo'n Lahoz Garci'a wrote `wdired.el', a package for
     performing file operations by directly editing Dired buffers.

   * Howard Gayle wrote:

        - the C and lisp code for display tables and case tables,

        - `rot13.el', a command to display the plain-text form of a
          buffer encoded with the Caesar cipher,

        - `case-table.el', code to extend the character set and support
          case tables,

        - much of the support for the ISO-8859 European character sets
          (which includes `iso-ascii.el', `iso-insert.el',
          `iso-swed.el', `latin-1.el', `iso-syntax.el', `iso-transl.el',
          `swedish.el'), and

        - `vt100-led.el', a package for controlling the LED's on
          VT100-compatible terminals.

   * Stephen Gildea made the Emacs quick reference card, and made many
     contributions for `time-stamp.el', a package for maintaining
     last-change time stamps in files.

   * Julien Gilles wrote `gnus-ml.el', a mailing list minor mode for
     Gnus.

   * David Gillespie wrote:

        - The Common Lisp compatibility packages,

        - `Calc', an advanced calculator and mathematical tool,

        - `complete.el', a partial completion mechanism, and

        - `edmacro.el', a package for editing keyboard macros.

   * Bob Glickstein contributed the `sregex.el' feature, a facility for
     writing regexps using a Lisp-like syntax.

   * Boris Goldowsky wrote:

        - `avoid.el', a package to keep the mouse cursor out of the way
          of the text cursor,

        - `shadowfile.el', a package for keeping identical copies of
          files in more than one place,

        - `format.el', a package for reading and writing files in
          various formats,

        - `enriched.el', a package for saving text properties in files,
          and

        - `facemenu.el', a package for specifying faces.

   * Michelangelo Grigni wrote `ffap.el' which visits a file, taking
     the file name from the buffer.

   * Odd Gripenstam wrote `dcl-mode.el' for editing DCL command files.

   * Kai Grossjohann and Michael Albinus wrote the Tramp package, which
     provides transparent remote file editing using rcp, ssh, ftp, and
     other network protocols.

   * Michael Gschwind wrote `iso-cvt.el', a package to convert between
     the ISO 8859-1 character set and the notations for non-ASCII
     characters used by TeX and net tradition, and `latin-2.el', code
     which sets up case-conversion and syntax tables for the ISO Latin-2
     character set.

   * Henry Guillaume wrote `find-file.el', a package to visit files
     related to the currently visited file.

   * Doug Gwyn wrote the portable `alloca' implementation.

   * Ken'ichi Handa implemented most of the support for international
     character sets, and wrote `isearch-x.el', a facility for searching
     non-ASCII text.  Together with Naoto Takahashi, he wrote
     `quail.el', a simple input facility for typing non-ASCII text from
     an ASCII keyboard.  Ken'ichi also wrote `ps-bdf.el', a BDF font
     support for printing non-ASCII text on a PostScript printer.

   * Chris Hanson wrote `netuname.el', a package to use HP-UX's Remote
     File Access facility from Emacs.

   * Jesper Harder wrote `yenc.el', for decoding yenc encoded messages.

   * K. Shane Hartman wrote:

        - `chistory.el' and `echistory.el', packages for browsing
          command history lists,

        - `electric.el' and `helper.el', providing an alternative
          command loop and appropriate help facilities,

        - `emacsbug.el', a package for reporting Emacs bugs,

        - `picture.el', a mode for editing ASCII pictures, and

        - `view.el', a package for perusing files and buffers without
          editing them.

   * John Heidemann wrote `mouse-copy.el' and `mouse-drag.el', which
     provide alternative mouse-based editing and scrolling features.

   * Jon K Hellan wrote `utf7.el', support for mail-safe transformation
     format of Unicode.

   * Markus Heritsch co-wrote Ada mode (`ada-mode.el').

   * Karl Heuer wrote the original blessmail script, implemented the
     `intangible' text property, and rearranged the structure of the
     `Lisp_Object' type to allow for more data bits.

   * Manabu Higashida ported Emacs to MS-DOS.

   * Anders Holst wrote `hippie-exp.el', a versatile completion and
     expansion package.

   * Kurt Hornik co-wrote Octave mode.

   * Tom Houlder wrote `mantemp.el', which generates manual C++
     template instantiations.

   * Joakim Hove wrote `html2text.el', a html to plain text converter.

   * Denis Howe wrote `browse-url.el', a package for invoking a WWW
     browser to display a URL.

   * Lars Magne Ingebrigtsen did a major redesign of the Gnus
     news-reader and wrote many of its parts.

   * Andrew Innes contributed extensively to the MS-Windows support.

   * Seiichiro Inoue improved Emacs's XIM support.

   * Ulf Jasper wrote `icalendar.el', a package for converting Emacs
     diary entries to and from the iCalendar format, and
     `newsticker.el', an RSS and Atom based Newsticker.

   * Kyle Jones wrote `life.el', a package to play Conway's "life" game,
     and `mldrag.el', a package which allows the user to resize windows
     by dragging mode lines and vertical window separators with the
     mouse.

   * Terry Jones wrote `shadow.el', a package for finding potential
     load-path problems when some Lisp file "shadows" another.

   * Simon Josefsson wrote:

        - `dns-mode.el', an editing mode for Domain Name System master
          files,

        - `flow-fill.el', a package for interpreting RFC2646 formatted
          text in messages,

        - `fringe.el', a package for customizing the fringe,

        - `imap.el', an Emacs Lisp library for talking to IMAP servers,

        - `nnimap', the IMAP back-end for Gnus, and

        - `rfc2104.el', a hashed message authentication facility.

   * Arne J/orgensen wrote `latexenc.el', a package to automatically
     guess the correct coding system in LaTeX files.

   * Tomoji Kagatani implemented `smtpmail.el', used for sending out
     mail with SMTP.

   * David Kaufman wrote `yow.c', an essential utility program for the
     hopelessly pinheaded.

   * Henry Kautz wrote `bib-mode.el', a mode for maintaining
     bibliography databases compatible with `refer' (the `troff'
     version) and `lookbib', and `refbib.el', a package to convert
     those databases to the format used by the LaTeX text formatting
     package.

   * Taichi Kawabata added support for Devanagari script and the Indian
     languages.

   * Howard Kaye wrote `sort.el', commands to sort text in Emacs
     buffers.

   * Michael Kifer wrote `ediff.el', an interactive interface to the
     `diff', `patch', and `merge' programs, and Viper, the newest
     emulation for VI.

   * Richard King wrote the first version of `userlock.el' and
     `filelock.c', which provide simple support for multiple users
     editing the same file.  He also wrote the initial version of
     `uniquify.el', a facility to make buffer names unique by adding
     parts of the file's name to the buffer name.

   * Peter Kleiweg wrote `ps-mode.el', a major mode for editing
     PostScript files and running a PostScript interpreter
     interactively from within Emacs.

   * Pavel Kobiakov wrote `flymake.el', a minor mode for performing
     on-the-fly syntax checking.

   * Larry K. Kolodney wrote `cvtmail.c', a program to convert the mail
     directories used by Gosling Emacs into RMAIL format.

   * David M. Koppelman wrote `hi-lock.el', a minor mode for
     interactive automatic highlighting of parts of the buffer text.

   * Koseki Yoshinori wrote `iimage.el', a minor mode for displaying
     inline images.

   * Robert Krawitz wrote the original `xmenu.c', part of Emacs's pop-up
     menu support.

   * Sebastian Kremer wrote Emacs 19's `dired-mode', with contributions
     by Lawrence R. Dodd.  He also wrote `ls-lisp.el', a Lisp emulation
     of the `ls' command for platforms which don't have `ls' as a
     standard program.

   * Geoff Kuenning wrote Emacs 19's `ispell.el', based on work by Ken
     Stevens and others.

   * David Ka*gedal wrote `tempo.el', providing support for easy
     insertion of boilerplate text and other common constructions.

   * Daniel LaLiberte wrote:

        - `edebug.el', a source-level debugger for Emacs Lisp,

        - `cl-specs.el', specifications to help `edebug' debug code
          written using David Gillespie's Common Lisp support,

        - `cust-print.el', a customizable package for printing lisp
          objects,

        - `eval-reg.el', a re-implementation of `eval-region' in Emacs
          Lisp, and

        - `isearch.el', Emacs's incremental search minor mode.

   * James R. Larus wrote `mh-e.el', an interface to the MH mail system.

   * Vinicius Jose Latorre wrote the Emacs printing facilities, as well
     as:

        - `ps-print', a package for pretty-printing Emacs buffers to
          PostScript printers,

        - `delim-col.el', a package to arrange text into columns,

        - `ebnf2ps.el', a package that translates EBNF grammar to a
          syntactic chart that can be printed to a PostScript printer.

   * Frederic Lepied contributed `expand.el', which uses the abbrev
     mechanism for inserting programming constructs.

   * Peter Liljenberg wrote `elint.el', a Lint-style code checker for
     Emacs Lisp programs.

   * Lars Lindberg wrote `msb.el', which provides more flexible menus
     for buffer selection, and rewrote `dabbrev.el'.

   * Anders Lindgren wrote `autorevert.el', a package for automatically
     reverting files visited by Emacs that were changed on disk;
     `cwarn.el', a package to highlight suspicious C and C++
     constructs; and `follow.el', a minor mode to synchronize windows
     that show the same buffer.

   * Thomas Link wrote `filesets.el', a package for handling sets of
     files.

   * Dave Love wrote much of the code dealing with Unicode support and
     Latin-N unification.  He added support for many coding systems,
     including those in `code-pages.el' and the various UTF-7 and
     UTF-16 coding systems.  He also wrote:

        - `autoarg-mode', a global minor mode whereby digit keys supply
          prefix arguments, and `autoarg-kp-mode' which redefines the
          keypad numeric keys to digit arguments,

        - `autoconf.el', a mode for editing Autoconf `configure.in'
          files,

        - `cfengine.el', a mode for editing Cfengine files,

        - `elide-head.el', a package for eliding boilerplate text, such
          as copyright notices, from file headers,

        - `hl-line.el', a package that provides a minor mode for
          highlighting the line in the current window on which point is,

        - `latin-8.el' and `latin-9.el', code which sets up
          case-conversion and syntax tables for the ISO Latin-8 and
          Latin-9 character sets,

        - `latin1-disp.el', a package that lets you display ISO 8859
          characters on Latin-1 terminals by setting up appropriate
          display tables,

        - `refill.el', a mode for automatic paragraph refilling, akin to
          typical word processors,

        - `smiley-ems.el', a facility for displaying smiley faces, and

        - `tool-bar.el', a mode to control the display of the Emacs
          tool bar.

   * Eric Ludlam wrote the Speedbar package and the following packages:

        - `checkdoc.el', for checking doc strings in Emacs Lisp
          programs,

        - `dframe.el', providing dedicatd frame support modes, and

        - `ezimage.el', a generalized way to place images over text.

   * Alan Mackenzie wrote the integrated AWK support in CC Mode.

   * Christopher J. Madsen wrote `decipher.el', a package for cracking
     simple substitution ciphers.

   * Neil M. Mager wrote `appt.el', functions to notify users of their
     appointments.  It finds appointments recorded in the diary files
     generated by Edward M. Reingold's `calendar' package.

   * Ken Manheimer wrote `allout.el', a mode for manipulating and
     formatting outlines, and `icomplete.el', which provides incremental
     completion feedback in the minibuffer.

   * Bill Mann wrote `perl-mode.el', a mode for editing Perl code.

   * Brian Marick and Daniel LaLiberte wrote `hideif.el', support for
     hiding selected code within C `#ifdef' clauses.

   * Simon Marshall wrote `regexp-opt.el', which generates a regular
     expression from a list of strings.  He also extended `comint.el',
     originally written by Olin Shivers.

   * Bengt Martensson, Marc Shapiro, Mike Newton, Aaron Larson, and
     Stefan Schoef, wrote `bibtex.el', a mode for editing BibTeX
     bibliography files.

   * Charlie Martin wrote `autoinsert.el', which provides automatic
     mode-sensitive insertion of text into new files.

   * Thomas May wrote `blackbox.el', a version of the traditional
     blackbox game.

   * Roland McGrath wrote:

        - `compile.el', a package for running compilations in a buffer,
          and then visiting the locations reported in error messages,

        - `etags.el', a package for jumping to function definitions and
          searching or replacing in all the files mentioned in a `TAGS'
          file,

        - `find-dired.el', for using `dired' commands on output from the
          `find' program, with Sebastian Kremer,

        - `map-ynp.el', a general purpose boolean question-asker,

        - `autoload.el', providing semi-automatic maintenance of
          autoload files, and

        - `upd-copyr.el', providing semi-automatic maintenance of
          copyright notices in source code.

   * David Megginson wrote `derived.el', which allows one to define new
     major modes by inheriting key bindings and commands from existing
     major modes.

   * Will Mengarini wrote `repeat.el', a command to repeat the preceding
     command with its arguments.

   * Wayne Mesard wrote `hscroll.el' which does horizontal scrolling
     automatically.

   * Brad Miller wrote `gnus-gl.el', a Gnus interface for GroupLens.

   * Richard Mlynarik wrote:

        - `cl-indent.el', a package for indenting Common Lisp code,

        - `ebuff-menu.el', an "electric" browser for buffer listings,

        - `ehelp.el', bindings for browsing help screens,

        - `rfc822.el', a parser for E-mail addresses in the RFC-822
          format, used in mail messages and news articles,

        - `terminal.el', a terminal emulator for Emacs subprocesses, and

        - `yow.el', an essential utility (try `M-x yow').

   * Gerd Moellmann was the Emacs maintainer from the beginning of
     Emacs 21 development until the release of 21.1.  He wrote:

        - the new display engine for Emacs 21,

        - the asynchronous timers facility (`atimer.c'),

        - the `ebrowse' C++ browser,

        - `jit-lock.el', the Just-In-Time font-lock support mode,

        - `tooltip.el', a package for displaying tooltips, and

        - `authors.el' package for maintaining the `AUTHORS' files.

   * Stefan Monnier added support for Arch, Subversion, and Meta-CVS to
     VC, and re-wrote much of the Emacs server to use the built-in
     networking primitives.  He also wrote:

        - `PCL-CVS', a directory-level front end to the CVS version
          control system,

        - `reveal.el', a minor mode for automatically revealing
          invisible text,

        - `smerge-mode.el', a minor mode for resolving `diff3'
          conflicts, and

        - `diff-mode.el', a mode for viewing and editing context diffs.

   * Morioka Tomohiko wrote several packages for MIME support in Gnus
     and elsewhere.

   * Sen Nagata wrote `crm.el', a package for reading multiple strings
     with completion, and `rfc2368.el', support for `mailto:' URLs.

   * Erik Naggum wrote the time-conversion functions.  He also wrote
     `disp-table.el', a package for dealing with display tables,
     `latin-4.el' and `latin-5.el', code which sets up case-conversion
     and syntax tables for the ISO Latin-4 and Latin-5 character sets,
     `mailheader.el', a package for parsing email headers, and
     `parse-time.el', a package for parsing time strings.

   * Thomas Neumann and Eric Raymond wrote `makefile.el' (now
     `make-mode.el'), a mode for editing makefiles.

   * Thien-Thi Nguyen and Dan Nicolaescu wrote `hideshow.el', a minor
     mode for selectively displaying blocks of text.

   * Dan Nicolaescu wrote `romanian.el', support for editing Romanian
     text, and `iris-ansi.el', support for running Emacs on SGI's
     `xwsh' and `winterm' terminal emulators.

   * Jurgen Nickelsen wrote `ws-mode.el', providing WordStar emulation.

   * Hrvoje Niksic wrote `savehist.el', for saving the minibuffer
     history between Emacs sessions.

   * Jeff Norden wrote `kermit.el', a package to help the Kermit dialup
     communications program run comfortably in an Emacs shell buffer.

   * Andrew Norman wrote `ange-ftp.el', providing transparent FTP
     support.

   * Alexandre Oliva wrote `gnus-mlspl.el', a group params-based mail
     splitting mechanism.

   * Takaaki Ota wrote `table.el', a package for creating and editing
     embedded text-based tables.

   * Pieter E. J. Pareit wrote `mixal-mode.el', an editing mode for the
     MIX assembly language.

   * David Pearson contributed `quickurl.el', a simple method of
     inserting a URL into the current buffer based on text at point;
     `5x5.el', a game to fill all squares on the field.

   * Jeff Peck wrote:

        - `emacstool.c', support for running Emacs under SunView/Sun
          Windows,

        - `sun.el', key bindings for sunterm keys,

        - `sun-curs.el', cursor definitions for Sun Windows, and

        - `sun-fns.el' and `sun-mouse.el', providing mouse support for
          Sun Windows.

   * Damon Anton Permezel wrote `hanoi.el', an animated demonstration of
     the "Towers of Hanoi" puzzle.

   * William M. Perry wrote `mailcap.el', a MIME media types
     configuration facility, `mwheel.el', a package for supporting
     mouse wheels, and the URL package.

   * Per Persson wrote `gnus-vm.el', the VM interface for Gnus.

   * Jens Petersen wrote `find-func.el', which makes it easy to find
     the source code for an Emacs Lisp function or variable.

   * Daniel Pfeiffer wrote:

        - `conf-mode.el', a major mode for editing configuration files,

        - `copyright.el', a package for updating copyright notices in
          files,

        - `executable.el', a package for executing interpreter scripts,

        - `sh-script.el', a mode for editing shell scripts,

        - `skeleton.el', implementing a concise language for writing
          statement skeletons, and

        - `two-column.el', a minor mode for simultaneous two-column
          editing.

     Daniel also rewrote `apropos.el', originally written by Joe Wells,
     and, together with Jim Blandy, co-authored `wyse50.el', support for
     Wyse 50 terminals.

   * Richard L. Pieri wrote `pop3.el', a Post Office Protocol (RFC
     1460) interface for Emacs.

   * Fred Pierresteguy and Paul Reilly made Emacs work with X Toolkit
     widgets.

   * Christian Plaunt wrote `soundex.el', an implementation of the
     Soundex algorithm for comparing English words by their
     pronunciation.

   * David Ponce wrote:

        - `recentf.el', a package that puts a menu of recently visited
          files in the Emacs menu bar,

        - `ruler-mode.el', a minor mode for displaying a ruler in the
          header line, and

        - `tree-widget.el', a package to display hierarchical data
          structures.

   * Francesco A. Potorti wrote `cmacexp.el', providing a command which
     runs the C preprocessor on a region of a file and displays the
     results.  He also expanded and redesigned the `etags' program.

   * Michael D. Prange and Steven A. Wood wrote `fortran.el', a mode for
     editing FORTRAN code.

   * Mukesh Prasad contributed `vmsproc.el', a facility for running
     asynchronous subprocesses on VMS.

   * Marko Rahamaa wrote `latin-3.el', code which sets up
     case-conversion and syntax tables for the ISO Latin-3 character
     set.

   * Ashwin Ram wrote `refer.el', commands to look up references in
     bibliography files by keyword.

   * Eric S. Raymond wrote:

        - `vc.el', an interface to the RCS and SCCS source code version
          control systems, with Paul Eggert,

        - `gud.el', a package for running source-level debuggers like
          GDB and SDB in Emacs,

        - `asm-mode.el', a mode for editing assembly language code,

        - `AT386.el', terminal support package for IBM's AT keyboards,

        - `cookie1.el', support for "fortune-cookie" programs like
          `yow.el' and `spook.el',

        - `finder.el', a package for finding Emacs Lisp packages by
          keyword and topic,

        - `keyswap.el', code to swap the <BS> and <DEL> keys,

        - `loadhist.el', functions for loading and unloading Emacs
          features,

        - `lisp-mnt.el', functions for working with the special headers
          used in Emacs Lisp library files, and

        - code to set and make use of the `load-history' lisp variable,
          which records the source file from which each lisp function
          loaded into Emacs came.

   * Edward M. Reingold wrote the extensive calendar and diary support
     (try `M-x calendar'), with contributions from Stewart Clamen,
     Nachum Dershowitz, Paul Eggert, Steve Fisk, Michael Kifer, and
     Lara Rios.  Andy Oram contributed to its documentation.  Reingold
     has also contributed to `tex-mode.el', a mode for editing TeX
     files, as have William F. Schelter, Dick King, Stephen Gildea,
     Michael Prange, and Jacob Gore.

   * David Reitter wrote `mailclient.el' which can send mail via the
     system's designated mail client.

   * Alex Rezinsky contributed `which-func.el', a mode that shows the
     name of the current function in the mode line.

   * Rob Riepel contributed `tpu-edt.el' and its associated files,
     providing an emulation of the VMS TPU text editor emulating the
     VMS EDT editor, and `vt-control.el', providing some control
     functions for the DEC VT line of terminals.

   * Nick Roberts wrote `gdb-ui.el', the graphical user interface to
     GDB.

   * Roland B. Roberts contributed much of the VMS support distributed
     with Emacs 19, along with Joseph M. Kelsey, and `vms-pmail.el',
     support for using Emacs within VMS MAIL.

   * John Robinson wrote `bg-mouse.el', support for the mouse on the BBN
     Bitgraph terminal.

   * Danny Roozendaal implemented `handwrite.el', which converts text
     into "handwriting."

   * William Rosenblatt wrote `float.el', implementing a floating-point
     numeric type using Lisp cons cells and integers.

   * Guillermo J. Rozas wrote `scheme.el', a mode for editing Scheme and
     DSSSL code, and `fakemail.c', an interface to the System V mailer.

   * Ivar Rummelhoff provided `winner.el', which records recent window
     configurations so you can move back to them.

   * Jason Rumney has ported the Emacs 21 display engine to MS-Windows,
     and contributed extensively to the MS-Windows port of Emacs.

   * Wolfgang Rupprecht contributed Emacs 19's floating-point support
     (including `float-sup.el' and `floatfns.c'), and `sup-mouse.el',
     support for the Supdup mouse on lisp machines.

   * Kevin Ryde wrote `info-xref.el', a library for checking references
     in Info files.

   * James B. Salem and Brewster Kahle wrote `completion.el', providing
     dynamic word completion.

   * Masahiko Sato wrote `vip.el', an emulation of the VI editor.

   * Holger Schauer wrote `fortune.el', a package for using fortune in
     message signatures.

   * William Schelter wrote `telnet.el', support for `telnet' sessions
     within Emacs.

   * Ralph Schleicher contributed `battery.el', a package for displaying
     laptop computer battery status, and `info-look.el', a package for
     looking up Info documentation for symbols in the buffer.

   * Michael Schmidt and Tom Perrine wrote `modula2.el', a mode for
     editing Modula-2 code, based on work by Mick Jordan and Peter
     Robinson.

   * Ronald S. Schnell wrote `dunnet.el', a text adventure game.

   * Philippe Schnoebelen wrote `gomoku.el', a Go Moku game played
     against Emacs, and `mpuz.el', a multiplication puzzle.

   * Jan Schormann wrote `solitaire.el', an Emacs Lisp implementation of
     the Solitaire game.

   * Alex Schroeder wrote `ansi-color.el', a package for translating
     ANSI color escape sequences to Emacs faces, and `sql.el', a package
     for interactively running an SQL interpreter in an Emacs buffer.

   * Randal Schwartz wrote `pp.el', a pretty-printer for lisp objects.

   * Oliver Seidel wrote `todo-mode.el', a package for maintaining
     `TODO' list files.

   * Manuel Serrano contributed the Flyspell package that does spell
     checking as you type.

   * Hovav Shacham wrote `windmove.el', a set of commands for selecting
     windows based on their geometrical position on the frame.

   * Stanislav Shalunov wrote `uce.el', for responding to unsolicited
     commercial email.

   * Richard Sharman contributed `hilit-chg.el', which uses colors to
     show recent editing changes.

   * Olin Shivers wrote:

        - `comint.el', a library for modes running interactive
          command-line- oriented subprocesses,

        - `cmuscheme.el', for running inferior Scheme processes,

        - `inf-lisp.el', for running inferior Lisp process, and

        - `shell.el', for running inferior shells.

   * Espen Skoglund wrote `pascal.el', a mode for editing Pascal code.

   * Rick Sladkey wrote `backquote.el', a lisp macro for creating
     mostly-constant data.

   * Lynn Slater wrote `help-macro.el', a macro for writing interactive
     help for key bindings.

   * Chris Smith wrote `icon.el', a mode for editing Icon code.

   * David Smith wrote `ielm.el', a mode for interacting with the Emacs
     Lisp interpreter as a subprocess.

   * Paul D. Smith wrote `snmp-mode.el'.

   * William Sommerfeld wrote `scribe.el', a mode for editing Scribe
     files, and `server.el', a package allowing programs to send files
     to an extant Emacs job to be edited.

   * Andre Spiegel made many contributions to the Emacs Version Control
     package, and in particular made it support multiple back ends.

   * Michael Staats wrote `pc-select.el', which rebinds keys for
     selecting regions to follow many other systems.

   * Richard Stallman invented Emacs, and then wrote:

        - `easymenu.el', a facility for defining Emacs menus,

        - `menu-bar.el', the Emacs menu bar support code,

        - `paren.el', a package to make matching parentheses stand out
          in color, and

        - most of the rest of Emacs code.

   * Sam Steingold wrote `gulp.el', a facility for asking package
     maintainers for updated versions of their packages via e-mail, and
     `midnight.el', a package for running a command every midnight.

   * Ake Stenhoff and Lars Lindberg wrote `imenu.el', a framework for
     browsing indices made from buffer contents.

   * Peter Stephenson contributed `vcursor.el', which implements a
     "virtual cursor" that you can move with the keyboard and use for
     copying text.

   * Ken Stevens wrote the initial version of `ispell.el' and maintains
     that package since Ispell 3.1 release.

   * Jonathan Stigelman wrote `hilit19.el', a package providing
     automatic highlighting in source code buffers, mail readers, and
     other contexts.

   * Kim F. Storm made many improvements to the Emacs display engine,
     process support, and networking support. He also wrote:

        - `bindat.el', a package for encoding and decoding binary data.

        - `cua.el', which allows Emacs to emulate the standard CUA key
          bindings.

        - `ido.el', a package for selecting buffers and files quickly.

        - `kmacro.el', the keyboard macro facility.

   * Martin Stjernholm co-authored CC Mode, a major editing mode for C,
     C++, Objective-C, Java, Pike, CORBA IDL, and AWK code.

   * Steve Strassman did not write `spook.el', and even if he did, he
     really didn't mean for you to use it in an anarchistic way.

   * Olaf Sylvester wrote `bs.el', a package for manipulating Emacs
     buffers.

   * Tibor S<imko and Milan Zamazal wrote `slovak.el', support for
     editing text in Slovak language.

   * Naoto Takahashi wrote `utf-8.el', support for encoding and
     decoding UTF-8 data.

   * Luc Teirlinck wrote `help-at-pt.el', providing local help through
     the keyboard.

   * Jean-Philippe Theberge wrote `thumbs.el', a package for viewing
     image files as "thumbnails."

   * Jens T. Berger Thielemann wrote `word-help.el', which is part of
     the basis for `info-look.el'.

   * Spencer Thomas wrote the original `dabbrev.el', providing a command
     which completes the partial word before point, based on other
     nearby words for which it is a prefix.  He also wrote the original
     dumping support.

   * Jim Thompson wrote `ps-print.el', which converts Emacs text to
     PostScript.

   * Tom Tromey and Chris Lindblad wrote `tcl.el', a major mode for
     editing Tcl/Tk source files and running a Tcl interpreter as an
     Emacs subprocess.

   * Eli Tziperman wrote `rmail-spam-filter.el', a spam filter for
     RMAIL.

   * Daiki Ueno wrote `starttls.el', support for Transport Layer
     Security protocol, and the PGG package adding GnuPG and PGP
     support.

   * Masanobu Umeda wrote:

        - GNUS, a feature-full reader for Usenet news,

        - `prolog.el', a mode for editing Prolog code,

        - `rmailsort.el', a package for sorting messages in RMAIL
          folders,

        - `metamail.el', an interface to the Metamail program,

        - `gnus-kill.el', the Kill File mode for Gnus,

        - `gnus-mh.el', an mh-e interface for Gnus,

        - `gnus-msg.el', a mail and post interface for Gnus,

        - `tcp.el', emulation of the `open-network-stream' function for
          some Emacs configurations which lack it, and

        - `timezone.el', providing functions for dealing with time
          zones.

   * Rajesh Vaidheeswarran wrote `whitespace.el', a package that
     detects and cleans up excess whitespace in a file.

   * Neil W. Van Dyke wrote `webjump.el', a "hot links" package.

   * Didier Verna contributed `rect.el', a package of functions for
     operations on rectangle regions of text.

   * Ulrik Vieth implemented `meta-mode.el', for editing MetaFont code.

   * Geoffrey Voelker wrote the Windows NT support.  He also wrote
     `dos-w32.el', functions shared by the MS-DOS and MS-Windows ports
     of Emacs, and `w32-fns.el', MS-Windows specific support functions.

   * Johan Vromans wrote `forms.el' and its associated files, a mode
     for filling in forms.

   * Colin Walters wrote `ibuffer.el', a Dired-like major mode for
     operating on buffers.

   * Barry Warsaw wrote:

        - `assoc.el', a set of utility functions for working with
          association lists,

        - `cc-mode.el', a major mode for editing C, C++, and Java code,
          based on earlier work by Dave Detlefs, Stewart Clamen, and
          Richard Stallman,

        - `elp.el', a new profiler for Emacs Lisp programs.

        - `man.el', a mode for reading UNIX manual pages,

        - `regi.el', providing an AWK-like functionality for use in lisp
          programs,

        - `reporter.el', providing customizable bug reporting for lisp
          packages, and

        - `supercite.el', a minor mode for quoting sections of mail
          messages and news articles.

   * Morten Welinder introduced face support into the MS-DOS port of
     Emacs, and also wrote:

        - `desktop.el', facilities for saving some of Emacs's state
          between sessions,

        - `timer.el', the Emacs facility to run commands at a given
          time or frequency, or when Emacs is idle, and its C-level
          support code,

        - `pc-win.el', the MS-DOS "window-system" support,

        - `internal.el', an "internal terminal" emulator for the MS-DOS
          port of Emacs,

        - `arc-mode.el', the mode for editing compressed archives,

        - `s-region.el', commands for setting the region using the
          shift key and motion commands, and

        - `dos-fns.el', functions for use under MS-DOS.

     He also helped port Emacs to MS-DOS.

   * Joseph Brian Wells wrote:

        - `apropos.el', a command to find commands, functions, and
          variables whose names contain matches for a regular
          expression,

        - `resume.el', support for processing command-line arguments
          after resuming a suspended Emacs job, and

        - `mail-extr.el', a package for extracting names and addresses
          from mail headers, with contributions from Jamie Zawinski.

   * Rodney Whitby and Reto Zimmermann wrote `vhdl-mode.el', a major
     mode for editing VHDL source code.

   * John Wiegley wrote `align.el', a set of commands for aligning text
     according to regular-expression based rules; `timeclock.el', a
     package for keeping track of time spent on projects;
     `pcomplete.el', a programmable completion facility; and `eshell',
     a command shell implemented entirely in Emacs Lisp.

   * Ed Wilkinson wrote `b2m.c', a program to convert mail files from
     RMAIL format to Unix `mbox' format.

   * Mike Williams wrote `mouse-sel.el', providing enhanced mouse
     selection, and `thingatpt.el', a library of functions for finding
     the "thing" (word, line, s-expression) containing point.

   * Bill Wohler wrote the Emacs interface to the MH mail system.

   * Dale R. Worley wrote `emerge.el', a package for interactively
     merging two versions of a file.

   * Francis J. Wright wrote `WoMan', a package for browsing manual
     pages without the `man' command.

   * Tom Wurgler wrote `emacs-lock.el', which makes it harder to exit
     with valuable buffers unsaved.

   * Masatake Yamato wrote `ld-script.el', an editing mode for GNU
     linker scripts, and contributed subword handling in CC mode.

   * Jonathan Yavner wrote `testcover.el', a package for keeping track
     of the testing status of Emacs Lisp code, and the SES spreadsheet
     package.

   * Ryan Yeske wrote `rcirc.el' a simple Internet Relay Chat client.

   * Ilya Zakharevich and Bob Olson contributed `cperl-mode.el', a major
     mode for editing Perl code.  Ilya Zakharevich also wrote `tmm.el',
     a mode for accessing the Emacs menu bar on a text-mode terminal.

   * Milan Zamazal wrote `czech.el', support for editing Czech text,
     `glasses.el', a package for easier reading of source code which
     uses illegible identifier names such as `cantReadThisVariable', and
     `tildify.el', commands for adding hard spaces to text, TeX, and
     SGML/HTML files.

   * Victor Zandy contributed `zone.el', a package for people who like
     to zone out in front of Emacs.

   * Eli Zaretskii made many standard Emacs features work on MS-DOS.
     He also wrote `tty-colors.el', which implements transparent
     mapping of X colors to tty colors, and (together with Kenichi
     Handa) `codepage.el', a package for editing text encoded in
     DOS/Windows code pages.

   * Jamie Zawinski wrote:

        - Emacs 19's optimizing byte compiler, with Hallvard Furuseth,

        - much of the support for faces and X selections,

        - `mailabbrev.el', a package providing automatic expansion of
          mail aliases, and

        - `tar-mode.el', providing simple viewing and editing commands
          for tar files.

   * Andrew Zhilin created the Emacs icons used beginning with Emacs 22.

   * Shenghuo Zhu wrote:

        - `binhex.el', a package for reading and writing binhex files,

        - `mm-partial.el', message/partial support for MIME messages,

        - `rfc1843.el', an HZ decoding package,

        - `uudecode.el', an Emacs Lisp decoder for uuencoded data,

        - `webmail.el', an interface to Web mail.

   * Ian T. Zimmerman wrote `gametree.el'.

   * Neal Ziring and Felix S. T. Wu wrote `vi.el', an emulation of the
     VI text editor.

   * Detlev Zundel wrote `re-builder.el', a package for building regexps
     with visual feedback.


   Others too numerous to mention have reported and fixed bugs, and
added features to many parts of Emacs.  (Many are mentioned in the
`ChangeLog' files which are summarized in the file `AUTHORS' in the
distribution.)  We thank them for their generosity as well.

   This list intended to mention every contributor of a major package or
feature we currently distribute; if you know of someone we have omitted,
please report that as a manual bug.


File: emacs,  Node: Key Index,  Next: Option Index,  Prev: Glossary,  Up: Top

Key (Character) Index
*********************

[index]
* Menu:

* ! (Dired):                             Shell Commands in Dired.
                                                              (line   6)
* " (TeX mode):                          TeX Editing.         (line  28)
* # (Dired):                             Flagging Many Files. (line  38)
* $ (Dired):                             Hiding Subdirectories.
                                                              (line  10)
* % C (Dired):                           Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  33)
* % d (Dired):                           Flagging Many Files. (line  59)
* % g (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line 112)
* % H (Dired):                           Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  34)
* % l (Dired):                           Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  27)
* % m (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line 103)
* % R (Dired):                           Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  32)
* % S (Dired):                           Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  35)
* % u (Dired):                           Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  21)
* & (Dired):                             Flagging Many Files. (line  32)
* * ! (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  49)
* * % (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line 103)
* * * (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  22)
* * / (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  30)
* * ? (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  54)
* * @ (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  26)
* * c (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  81)
* * C-n (Dired):                         Marks vs Flags.      (line  67)
* * C-p (Dired):                         Marks vs Flags.      (line  72)
* * DEL (Dired):                         Marks vs Flags.      (line  44)
* * m (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  17)
* * s (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  35)
* * t (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  76)
* * u (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  40)
* + (Dired):                             Misc Dired Features. (line   6)
* . (Calendar mode):                     Specified Dates.     (line  37)
* . (Dired):                             Flagging Many Files. (line  46)
* . (Rmail):                             Rmail Scrolling.     (line  27)
* / (Rmail):                             Rmail Scrolling.     (line  27)
* < (Calendar mode):                     Scroll Calendar.     (line  28)
* < (Dired):                             Subdirectory Motion. (line  30)
* < (Rmail):                             Rmail Motion.        (line  74)
* <TAB> (Help mode):                     Help Mode.           (line  42)
* = (Dired):                             Comparison in Dired. (line  11)
* > (Calendar mode):                     Scroll Calendar.     (line  28)
* > (Dired):                             Subdirectory Motion. (line  35)
* > (Rmail):                             Rmail Motion.        (line  74)
* ^ (Dired):                             Dired Visiting.      (line  45)
* a (Calendar mode):                     Holidays.            (line  52)
* A (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line 119)
* a (Rmail):                             Rmail Labels.        (line  34)
* AltGr (MS-Windows):                    Windows Keyboard.    (line  78)
* B (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line 114)
* b (Rmail):                             Rmail Basics.        (line  35)
* BACKSPACE:                             Deletion.            (line  43)
* BS:                                    Deletion.            (line  43)
* BS (MS-DOS):                           MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line   6)
* C (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  34)
* c (Rmail):                             Rmail Reply.         (line 104)
* C-/:                                   Undo.                (line  20)
* C-<SPC> C-<SPC>:                       Momentary Mark.      (line  12)
* C-<TAB>:                               File Name Cache.     (line   6)
* C-@:                                   Setting Mark.        (line  71)
* C-\:                                   Select Input Method. (line  28)
* C-]:                                   Quitting.            (line  66)
* C-_:                                   Undo.                (line  20)
* C-_ (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line 120)
* C-a:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* C-a (Calendar mode):                   Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  11)
* C-b:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* C-b (Calendar mode):                   Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* C-BREAK (MS-DOS):                      MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  12)
* C-c ' (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c . (C mode):                        Custom C Indent.     (line  26)
* C-c . (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c . (Shell mode):                    Shell Ring.          (line  23)
* C-c / (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c / (SGML mode):                     HTML Mode.           (line  52)
* C-c 8 (SGML mode):                     HTML Mode.           (line  57)
* C-c ; (Fortran mode):                  Fortran Comments.    (line  79)
* C-c < (GUD):                           Commands of GUD.     (line  80)
* C-c < (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c <DEL> (C Mode):                    Hungry Delete.       (line  14)
* C-c <DELETE> (C Mode):                 Hungry Delete.       (line  20)
* C-c > (GUD):                           Commands of GUD.     (line  85)
* C-c > (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c ? (SGML mode):                     HTML Mode.           (line  48)
* C-c @ (Outline minor mode):            Outline Mode.        (line  30)
* C-c @ C-h:                             Hideshow.            (line  16)
* C-c @ C-l:                             Hideshow.            (line  16)
* C-c @ C-M-h:                           Hideshow.            (line  16)
* C-c @ C-M-s:                           Hideshow.            (line  16)
* C-c @ C-r:                             Hideshow.            (line  16)
* C-c @ C-s:                             Hideshow.            (line  16)
* C-c [ (Enriched mode):                 Format Indentation.  (line  51)
* C-c \ (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c ] (Enriched mode):                 Format Indentation.  (line  51)
* C-c ^ (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c ` (Picture mode):                  Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* C-c C-<DEL> (C Mode):                  Hungry Delete.       (line  14)
* C-c C-<DELETE> (C Mode):               Hungry Delete.       (line  20)
* C-c C-\ (C mode):                      Other C Commands.    (line  57)
* C-c C-\ (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  78)
* C-c C-a (C mode):                      Electric C.          (line  29)
* C-c C-a (F90 mode):                    Fortran Motion.      (line  28)
* C-c C-a (Mail mode):                   Mail Aliases.        (line  81)
* C-c C-a (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  80)
* C-c C-a (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  27)
* C-c C-a (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  43)
* C-c C-b (Outline mode):                Outline Motion.      (line  36)
* C-c C-b (Picture mode):                Insert in Picture.   (line  48)
* C-c C-b (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  36)
* C-c C-b (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line 111)
* C-c C-b (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line  46)
* C-c C-c (C mode):                      Multi-Line Comments. (line  14)
* C-c C-c (Edit Abbrevs):                Editing Abbrevs.     (line  42)
* C-c C-c (Edit Tab Stops):              Tab Stops.           (line  10)
* C-c C-c (Mail mode):                   Mail Sending.        (line  16)
* C-c C-c (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  58)
* C-c C-c (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  68)
* C-c C-c (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line 148)
* C-c C-d (C Mode):                      Hungry Delete.       (line  20)
* C-c C-d (Fortran mode):                ForIndent Commands.  (line  29)
* C-c C-d (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  68)
* C-c C-d (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  63)
* C-c C-d (Picture mode):                Basic Picture.       (line  43)
* C-c C-d (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  42)
* C-c C-e (C mode):                      Other C Commands.    (line  45)
* C-c C-e (F90 mode):                    Fortran Motion.      (line  21)
* C-c C-e (LaTeX mode):                  LaTeX Editing.       (line  28)
* C-c C-e (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  58)
* C-c C-e (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line 101)
* C-c C-f (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  97)
* C-c C-f (Outline mode):                Outline Motion.      (line  36)
* C-c C-f (Picture mode):                Insert in Picture.   (line  48)
* C-c C-f (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  31)
* C-c C-f (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line 105)
* C-c C-f (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line 109)
* C-c C-f C-b (Mail mode):               Header Editing.      (line  32)
* C-c C-f C-c (Mail mode):               Header Editing.      (line  32)
* C-c C-f C-f (Mail mode):               Header Editing.      (line  32)
* C-c C-f C-s (Mail mode):               Header Editing.      (line  32)
* C-c C-f C-t (Mail mode):               Header Editing.      (line  32)
* C-c C-i (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  52)
* C-c C-i (Mail mode):                   Mail Mode Misc.      (line  46)
* C-c C-i (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  76)
* C-c C-j (Term mode):                   Term Mode.           (line  13)
* C-c C-k (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  70)
* C-c C-k (Picture mode):                Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  27)
* C-c C-k (Term mode):                   Term Mode.           (line  16)
* C-c C-k (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line  77)
* C-c C-l (C mode):                      Electric C.          (line  19)
* C-c C-l (Calendar mode):               General Calendar.    (line  27)
* C-c C-l (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  35)
* C-c C-l (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  70)
* C-c C-l (Shell mode):                  Shell Ring.          (line  26)
* C-c C-l (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line  77)
* C-c C-n (C mode):                      Motion in C.         (line  35)
* C-c C-n (Fortran mode):                Fortran Motion.      (line  11)
* C-c C-n (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  47)
* C-c C-n (Outline mode):                Outline Motion.      (line  29)
* C-c C-n (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  12)
* C-c C-n (Shell mode):                  Shell History Copying.
                                                              (line   9)
* C-c C-o (LaTeX mode):                  LaTeX Editing.       (line  17)
* C-c C-o (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  92)
* C-c C-o (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  83)
* C-c C-p (C mode):                      Motion in C.         (line  30)
* C-c C-p (Fortran mode):                Fortran Motion.      (line  15)
* C-c C-p (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  56)
* C-c C-p (Outline mode):                Outline Motion.      (line  29)
* C-c C-p (Shell mode):                  Shell History Copying.
                                                              (line   6)
* C-c C-p (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line  46)
* C-c C-q (C mode):                      C Indent.            (line   9)
* C-c C-q (Mail mode):                   Citing Mail.         (line  41)
* C-c C-q (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  88)
* C-c C-q (Term mode):                   Paging in Term.      (line   9)
* C-c C-q (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line  46)
* C-c C-r (Fortran mode):                Fortran Columns.     (line  23)
* C-c C-r (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  62)
* C-c C-r (Mail mode):                   Citing Mail.         (line  36)
* C-c C-r (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  96)
* C-c C-r (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line  87)
* C-c C-s (C mode):                      Other C Commands.    (line  76)
* C-c C-s (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  41)
* C-c C-s (Mail mode):                   Mail Sending.        (line  16)
* C-c C-s (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  63)
* C-c C-s (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  89)
* C-c C-t (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  74)
* C-c C-t (Mail mode):                   Mail Mode Misc.      (line  21)
* C-c C-t (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  80)
* C-c C-t (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  16)
* C-c C-u (C mode):                      Motion in C.         (line  20)
* C-c C-u (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  90)
* C-c C-u (Outline mode):                Outline Motion.      (line  36)
* C-c C-u (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  60)
* C-c C-v (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  62)
* C-c C-v (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line  46)
* C-c C-w (Fortran mode):                Fortran Columns.     (line  42)
* C-c C-w (Mail mode):                   Mail Mode Misc.      (line  24)
* C-c C-w (Picture mode):                Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  27)
* C-c C-w (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  65)
* C-c C-x:                               Foldout.             (line  39)
* C-c C-x (Picture mode):                Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  38)
* C-c C-x (Shell mode):                  Shell Ring.          (line  20)
* C-c C-y (Mail mode):                   Citing Mail.         (line  20)
* C-c C-y (Picture mode):                Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  38)
* C-c C-z:                               Foldout.             (line  16)
* C-c C-z (Shell mode):                  Shell Mode.          (line  73)
* C-c RET (Shell mode):                  Shell History Copying.
                                                              (line  12)
* C-c TAB (Picture mode):                Tabs in Picture.     (line  25)
* C-c TAB (SGML mode):                   HTML Mode.           (line  66)
* C-c TAB (TeX mode):                    TeX Print.           (line 138)
* C-c { (TeX mode):                      TeX Editing.         (line  52)
* C-c } (TeX mode):                      TeX Editing.         (line  52)
* C-d:                                   Deletion.            (line  34)
* C-d (Rmail):                           Rmail Deletion.      (line  31)
* C-d (Shell mode):                      Shell Mode.          (line  37)
* C-Down-Mouse-1:                        Buffer Menus.        (line  16)
* C-e:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* C-e (Calendar mode):                   Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  12)
* C-f:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* C-f (Calendar mode):                   Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* C-g:                                   Quitting.            (line  30)
* C-g (MS-DOS):                          MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  12)
* C-h:                                   Help.                (line   6)
* C-h .:                                 Help Echo.           (line  15)
* C-h a:                                 Apropos.             (line  31)
* C-h b:                                 Misc Help.           (line  42)
* C-h c:                                 Key Help.            (line   6)
* C-h C:                                 Coding Systems.      (line  43)
* C-h C-\:                               Select Input Method. (line  14)
* C-h C-c:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h C-d:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h C-e:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h C-f:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h C-h:                               Help.                (line  13)
* C-h C-n:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h C-p:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h C-t:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h C-w:                               Help Files.          (line  12)
* C-h d:                                 Apropos.             (line  81)
* C-h e:                                 Misc Help.           (line  33)
* C-h f:                                 Name Help.           (line   6)
* C-h F:                                 Name Help.           (line  55)
* C-h h:                                 International Chars. (line  17)
* C-h i:                                 Misc Help.           (line   6)
* C-h I:                                 Select Input Method. (line  14)
* C-h k:                                 Key Help.            (line  12)
* C-h K:                                 Key Help.            (line  16)
* C-h L:                                 Language Environments.
                                                              (line  74)
* C-h l:                                 Misc Help.           (line  28)
* C-h m:                                 Misc Help.           (line  37)
* C-h p:                                 Library Keywords.    (line   6)
* C-h S:                                 Info Lookup.         (line   6)
* C-h s:                                 Syntax.              (line  18)
* C-h S:                                 Misc Help.           (line  22)
* C-h t:                                 Basic.               (line   6)
* C-h v:                                 Name Help.           (line  40)
* C-h w:                                 Key Help.            (line  25)
* C-j:                                   Basic Indent.        (line  30)
* C-j (and major modes):                 Major Modes.         (line   6)
* C-j (MS-DOS):                          MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  31)
* C-j (TeX mode):                        TeX Editing.         (line  59)
* C-k:                                   Killing by Lines.    (line  12)
* C-k (Gnus):                            Summary of Gnus.     (line  40)
* C-l:                                   Scrolling.           (line  46)
* C-M-%:                                 Query Replace.       (line  24)
* C-M-.:                                 Find Tag.            (line  76)
* C-M-/:                                 Dynamic Abbrevs.     (line  12)
* C-M-<SPC>:                             Expressions.         (line  68)
* C-M-@:                                 Expressions.         (line  68)
* C-M-\:                                 Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  37)
* C-M-a:                                 Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* C-M-b:                                 Expressions.         (line  37)
* C-M-c:                                 Recursive Edit.      (line  12)
* C-M-d:                                 Moving by Parens.    (line  37)
* C-M-d (Dired):                         Subdirectory Motion. (line  26)
* C-M-e:                                 Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* C-M-f:                                 Expressions.         (line  37)
* C-M-h:                                 Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* C-M-h (C mode):                        Moving by Defuns.    (line  32)
* C-M-j:                                 Multi-Line Comments. (line   6)
* C-M-j (Fortran mode):                  ForIndent Commands.  (line  24)
* C-M-k:                                 Expressions.         (line  54)
* C-M-l:                                 Scrolling.           (line 103)
* C-M-l (Rmail):                         Rmail Make Summary.  (line  37)
* C-M-l (Shell mode):                    Shell Mode.          (line  96)
* C-M-n:                                 Moving by Parens.    (line  25)
* C-M-n (Dired):                         Subdirectory Motion. (line  15)
* C-M-n (Fortran mode):                  Fortran Motion.      (line  33)
* C-M-n (Rmail):                         Rmail Labels.        (line  42)
* C-M-o:                                 Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  17)
* C-M-p:                                 Moving by Parens.    (line  25)
* C-M-p (Dired):                         Subdirectory Motion. (line  19)
* C-M-p (Fortran mode):                  Fortran Motion.      (line  41)
* C-M-p (Rmail):                         Rmail Labels.        (line  42)
* C-M-q:                                 Multi-line Indent.   (line  25)
* C-M-q (C mode):                        C Indent.            (line  13)
* C-M-q (Fortran mode):                  ForIndent Commands.  (line  20)
* C-M-r:                                 Regexp Search.       (line  12)
* C-M-r (Rmail):                         Rmail Make Summary.  (line  41)
* C-M-s:                                 Regexp Search.       (line  12)
* C-M-s (Rmail):                         Rmail Make Summary.  (line  50)
* C-M-t:                                 Expressions.         (line  58)
* C-M-t (Rmail):                         Rmail Make Summary.  (line  46)
* C-M-u:                                 Moving by Parens.    (line  30)
* C-M-u (Dired):                         Subdirectory Motion. (line  23)
* C-M-v:                                 Other Window.        (line  34)
* C-M-w:                                 Appending Kills.     (line  38)
* C-M-x (Emacs-Lisp mode):               Lisp Eval.           (line  44)
* C-M-x (Lisp mode):                     External Lisp.       (line  31)
* C-Mouse-1:                             Menu Mouse Clicks.   (line  10)
* C-Mouse-2:                             Menu Mouse Clicks.   (line  16)
* C-mouse-2 (mode line):                 Mode Line Mouse.     (line  31)
* C-Mouse-2 (scroll bar) <1>:            Mode Line Mouse.     (line  34)
* C-Mouse-2 (scroll bar):                Split Window.        (line  32)
* C-Mouse-3:                             Menu Mouse Clicks.   (line  20)
* C-Mouse-3 (when menu bar is disabled): Menu Bars.           (line  13)
* C-n:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* C-n (Calendar mode):                   Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* C-n (Dired):                           Dired Navigation.    (line   6)
* C-n (Gnus Group mode):                 Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* C-n (Gnus Summary mode):               Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* C-o:                                   Blank Lines.         (line  16)
* C-o (Dired):                           Dired Visiting.      (line  27)
* C-o (Occur mode):                      Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  20)
* C-o (Rmail):                           Rmail Output.        (line  20)
* C-p:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* C-p (Calendar mode):                   Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* C-p (Dired):                           Dired Navigation.    (line   6)
* C-p (Gnus Group mode):                 Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* C-p (Gnus Summary mode):               Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* C-q:                                   Inserting Text.      (line  54)
* C-r:                                   Repeat Isearch.      (line  39)
* C-s:                                   Basic Isearch.       (line   6)
* C-S-backspace:                         Killing by Lines.    (line  38)
* C-S-Mouse-3 (FFAP):                    FFAP.                (line  68)
* C-SPC:                                 Setting Mark.        (line  31)
* C-t:                                   Transpose.           (line  18)
* C-t d (Image-Dired):                   Image-Dired.         (line  10)
* C-u:                                   Arguments.           (line  29)
* C-u C-@:                               Mark Ring.           (line   6)
* C-u C-c C-w (Fortran mode):            Fortran Columns.     (line  47)
* C-u C-SPC:                             Mark Ring.           (line   6)
* C-u C-x C-x:                           Momentary Mark.      (line  18)
* C-u C-x u:                             Undo.                (line  52)
* C-u M-;:                               Comment Commands.    (line  52)
* C-u TAB:                               Multi-line Indent.   (line  37)
* C-v:                                   Scrolling.           (line  52)
* C-v (Calendar mode):                   Scroll Calendar.     (line  34)
* C-w:                                   Other Kill Commands. (line   6)
* C-x #:                                 Emacs Server.        (line  31)
* C-x $:                                 Selective Display.   (line   6)
* C-x (:                                 Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* C-x ):                                 Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* C-x +:                                 Change Window.       (line  70)
* C-x -:                                 Change Window.       (line  65)
* C-x .:                                 Fill Prefix.         (line  27)
* C-x 0:                                 Change Window.       (line  35)
* C-x 1:                                 Change Window.       (line  46)
* C-x 2:                                 Split Window.        (line  17)
* C-x 3:                                 Split Window.        (line  23)
* C-x 4:                                 Pop Up Window.       (line   6)
* C-x 4 .:                               Find Tag.            (line  56)
* C-x 4 0:                               Change Window.       (line  43)
* C-x 4 a:                               Change Log.          (line  13)
* C-x 4 b:                               Select Buffer.       (line  40)
* C-x 4 b (Iswitchb mode):               Iswitchb.            (line   6)
* C-x 4 c:                               Indirect Buffers.    (line  19)
* C-x 4 C-o (Iswitchb mode):             Iswitchb.            (line   6)
* C-x 4 d:                               Dired Enter.         (line  25)
* C-x 4 f:                               Visiting.            (line 158)
* C-x 4 f (FFAP):                        FFAP.                (line  40)
* C-x 4 m:                               Sending Mail.        (line  27)
* C-x 5:                                 Creating Frames.     (line   6)
* C-x 5 .:                               Find Tag.            (line  56)
* C-x 5 0:                               Frame Commands.      (line  18)
* C-x 5 1:                               Frame Commands.      (line  27)
* C-x 5 2:                               Creating Frames.     (line  17)
* C-x 5 b:                               Select Buffer.       (line  48)
* C-x 5 b (Iswitchb mode):               Iswitchb.            (line   6)
* C-x 5 d:                               Dired Enter.         (line  25)
* C-x 5 f:                               Visiting.            (line 166)
* C-x 5 f (FFAP):                        FFAP.                (line  50)
* C-x 5 m:                               Sending Mail.        (line  27)
* C-x 5 o:                               Frame Commands.      (line  22)
* C-x 5 r:                               Creating Frames.     (line  42)
* C-x 6 1:                               Two-Column.          (line  60)
* C-x 6 2:                               Two-Column.          (line  12)
* C-x 6 b:                               Two-Column.          (line  35)
* C-x 6 d:                               Two-Column.          (line  65)
* C-x 6 RET:                             Two-Column.          (line  55)
* C-x 6 s:                               Two-Column.          (line  22)
* C-x 8:                                 Unibyte Mode.        (line  61)
* C-x ;:                                 Options for Comments.
                                                              (line   6)
* C-x <:                                 Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line  21)
* C-x <LEFT>:                            Select Buffer.       (line  34)
* C-x <RET> F:                           File Name Coding.    (line  13)
* C-x <RIGHT>:                           Select Buffer.       (line  34)
* C-x =:                                 Position Info.       (line  53)
* C-x >:                                 Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line  21)
* C-x [:                                 Pages.               (line  29)
* C-x [ (Calendar mode):                 Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  43)
* C-x ]:                                 Pages.               (line  29)
* C-x ] (Calendar mode):                 Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  43)
* C-x ^:                                 Change Window.       (line  51)
* C-x `:                                 Compilation Mode.    (line  54)
* C-x a g:                               Defining Abbrevs.    (line  31)
* C-x a i g:                             Defining Abbrevs.    (line  49)
* C-x a i l:                             Defining Abbrevs.    (line  49)
* C-x a l:                               Defining Abbrevs.    (line  43)
* C-x b:                                 Select Buffer.       (line  28)
* C-x b (Iswitchb mode):                 Iswitchb.            (line   6)
* C-x C-<SPC>:                           Global Mark Ring.    (line  17)
* C-x C-a (GUD):                         Commands of GUD.     (line  28)
* C-x C-a C-j (GUD):                     Commands of GUD.     (line 104)
* C-x C-a C-w (GUD):                     Watch Expressions.   (line   6)
* C-x C-b:                               List Buffers.        (line   9)
* C-x C-c:                               Exiting.             (line  53)
* C-x C-d:                               Directories.         (line  26)
* C-x C-e:                               Lisp Eval.           (line  58)
* C-x C-f:                               Visiting.            (line  55)
* C-x C-f (FFAP):                        FFAP.                (line  23)
* C-x C-k b:                             Save Keyboard Macro. (line  28)
* C-x C-k C-a:                           Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  52)
* C-x C-k C-c:                           Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  44)
* C-x C-k C-e:                           Edit Keyboard Macro. (line  16)
* C-x C-k C-f:                           Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  58)
* C-x C-k C-i:                           Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  27)
* C-x C-k C-k:                           Keyboard Macro Ring. (line  34)
* C-x C-k C-n:                           Keyboard Macro Ring. (line  44)
* C-x C-k C-p:                           Keyboard Macro Ring. (line  44)
* C-x C-k e:                             Edit Keyboard Macro. (line  22)
* C-x C-k l:                             Edit Keyboard Macro. (line  27)
* C-x C-k n:                             Save Keyboard Macro. (line  17)
* C-x C-k r:                             Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line 119)
* C-x C-k RET:                           Edit Keyboard Macro. (line  16)
* C-x C-k SPC:                           Keyboard Macro Step-Edit.
                                                              (line   6)
* C-x C-l:                               Case.                (line  47)
* C-x C-n:                               Moving Point.        (line  93)
* C-x C-o:                               Blank Lines.         (line  16)
* C-x C-p:                               Pages.               (line  35)
* C-x C-q:                               Misc Buffer.         (line  18)
* C-x C-q (Version Control):             Basic VC Editing.    (line  16)
* C-x C-r:                               Visiting.            (line 145)
* C-x C-r (FFAP):                        FFAP.                (line  27)
* C-x C-s:                               Save Commands.       (line  26)
* C-x C-t:                               Transpose.           (line  31)
* C-x C-u:                               Case.                (line  47)
* C-x C-v:                               Visiting.            (line 149)
* C-x C-v (FFAP):                        FFAP.                (line  30)
* C-x C-w:                               Save Commands.       (line  98)
* C-x C-x:                               Setting Mark.        (line  48)
* C-x C-z:                               External Lisp.       (line  12)
* C-x d:                                 Dired Enter.         (line   6)
* C-x d (FFAP):                          FFAP.                (line  33)
* C-x DEL:                               Sentences.           (line  33)
* C-x e:                                 Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* C-x ESC ESC:                           Repetition.          (line  20)
* C-x f:                                 Fill Commands.       (line  49)
* C-x h:                                 Marking Objects.     (line  36)
* C-x i:                                 Misc File Ops.       (line  22)
* C-x k:                                 Kill Buffer.         (line  18)
* C-x l:                                 Pages.               (line  51)
* C-x m:                                 Sending Mail.        (line  27)
* C-x n d:                               Narrowing.           (line  41)
* C-x n n:                               Narrowing.           (line  36)
* C-x n p:                               Narrowing.           (line  41)
* C-x n w:                               Narrowing.           (line  46)
* C-x o:                                 Other Window.        (line  20)
* C-x q:                                 Keyboard Macro Query.
                                                              (line  10)
* C-x r +:                               RegNumbers.          (line  14)
* C-x r b:                               Bookmarks.           (line  27)
* C-x r c:                               Rectangles.          (line  91)
* C-x r d:                               Rectangles.          (line  61)
* C-x r f:                               RegConfig.           (line   6)
* C-x r i:                               RegText.             (line  23)
* C-x r j:                               RegPos.              (line  20)
* C-x r k:                               Rectangles.          (line  61)
* C-x r l:                               Bookmarks.           (line  34)
* C-x r m:                               Bookmarks.           (line  27)
* C-x r n:                               RegNumbers.          (line  11)
* C-x r o:                               Rectangles.          (line  91)
* C-x r r:                               RegRect.             (line  10)
* C-x r s:                               RegText.             (line  23)
* C-x r SPC:                             RegPos.              (line  16)
* C-x r t:                               Rectangles.          (line 103)
* C-x r w:                               RegConfig.           (line   6)
* C-x r y:                               Rectangles.          (line  75)
* C-x RET:                               International Chars. (line  28)
* C-x RET c:                             Text Coding.         (line  36)
* C-x RET C-\:                           Select Input Method. (line  22)
* C-x RET f:                             Text Coding.         (line  23)
* C-x RET k:                             Terminal Coding.     (line  27)
* C-x RET p:                             Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  32)
* C-x RET r:                             Text Coding.         (line  67)
* C-x RET t:                             Terminal Coding.     (line  12)
* C-x RET x:                             Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  24)
* C-x RET X:                             Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  24)
* C-x s:                                 Save Commands.       (line  39)
* C-x SPC:                               Commands of GUD.     (line  26)
* C-x TAB:                               Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  37)
* C-x TAB (Enriched mode):               Format Indentation.  (line  14)
* C-x u:                                 Undo.                (line  20)
* C-x v =:                               Old Versions.        (line  31)
* C-x v a:                               Change Logs and VC.  (line  11)
* C-x v b:                               Local Version Control.
                                                              (line  74)
* C-x v c:                               VC Undo.             (line  24)
* C-x v d:                               VC Dired Mode.       (line  11)
* C-x v g:                               Old Versions.        (line  64)
* C-x v h:                               Version Headers.     (line  29)
* C-x v i:                               Registering.         (line   6)
* C-x v l:                               VC Status.           (line   9)
* C-x v m:                               Merging.             (line  16)
* C-x v r:                               Making Snapshots.    (line  14)
* C-x v s:                               Making Snapshots.    (line   9)
* C-x v u:                               VC Undo.             (line  14)
* C-x v v:                               Basic VC Editing.    (line  12)
* C-x v ~:                               Old Versions.        (line  24)
* C-x w b:                               Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  53)
* C-x w h:                               Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  24)
* C-x w i:                               Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  64)
* C-x w l:                               Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  49)
* C-x w r:                               Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  37)
* C-x z:                                 Repeating.           (line  12)
* C-x }:                                 Change Window.       (line  51)
* C-y:                                   Kill Ring.           (line  12)
* C-z:                                   Exiting.             (line  30)
* C-z (X windows):                       Frame Commands.      (line   9)
* d (Calendar mode):                     Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  35)
* d (Dired):                             Dired Deletion.      (line  22)
* D (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  48)
* D (GDB breakpoints buffer):            Breakpoints Buffer.  (line  19)
* D (GDB speedbar):                      Watch Expressions.   (line  25)
* d (Rmail):                             Rmail Deletion.      (line  31)
* DEL:                                   Deletion.            (line  34)
* DEL (and major modes):                 Major Modes.         (line   6)
* DEL (Dired):                           Dired Deletion.      (line  28)
* DEL (Gnus):                            Summary of Gnus.     (line  66)
* DEL (MS-DOS):                          MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line   6)
* DEL (programming modes):               Program Modes.       (line  31)
* DEL (Rmail):                           Rmail Scrolling.     (line  23)
* DELETE:                                Deletion.            (line  43)
* DELETE (and mouse selection):          Mouse Commands.      (line  12)
* DOWN:                                  Moving Point.        (line  15)
* e (Dired):                             Dired Visiting.      (line  18)
* e (Rmail):                             Rmail Editing.       (line  15)
* ESC ESC ESC:                           Quitting.            (line  74)
* f (Dired):                             Dired Visiting.      (line  12)
* f (Rmail):                             Rmail Reply.         (line  73)
* F1:                                    Help.                (line   6)
* F10:                                   Menu Bar.            (line  10)
* F10 (MS-Windows):                      Windows Keyboard.    (line  17)
* F2 1:                                  Two-Column.          (line  60)
* F2 2:                                  Two-Column.          (line  12)
* F2 b:                                  Two-Column.          (line  35)
* F2 d:                                  Two-Column.          (line  65)
* F2 RET:                                Two-Column.          (line  55)
* F2 s:                                  Two-Column.          (line  22)
* F3:                                    Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* F4:                                    Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* G (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  81)
* g (Dired):                             Dired Updating.      (line  29)
* g (Rmail):                             Rmail Files.         (line  55)
* g CHAR (Calendar mode):                From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* g D (Calendar mode):                   Specified Dates.     (line  29)
* g d (Calendar mode):                   Specified Dates.     (line  24)
* g m (Calendar mode):                   Mayan Calendar.      (line  42)
* g w (Calendar mode):                   Specified Dates.     (line  29)
* h (Calendar mode):                     Holidays.            (line  33)
* H (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  64)
* h (Rmail):                             Rmail Make Summary.  (line  32)
* Help:                                  Help.                (line   6)
* i (Dired):                             Subdirectories in Dired.
                                                              (line  18)
* i (Rmail):                             Rmail Files.         (line  25)
* i a (Calendar mode):                   Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  29)
* i b (Calendar mode):                   Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  53)
* i c (Calendar mode):                   Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  58)
* i d (Calendar mode):                   Adding to Diary.     (line  24)
* i m (Calendar mode):                   Adding to Diary.     (line  29)
* i w (Calendar mode):                   Adding to Diary.     (line  29)
* i y (Calendar mode):                   Adding to Diary.     (line  29)
* INSERT:                                Minor Modes.         (line  87)
* j (Dired):                             Dired Navigation.    (line  16)
* j (Rmail):                             Rmail Motion.        (line  74)
* k (Dired):                             Dired Updating.      (line  43)
* k (Rmail):                             Rmail Labels.        (line  34)
* l (Dired):                             Dired Updating.      (line  34)
* L (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line 110)
* l (Gnus Group mode):                   Summary of Gnus.     (line  29)
* L (Gnus Group mode):                   Summary of Gnus.     (line  25)
* l (Rmail):                             Rmail Make Summary.  (line  37)
* LEFT:                                  Moving Point.        (line  15)
* M (Calendar mode):                     Lunar Phases.        (line  19)
* m (Calendar mode):                     Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  49)
* M (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  76)
* m (Dired):                             Marks vs Flags.      (line  17)
* m (Rmail):                             Rmail Reply.         (line  98)
* M-!:                                   Single Shell.        (line   6)
* M-$:                                   Spelling.            (line  64)
* M-$ (Dired):                           Hiding Subdirectories.
                                                              (line  15)
* M-%:                                   Query Replace.       (line  14)
* M-':                                   Expanding Abbrevs.   (line  32)
* M-*:                                   Find Tag.            (line  67)
* M-,:                                   Tags Search.         (line  31)
* M--:                                   Arguments.           (line  15)
* M-- M-c:                               Fixing Case.         (line  15)
* M-- M-l:                               Fixing Case.         (line  15)
* M-- M-u:                               Fixing Case.         (line  15)
* M-.:                                   Find Tag.            (line  35)
* M-/:                                   Dynamic Abbrevs.     (line  12)
* M-1:                                   Arguments.           (line  15)
* M-;:                                   Comment Commands.    (line  28)
* M-<:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* M-< (Calendar mode):                   Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  21)
* M-<colon>:                             Lisp Eval.           (line  38)
* M-=:                                   Position Info.       (line  49)
* M-= (Calendar mode):                   Counting Days.       (line  10)
* M-= (Dired):                           Comparison in Dired. (line  18)
* M->:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* M-> (Calendar mode):                   Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  24)
* M-? (Nroff mode):                      Nroff Mode.          (line  14)
* M-? (Shell mode):                      Shell Mode.          (line  32)
* M-@:                                   Words.               (line  61)
* M-\:                                   Deletion.            (line  70)
* M-^:                                   Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  24)
* M-^ (Fortran mode):                    ForIndent Commands.  (line  29)
* M-`:                                   Menu Bar.            (line  10)
* M-a:                                   Sentences.           (line  22)
* M-a (C mode):                          Motion in C.         (line  40)
* M-a (Calendar mode):                   Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  15)
* M-b:                                   Words.               (line  32)
* M-c:                                   Case.                (line  24)
* M-d:                                   Words.               (line  41)
* M-DEL:                                 Words.               (line  50)
* M-DEL (Dired):                         Marks vs Flags.      (line  54)
* M-Drag-Mouse-1:                        Secondary Selection. (line  10)
* M-e:                                   Sentences.           (line  22)
* M-e (C mode):                          Motion in C.         (line  49)
* M-e (Calendar mode):                   Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  18)
* M-f:                                   Words.               (line  32)
* M-g M-n:                               Compilation Mode.    (line  54)
* M-g n:                                 Compilation Mode.    (line  54)
* M-h:                                   Paragraphs.          (line  36)
* M-i:                                   Tab Stops.           (line   6)
* M-j:                                   Multi-Line Comments. (line   6)
* M-j b (Enriched mode):                 Format Justification.
                                                              (line  48)
* M-j c (Enriched mode):                 Format Justification.
                                                              (line  51)
* M-j l (Enriched mode):                 Format Justification.
                                                              (line  44)
* M-j r (Enriched mode):                 Format Justification.
                                                              (line  45)
* M-j u (Enriched mode):                 Format Justification.
                                                              (line  55)
* M-k:                                   Sentences.           (line  33)
* M-l:                                   Case.                (line  24)
* M-m:                                   Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line   6)
* M-m (Rmail):                           Rmail Reply.         (line  62)
* M-Mouse-1:                             Secondary Selection. (line  26)
* M-Mouse-2:                             Secondary Selection. (line  36)
* M-Mouse-3:                             Secondary Selection. (line  30)
* M-n (minibuffer history):              Minibuffer History.  (line  30)
* M-n (Nroff mode):                      Nroff Mode.          (line  14)
* M-n (Rmail):                           Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* M-n (Shell mode):                      Shell Ring.          (line  10)
* M-o b (Enriched mode):                 Format Faces.        (line  15)
* M-o d (Enriched mode):                 Format Faces.        (line  12)
* M-o i (Enriched mode):                 Format Faces.        (line  19)
* M-o l (Enriched mode):                 Format Faces.        (line  23)
* M-o o (Enriched mode):                 Format Faces.        (line  31)
* M-o u (Enriched mode):                 Format Faces.        (line  27)
* M-p (minibuffer history):              Minibuffer History.  (line  30)
* M-p (Nroff mode):                      Nroff Mode.          (line  14)
* M-p (Rmail):                           Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* M-p (Shell mode):                      Shell Ring.          (line   6)
* M-q:                                   Fill Commands.       (line  21)
* M-q (C mode):                          Other C Commands.    (line  39)
* M-q (Fortran mode):                    ForIndent Commands.  (line  34)
* M-r:                                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* M-r (minibuffer history):              Minibuffer History.  (line  48)
* M-r (Shell mode):                      Shell Ring.          (line  14)
* M-S (Enriched mode):                   Format Justification.
                                                              (line  51)
* M-s (Gnus Summary mode):               Summary of Gnus.     (line  90)
* M-s (minibuffer history):              Minibuffer History.  (line  48)
* M-s (Rmail):                           Rmail Motion.        (line  60)
* M-s (Shell mode):                      Shell Ring.          (line  14)
* M-s (Text mode):                       Fill Commands.       (line  44)
* M-SPC:                                 Deletion.            (line  70)
* M-t:                                   Transpose.           (line  31)
* M-TAB:                                 Symbol Completion.   (line  10)
* M-TAB (customization buffer):          Changing a Variable. (line  49)
* M-TAB (Mail mode):                     Header Editing.      (line  39)
* M-TAB (Picture mode):                  Tabs in Picture.     (line   6)
* M-TAB (Text mode):                     Text Mode.           (line  36)
* M-u:                                   Case.                (line  24)
* M-v:                                   Scrolling.           (line  52)
* M-v (Calendar mode):                   Scroll Calendar.     (line  34)
* M-w:                                   Kill Ring.           (line  28)
* M-x:                                   M-x.                 (line  17)
* M-y:                                   Earlier Kills.       (line   6)
* M-z:                                   Other Kill Commands. (line  34)
* M-{:                                   Paragraphs.          (line   6)
* M-{ (Calendar mode):                   Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  43)
* M-{ (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  72)
* M-|:                                   Single Shell.        (line  30)
* M-}:                                   Paragraphs.          (line   6)
* M-} (Calendar mode):                   Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  43)
* M-} (Dired):                           Marks vs Flags.      (line  67)
* M-~:                                   Save Commands.       (line  74)
* Mouse-1:                               Mouse Commands.      (line  18)
* Mouse-1 (mode line):                   Mode Line Mouse.     (line  16)
* Mouse-1 (scroll bar):                  Mode Line Mouse.     (line  34)
* Mouse-1 (selection):                   Mouse References.    (line   6)
* Mouse-2:                               Mouse Commands.      (line  18)
* Mouse-2 (GDB breakpoints buffer):      Breakpoints Buffer.  (line  26)
* Mouse-2 (mode line):                   Mode Line Mouse.     (line  23)
* Mouse-2 (selection):                   Mouse References.    (line   6)
* Mouse-3:                               Mouse Commands.      (line  18)
* Mouse-3 (mode line):                   Mode Line Mouse.     (line  26)
* n (Gnus):                              Summary of Gnus.     (line  72)
* n (Rmail):                             Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* NEXT:                                  Scrolling.           (line  52)
* o (Calendar mode):                     Specified Dates.     (line  34)
* O (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  85)
* o (Dired):                             Dired Visiting.      (line  21)
* o (Occur mode):                        Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  20)
* o (Rmail):                             Rmail Output.        (line  20)
* p (Calendar mode):                     To Other Calendar.   (line  11)
* P (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  99)
* p (Gnus):                              Summary of Gnus.     (line  76)
* p (Rmail):                             Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* p d (Calendar mode):                   General Calendar.    (line  21)
* PAGEDOWN:                              Scrolling.           (line  52)
* PAGEUP:                                Scrolling.           (line  52)
* PRIOR:                                 Scrolling.           (line  52)
* q (Calendar mode):                     General Calendar.    (line  36)
* Q (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line 127)
* q (Gnus Group mode):                   Summary of Gnus.     (line  18)
* Q (Rmail summary):                     Rmail Summary Edit.  (line  69)
* q (Rmail summary):                     Rmail Summary Edit.  (line  69)
* q (Rmail):                             Rmail Basics.        (line  35)
* R (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  55)
* r (Rmail):                             Rmail Reply.         (line  33)
* RET:                                   Inserting Text.      (line  38)
* RET (Dired):                           Dired Visiting.      (line  18)
* RET (GDB breakpoints buffer):          Breakpoints Buffer.  (line  22)
* RET (GDB speedbar):                    Watch Expressions.   (line  28)
* RET (Occur mode):                      Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  20)
* RET (Shell mode):                      Shell Mode.          (line  13)
* RIGHT:                                 Moving Point.        (line  15)
* s (Calendar mode):                     Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  60)
* S (Calendar mode):                     Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  22)
* S (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  70)
* s (Dired):                             Dired Updating.      (line  59)
* s (Gnus Summary mode):                 Summary of Gnus.     (line  85)
* s (Rmail):                             Rmail Basics.        (line  28)
* S-<TAB> (Help mode):                   Help Mode.           (line  42)
* S-Mouse-1:                             Frame Parameters.    (line   6)
* S-Mouse-2:                             Hideshow.            (line  16)
* S-Mouse-3 (FFAP):                      FFAP.                (line  64)
* S-TAB (customization buffer):          Changing a Variable. (line 103)
* SPC:                                   Completion Commands. (line  28)
* SPC (Calendar mode):                   General Calendar.    (line  31)
* SPC (Dired):                           Dired Navigation.    (line  11)
* SPC (GDB breakpoints buffer):          Breakpoints Buffer.  (line  12)
* SPC (Gnus):                            Summary of Gnus.     (line  49)
* SPC (Rmail):                           Rmail Scrolling.     (line  23)
* t (Calendar mode):                     Writing Calendar Files.
                                                              (line  42)
* t (Dired):                             Marks vs Flags.      (line  76)
* T (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line  94)
* t (Rmail):                             Rmail Display.       (line  23)
* TAB:                                   Indentation.         (line  70)
* TAB (and major modes):                 Major Modes.         (line   6)
* TAB (completion):                      Completion Example.  (line   6)
* TAB (customization buffer):            Changing a Variable. (line 103)
* TAB (GUD):                             Commands of GUD.     (line 113)
* TAB (programming modes):               Basic Indent.        (line  16)
* TAB (Shell mode):                      Shell Mode.          (line  20)
* TAB (Text mode):                       Text Mode.           (line  15)
* u (Calendar mode):                     Holidays.            (line  40)
* u (Dired deletion):                    Dired Deletion.      (line  28)
* u (Dired):                             Marks vs Flags.      (line  40)
* U (Dired):                             Marks vs Flags.      (line  49)
* u (Gnus Group mode):                   Summary of Gnus.     (line  33)
* u (Rmail):                             Rmail Deletion.      (line  45)
* UP:                                    Moving Point.        (line  15)
* v (Dired):                             Dired Visiting.      (line  38)
* w (Dired):                             Misc Dired Features. (line  10)
* w (Rmail):                             Rmail Output.        (line  37)
* x (Calendar mode):                     Holidays.            (line  40)
* x (Dired):                             Dired Deletion.      (line  36)
* X (Dired):                             Shell Commands in Dired.
                                                              (line   6)
* x (Rmail):                             Rmail Deletion.      (line  45)
* Z (Dired):                             Operating on Files.  (line 106)
* ~ (Dired):                             Flagging Many Files. (line  42)


File: emacs,  Node: Option Index,  Next: Command Index,  Prev: Key Index,  Up: Top

Command-Line Options Index
**************************

[index]
* Menu:

* +LINENUM:                              Action Arguments.    (line  18)
* --background-color:                    Colors.              (line  29)
* --basic-display:                       Misc X.              (line  25)
* --batch:                               Initial Options.     (line  35)
* --border-color:                        Colors.              (line  33)
* --border-width:                        Borders X.           (line  20)
* --color:                               Colors.              (line  51)
* --cursor-color:                        Colors.              (line  37)
* --debug-init:                          Initial Options.     (line 101)
* --directory:                           Action Arguments.    (line  37)
* --display:                             Initial Options.     (line  24)
* --eval:                                Action Arguments.    (line  47)
* --execute:                             Action Arguments.    (line  48)
* --file:                                Action Arguments.    (line   9)
* --find-file:                           Action Arguments.    (line  10)
* --font:                                Font X.              (line  13)
* --foreground-color:                    Colors.              (line  23)
* --fullheight:                          Window Size X.       (line  22)
* --fullscreen:                          Window Size X.       (line  18)
* --fullwidth:                           Window Size X.       (line  26)
* --funcall:                             Action Arguments.    (line  41)
* --geometry:                            Window Size X.       (line  11)
* --help:                                Action Arguments.    (line  58)
* --horizontal-scroll-bars:              Misc X.              (line   8)
* --iconic:                              Icons X.             (line  17)
* --insert:                              Action Arguments.    (line  51)
* --internal-border:                     Borders X.           (line  15)
* --kill:                                Action Arguments.    (line  55)
* --line-spacing:                        Misc X.              (line  17)
* --load:                                Action Arguments.    (line  26)
* --mouse-color:                         Colors.              (line  42)
* --multibyte:                           Initial Options.     (line 115)
* --name:                                Resources.           (line  65)
* --no-bitmap-icon:                      Icons X.             (line  14)
* --no-blinking-cursor:                  Misc X.              (line  21)
* --no-desktop:                          Initial Options.     (line  94)
* --no-init-file:                        Initial Options.     (line  70)
* --no-multibyte:                        Initial Options.     (line 106)
* --no-site-file:                        Initial Options.     (line  77)
* --no-splash:                           Initial Options.     (line  87)
* --no-unibyte:                          Initial Options.     (line 116)
* --no-window-system:                    Initial Options.     (line  29)
* --quick:                               Initial Options.     (line  83)
* --reverse-video:                       Colors.              (line  48)
* --script:                              Initial Options.     (line  56)
* --terminal:                            Initial Options.     (line  19)
* --title:                               Title X.             (line  17)
* --unibyte:                             Initial Options.     (line 105)
* --user:                                Initial Options.     (line  98)
* --version:                             Action Arguments.    (line  62)
* --vertical-scroll-bars:                Misc X.              (line  13)
* --visit:                               Action Arguments.    (line  11)
* --xrm:                                 Resources.           (line  74)
* -bd:                                   Colors.              (line  32)
* -bg:                                   Colors.              (line  28)
* -bw:                                   Borders X.           (line  19)
* -cr:                                   Colors.              (line  36)
* -D:                                    Misc X.              (line  24)
* -d:                                    Initial Options.     (line  23)
* -f:                                    Action Arguments.    (line  40)
* -fg:                                   Colors.              (line  22)
* -fh:                                   Window Size X.       (line  21)
* -fn:                                   Font X.              (line  12)
* -fs:                                   Window Size X.       (line  17)
* -fw:                                   Window Size X.       (line  25)
* -g:                                    Window Size X.       (line  10)
* -hb:                                   Misc X.              (line   7)
* -ib:                                   Borders X.           (line  14)
* -L:                                    Action Arguments.    (line  36)
* -l:                                    Action Arguments.    (line  25)
* -lsp:                                  Misc X.              (line  16)
* -ms:                                   Colors.              (line  41)
* -nbc:                                  Misc X.              (line  20)
* -nbi:                                  Icons X.             (line  13)
* -nw:                                   Initial Options.     (line  28)
* -Q:                                    Initial Options.     (line  82)
* -q:                                    Initial Options.     (line  69)
* -r:                                    Colors.              (line  46)
* -rv:                                   Colors.              (line  47)
* -T:                                    Title X.             (line  16)
* -t:                                    Initial Options.     (line  18)
* -u:                                    Initial Options.     (line  97)
* -vb:                                   Misc X.              (line  12)


File: emacs,  Node: Command Index,  Next: Variable Index,  Prev: Option Index,  Up: Top

Command and Function Index
**************************

[index]
* Menu:

* 2C-associate-buffer:                   Two-Column.          (line  35)
* 2C-dissociate:                         Two-Column.          (line  65)
* 2C-merge:                              Two-Column.          (line  60)
* 2C-newline:                            Two-Column.          (line  55)
* 2C-split:                              Two-Column.          (line  22)
* 2C-two-columns:                        Two-Column.          (line  12)
* 5x5:                                   Amusements.          (line  13)
* abbrev-mode:                           Abbrev Concepts.     (line  13)
* abbrev-prefix-mark:                    Expanding Abbrevs.   (line  32)
* abort-recursive-edit:                  Quitting.            (line  66)
* add-change-log-entry-other-window:     Change Log.          (line  13)
* add-global-abbrev:                     Defining Abbrevs.    (line  31)
* add-hook:                              Hooks.               (line  37)
* add-mode-abbrev:                       Defining Abbrevs.    (line  43)
* add-name-to-file:                      Misc File Ops.       (line  56)
* add-untranslated-filesystem:           Text and Binary.     (line  50)
* american-calendar:                     Date Formats.        (line  43)
* append-next-kill:                      Appending Kills.     (line  38)
* append-to-buffer:                      Accumulating Text.   (line   6)
* append-to-file:                        Accumulating Text.   (line   6)
* append-to-register:                    RegText.             (line  28)
* apply-macro-to-region-lines:           Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line 119)
* appt-activate:                         Appointments.        (line  21)
* appt-add:                              Appointments.        (line  52)
* appt-delete:                           Appointments.        (line  52)
* apropos:                               Apropos.             (line  72)
* apropos-command:                       Apropos.             (line  31)
* apropos-documentation:                 Apropos.             (line  81)
* apropos-value:                         Apropos.             (line  84)
* apropos-variable:                      Apropos.             (line  77)
* ask-user-about-lock:                   Interlocking.        (line  18)
* auto-compression-mode:                 Compressed Files.    (line  17)
* auto-fill-mode:                        Auto Fill.           (line  17)
* auto-lower-mode:                       Frame Parameters.    (line  25)
* auto-raise-mode:                       Frame Parameters.    (line  15)
* auto-revert-mode:                      Reverting.           (line  38)
* auto-revert-tail-mode:                 Reverting.           (line  38)
* auto-save-mode:                        Auto Save Control.   (line   6)
* back-to-indentation:                   Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line   6)
* backward-char:                         Moving Point.        (line  15)
* backward-kill-sentence:                Sentences.           (line  33)
* backward-kill-word:                    Words.               (line  50)
* backward-list:                         Moving by Parens.    (line  25)
* backward-page:                         Pages.               (line  29)
* backward-paragraph:                    Paragraphs.          (line   6)
* backward-sentence:                     Sentences.           (line  22)
* backward-sexp:                         Expressions.         (line  37)
* backward-text-line:                    Nroff Mode.          (line  14)
* backward-up-list:                      Moving by Parens.    (line  30)
* backward-word:                         Words.               (line  32)
* balance-windows:                       Change Window.       (line  70)
* beginning-of-buffer:                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* beginning-of-defun:                    Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* binary-overwrite-mode:                 Minor Modes.         (line  92)
* blackbox:                              Amusements.          (line  13)
* blink-cursor-mode:                     Cursor Display.      (line   6)
* bookmark-delete:                       Bookmarks.           (line  70)
* bookmark-insert:                       Bookmarks.           (line  77)
* bookmark-insert-location:              Bookmarks.           (line  73)
* bookmark-jump:                         Bookmarks.           (line  19)
* bookmark-load:                         Bookmarks.           (line  61)
* bookmark-save:                         Bookmarks.           (line  25)
* bookmark-set:                          Bookmarks.           (line  16)
* bookmark-write:                        Bookmarks.           (line  67)
* browse-url <1>:                        Browse-URL.          (line   6)
* browse-url:                            Help Mode.           (line  38)
* browse-url-at-mouse:                   Browse-URL.          (line   6)
* browse-url-at-point:                   Browse-URL.          (line   6)
* bs-show:                               Buffer Menus.        (line   6)
* buffer-menu:                           Several Buffers.     (line  18)
* buffer-menu-other-window:              Several Buffers.     (line  18)
* c-backslash-region:                    Other C Commands.    (line  57)
* c-backward-conditional:                Motion in C.         (line  30)
* c-beginning-of-defun:                  Motion in C.         (line  11)
* c-beginning-of-statement:              Motion in C.         (line  40)
* c-context-line-break:                  Other C Commands.    (line  19)
* c-electric-backspace:                  Program Modes.       (line  31)
* c-end-of-defun:                        Motion in C.         (line  11)
* c-end-of-statement:                    Motion in C.         (line  49)
* c-fill-paragraph:                      Other C Commands.    (line  39)
* c-forward-conditional:                 Motion in C.         (line  35)
* c-hungry-delete-backwards:             Hungry Delete.       (line  14)
* c-hungry-delete-forward:               Hungry Delete.       (line  20)
* c-indent-command <1>:                  Basic Indent.        (line  16)
* c-indent-command:                      C Indent.            (line  18)
* c-indent-defun:                        C Indent.            (line   9)
* c-indent-exp:                          C Indent.            (line  13)
* c-macro-expand:                        Other C Commands.    (line  45)
* c-mark-function:                       Moving by Defuns.    (line  32)
* c-set-style:                           Custom C Indent.     (line  26)
* c-show-syntactic-information:          Other C Commands.    (line  76)
* c-subword-mode:                        Other C Commands.    (line   8)
* c-toggle-auto-newline:                 Electric C.          (line  29)
* c-toggle-electric-state:               Electric C.          (line  19)
* c-toggle-hungry-state:                 Hungry Delete.       (line  30)
* c-up-conditional:                      Motion in C.         (line  20)
* calendar:                              Calendar/Diary.      (line   6)
* calendar-backward-day:                 Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* calendar-backward-month:               Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  43)
* calendar-backward-week:                Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* calendar-beginning-of-month:           Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  15)
* calendar-beginning-of-week:            Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  11)
* calendar-beginning-of-year:            Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  21)
* calendar-count-days-region:            Counting Days.       (line  10)
* calendar-cursor-holidays:              Holidays.            (line  33)
* calendar-end-of-month:                 Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  18)
* calendar-end-of-week:                  Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  12)
* calendar-end-of-year:                  Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  24)
* calendar-forward-day:                  Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* calendar-forward-month:                Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  43)
* calendar-forward-week:                 Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  34)
* calendar-forward-year:                 Calendar Unit Motion.
                                                              (line  43)
* calendar-goto-astro-day-number:        From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-chinese-date:            From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-coptic-date:             From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-date:                    Specified Dates.     (line  24)
* calendar-goto-day-of-year:             Specified Dates.     (line  29)
* calendar-goto-ethiopic-date:           From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-french-date:             From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-hebrew-date:             From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-islamic-date:            From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-iso-date:                From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-iso-week <1>:            From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-iso-week:                Specified Dates.     (line  29)
* calendar-goto-julian-date:             From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-mayan-long-count-date:   Mayan Calendar.      (line  42)
* calendar-goto-persian-date:            From Other Calendar. (line  10)
* calendar-goto-today:                   Specified Dates.     (line  37)
* calendar-mark-today:                   Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  34)
* calendar-next-calendar-round-date:     Mayan Calendar.      (line  64)
* calendar-next-haab-date:               Mayan Calendar.      (line  56)
* calendar-next-tzolkin-date:            Mayan Calendar.      (line  48)
* calendar-other-month:                  Specified Dates.     (line  34)
* calendar-phases-of-moon:               Lunar Phases.        (line  19)
* calendar-previous-haab-date:           Mayan Calendar.      (line  56)
* calendar-previous-tzolkin-date:        Mayan Calendar.      (line  48)
* calendar-print-astro-day-number:       To Other Calendar.   (line  19)
* calendar-print-chinese-date:           To Other Calendar.   (line  35)
* calendar-print-coptic-date:            To Other Calendar.   (line  39)
* calendar-print-day-of-year:            General Calendar.    (line  21)
* calendar-print-ethiopic-date:          To Other Calendar.   (line  43)
* calendar-print-french-date:            To Other Calendar.   (line  31)
* calendar-print-hebrew-date:            To Other Calendar.   (line  23)
* calendar-print-islamic-date:           To Other Calendar.   (line  27)
* calendar-print-iso-date:               To Other Calendar.   (line  11)
* calendar-print-julian-date:            To Other Calendar.   (line  15)
* calendar-print-mayan-date:             To Other Calendar.   (line  51)
* calendar-print-persian-date:           To Other Calendar.   (line  47)
* calendar-star-date:                    Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  29)
* calendar-sunrise-sunset:               Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  22)
* calendar-unmark:                       Holidays.            (line  40)
* capitalize-word:                       Case.                (line  24)
* cd:                                    File Names.          (line  29)
* center-line:                           Fill Commands.       (line  44)
* change-log-merge:                      Change Log.          (line  44)
* change-log-mode:                       Change Log.          (line  38)
* check-parens:                          Parentheses.         (line   6)
* choose-completion:                     Completion Commands. (line  52)
* clean-buffer-list:                     Kill Buffer.         (line  38)
* clear-rectangle:                       Rectangles.          (line  91)
* clone-indirect-buffer:                 Indirect Buffers.    (line  12)
* clone-indirect-buffer-other-window:    Indirect Buffers.    (line  19)
* codepage-setup:                        MS-DOS and MULE.     (line 116)
* column-number-mode:                    Optional Mode Line.  (line  44)
* comint-bol-or-process-mark:            Shell Mode.          (line  43)
* comint-continue-subjob:                Shell Mode.          (line 131)
* comint-copy-old-input:                 Shell History Copying.
                                                              (line  12)
* comint-delchar-or-maybe-eof:           Shell Mode.          (line  37)
* comint-delete-output:                  Shell Mode.          (line  83)
* comint-dynamic-complete:               Shell Mode.          (line  20)
* comint-dynamic-list-filename...:       Shell Mode.          (line  32)
* comint-dynamic-list-input-ring:        Shell Ring.          (line  26)
* comint-get-next-from-history:          Shell Ring.          (line  20)
* comint-input-previous-argument:        Shell Ring.          (line  23)
* comint-interrupt-subjob:               Shell Mode.          (line  68)
* comint-kill-input:                     Shell Mode.          (line  60)
* comint-magic-space:                    History References.  (line  17)
* comint-next-input:                     Shell Ring.          (line  10)
* comint-next-matching-input:            Shell Ring.          (line  14)
* comint-next-prompt:                    Shell History Copying.
                                                              (line   9)
* comint-previous-input:                 Shell Ring.          (line   6)
* comint-previous-matching-input:        Shell Ring.          (line  14)
* comint-previous-prompt:                Shell History Copying.
                                                              (line   6)
* comint-quit-subjob:                    Shell Mode.          (line  78)
* comint-run:                            Shell Mode.          (line 161)
* comint-send-input:                     Shell Mode.          (line  13)
* comint-show-maximum-output:            Shell Mode.          (line 101)
* comint-show-output:                    Shell Mode.          (line  96)
* comint-stop-subjob:                    Shell Mode.          (line  73)
* comint-strip-ctrl-m:                   Shell Mode.          (line 135)
* comint-truncate-buffer:                Shell Mode.          (line 144)
* comint-write-output:                   Shell Mode.          (line  89)
* comment-dwim:                          Comment Commands.    (line  28)
* comment-indent-new-line:               Multi-Line Comments. (line   6)
* comment-kill:                          Comment Commands.    (line  52)
* comment-region:                        Multi-Line Comments. (line  14)
* comment-set-column:                    Options for Comments.
                                                              (line   6)
* compare-windows:                       Comparing Files.     (line  17)
* compilation-next-error:                Compilation Mode.    (line 101)
* compilation-next-file:                 Compilation Mode.    (line 101)
* compilation-previous-error:            Compilation Mode.    (line 101)
* compilation-previous-file:             Compilation Mode.    (line 101)
* compile:                               Compilation.         (line  22)
* compile (MS-DOS):                      MS-DOS Processes.    (line   6)
* compile-goto-error:                    Compilation Mode.    (line  48)
* complete-symbol:                       Symbol Completion.   (line  25)
* compose-mail:                          Sending Mail.        (line  27)
* compose-mail-other-frame:              Sending Mail.        (line  27)
* compose-mail-other-window:             Sending Mail.        (line  27)
* copy-file:                             Misc File Ops.       (line  63)
* copy-rectangle-to-register:            RegRect.             (line  10)
* copy-to-buffer:                        Accumulating Text.   (line   6)
* copy-to-register:                      RegText.             (line  23)
* count-lines-page:                      Pages.               (line  51)
* count-lines-region:                    Position Info.       (line  49)
* count-text-lines:                      Nroff Mode.          (line  14)
* cpp-highlight-buffer:                  Other C Commands.    (line  67)
* create-fontset-from-fontset-spec:      Defining Fontsets.   (line  94)
* crisp-mode:                            Emulation.           (line  10)
* cua-mode:                              CUA Bindings.        (line   6)
* customize:                             Easy Customization.  (line  13)
* customize-apropos:                     Specific Customization.
                                                              (line  56)
* customize-browse:                      Browsing Custom.     (line   6)
* customize-changed:                     Specific Customization.
                                                              (line  63)
* customize-create-theme:                Custom Themes.       (line  11)
* customize-face:                        Specific Customization.
                                                              (line  46)
* customize-group:                       Specific Customization.
                                                              (line  50)
* customize-option:                      Specific Customization.
                                                              (line  36)
* customize-saved:                       Specific Customization.
                                                              (line  71)
* customize-unsaved:                     Specific Customization.
                                                              (line  71)
* cwarn-mode:                            Other C Commands.    (line  82)
* dabbrev-completion:                    Dynamic Abbrevs.     (line  12)
* dabbrev-expand:                        Dynamic Abbrevs.     (line  12)
* dbx:                                   Starting GUD.        (line  15)
* debug_print:                           Checklist.           (line 222)
* decipher:                              Amusements.          (line  20)
* default-value:                         Locals.              (line  70)
* define-abbrevs:                        Saving Abbrevs.      (line  47)
* define-global-abbrev:                  Defining Abbrevs.    (line  56)
* define-key:                            Local Keymaps.       (line  39)
* define-mail-abbrev:                    Mail Aliases.        (line  74)
* define-mail-alias:                     Mail Aliases.        (line  46)
* define-mode-abbrev:                    Defining Abbrevs.    (line  56)
* delete-backward-char:                  Deletion.            (line   6)
* delete-blank-lines:                    Blank Lines.         (line  16)
* delete-char:                           Deletion.            (line   6)
* delete-file:                           Misc File Ops.       (line  38)
* delete-frame:                          Frame Commands.      (line  18)
* delete-horizontal-space:               Deletion.            (line  70)
* delete-indentation:                    Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  24)
* delete-matching-lines:                 Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* delete-non-matching-lines:             Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* delete-other-frames:                   Frame Commands.      (line  27)
* delete-other-windows:                  Change Window.       (line  46)
* delete-rectangle:                      Rectangles.          (line  61)
* delete-selection-mode:                 Mouse Commands.      (line  99)
* delete-trailing-whitespace:            Useless Whitespace.  (line  24)
* delete-whitespace-rectangle:           Rectangles.          (line  97)
* delete-window:                         Change Window.       (line  35)
* describe-bindings:                     Misc Help.           (line  42)
* describe-categories:                   Regexp Backslash.    (line 140)
* describe-character-set:                Charsets.            (line  21)
* describe-coding-system:                Coding Systems.      (line  43)
* describe-copying:                      Help Files.          (line  12)
* describe-distribution:                 Help Files.          (line  12)
* describe-function:                     Name Help.           (line   6)
* describe-input-method:                 Select Input Method. (line  14)
* describe-key:                          Key Help.            (line  12)
* describe-key-briefly:                  Key Help.            (line   6)
* describe-language-environment:         Language Environments.
                                                              (line  74)
* describe-mode:                         Misc Help.           (line  37)
* describe-no-warranty:                  Help Files.          (line  12)
* describe-project:                      Help Files.          (line  12)
* describe-syntax:                       Syntax.              (line  18)
* describe-text-properties:              Editing Format Info. (line  27)
* describe-variable:                     Name Help.           (line  40)
* desktop-change-dir:                    Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  20)
* desktop-clear:                         Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  41)
* desktop-revert:                        Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  20)
* desktop-save:                          Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  11)
* diary:                                 Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  71)
* diary-anniversary <1>:                 Sexp Diary Entries.  (line  13)
* diary-anniversary:                     Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  35)
* diary-astro-day-number:                Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-block:                           Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  47)
* diary-cyclic <1>:                      Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  63)
* diary-cyclic:                          Sexp Diary Entries.  (line  32)
* diary-date:                            Sexp Diary Entries.  (line  51)
* diary-day-of-year:                     Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-float <1>:                       Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  84)
* diary-float:                           Sexp Diary Entries.  (line  63)
* diary-french-date:                     Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-hebrew-date:                     Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-islamic-date:                    Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-iso-date:                        Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-julian-date:                     Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-mail-entries:                    Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  81)
* diary-mayan-date:                      Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-omer:                            Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* diary-parasha:                         Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* diary-phases-of-moon:                  Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-remind:                          Sexp Diary Entries.  (line  45)
* diary-rosh-hodesh:                     Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* diary-sabbath-candles:                 Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* diary-show-all-entries:                Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  60)
* diary-sunrise-sunset:                  Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 114)
* diary-view-entries:                    Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  35)
* diary-yahrzeit:                        Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* diff:                                  Comparing Files.     (line   6)
* diff-backup:                           Comparing Files.     (line  13)
* diff-mode:                             Diff Mode.           (line   6)
* digit-argument:                        Arguments.           (line  15)
* dired:                                 Dired Enter.         (line   6)
* dired-at-point:                        FFAP.                (line   6)
* dired-backup-diff:                     Comparison in Dired. (line  18)
* dired-change-marks:                    Marks vs Flags.      (line  81)
* dired-clean-directory:                 Flagging Many Files. (line  46)
* dired-compare-directories:             Misc Dired Features. (line  27)
* dired-copy-filename-as-kill:           Misc Dired Features. (line  10)
* dired-create-directory:                Misc Dired Features. (line   6)
* dired-diff:                            Comparison in Dired. (line  11)
* dired-display-file:                    Dired Visiting.      (line  27)
* dired-do-byte-compile:                 Operating on Files.  (line 114)
* dired-do-chgrp:                        Operating on Files.  (line  81)
* dired-do-chmod:                        Operating on Files.  (line  76)
* dired-do-chown:                        Operating on Files.  (line  85)
* dired-do-compress:                     Operating on Files.  (line 106)
* dired-do-copy:                         Operating on Files.  (line  34)
* dired-do-copy-regexp:                  Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  33)
* dired-do-delete:                       Operating on Files.  (line  48)
* dired-do-flagged-delete:               Dired Deletion.      (line  36)
* dired-do-hardlink:                     Operating on Files.  (line  64)
* dired-do-hardlink-regexp:              Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  34)
* dired-do-kill-lines:                   Dired Updating.      (line  43)
* dired-do-load:                         Operating on Files.  (line 110)
* dired-do-print:                        Operating on Files.  (line  99)
* dired-do-query-replace-regexp:         Operating on Files.  (line 127)
* dired-do-redisplay:                    Dired Updating.      (line  34)
* dired-do-rename:                       Operating on Files.  (line  55)
* dired-do-rename-regexp:                Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  32)
* dired-do-search:                       Operating on Files.  (line 119)
* dired-do-shell-command:                Shell Commands in Dired.
                                                              (line   6)
* dired-do-symlink:                      Operating on Files.  (line  70)
* dired-do-symlink-regexp:               Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  35)
* dired-do-touch:                        Operating on Files.  (line  94)
* dired-downcase:                        Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  27)
* dired-find-file:                       Dired Visiting.      (line  12)
* dired-find-file-other-window:          Dired Visiting.      (line  21)
* dired-flag-auto-save-files:            Flagging Many Files. (line  38)
* dired-flag-backup-files:               Flagging Many Files. (line  42)
* dired-flag-file-deletion:              Dired Deletion.      (line  22)
* dired-flag-files-regexp:               Flagging Many Files. (line  59)
* dired-flag-garbage-files:              Flagging Many Files. (line  32)
* dired-goto-file:                       Dired Navigation.    (line  16)
* dired-hide-all:                        Hiding Subdirectories.
                                                              (line  15)
* dired-hide-subdir:                     Hiding Subdirectories.
                                                              (line  10)
* dired-mark:                            Marks vs Flags.      (line  17)
* dired-mark-directories:                Marks vs Flags.      (line  30)
* dired-mark-executables:                Marks vs Flags.      (line  22)
* dired-mark-files-containing-regexp:    Marks vs Flags.      (line 112)
* dired-mark-files-regexp:               Marks vs Flags.      (line 103)
* dired-mark-subdir-files:               Marks vs Flags.      (line  35)
* dired-mark-symlinks:                   Marks vs Flags.      (line  26)
* dired-maybe-insert-subdir:             Subdirectories in Dired.
                                                              (line  18)
* dired-mouse-find-file-other-window:    Dired Visiting.      (line  33)
* dired-next-dirline:                    Subdirectory Motion. (line  35)
* dired-next-marked-file:                Marks vs Flags.      (line  67)
* dired-next-subdir:                     Subdirectory Motion. (line  15)
* dired-other-frame:                     Dired Enter.         (line  25)
* dired-other-window:                    Dired Enter.         (line  25)
* dired-prev-dirline:                    Subdirectory Motion. (line  30)
* dired-prev-marked-file:                Marks vs Flags.      (line  72)
* dired-prev-subdir:                     Subdirectory Motion. (line  19)
* dired-sort-toggle-or-edit:             Dired Updating.      (line  59)
* dired-toggle-marks:                    Marks vs Flags.      (line  76)
* dired-tree-down:                       Subdirectory Motion. (line  26)
* dired-tree-up:                         Subdirectory Motion. (line  23)
* dired-undo:                            Marks vs Flags.      (line 120)
* dired-unmark:                          Marks vs Flags.      (line  40)
* dired-unmark-all-files:                Marks vs Flags.      (line  54)
* dired-unmark-all-marks:                Marks vs Flags.      (line  49)
* dired-unmark-backward:                 Marks vs Flags.      (line  44)
* dired-up-directory:                    Dired Visiting.      (line  45)
* dired-upcase:                          Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  21)
* dired-view-file:                       Dired Visiting.      (line  38)
* dirs:                                  Directory Tracking.  (line  20)
* dirtrack-mode:                         Directory Tracking.  (line  25)
* disable-command:                       Disabling.           (line  33)
* disable-theme:                         Custom Themes.       (line  47)
* display-local-help:                    Help Echo.           (line  15)
* display-time:                          Optional Mode Line.  (line  48)
* dissociated-press:                     Dissociated Press.   (line   6)
* do-applescript:                        Mac Functions.       (line   6)
* do-auto-save:                          Auto Save Control.   (line  37)
* doctex-mode:                           TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* doctor:                                Total Frustration.   (line  13)
* down-list:                             Moving by Parens.    (line  37)
* downcase-region:                       Case.                (line  47)
* downcase-word:                         Case.                (line  24)
* dunnet:                                Amusements.          (line  23)
* edit-abbrevs:                          Editing Abbrevs.     (line  42)
* edit-kbd-macro:                        Edit Keyboard Macro. (line  22)
* edit-picture:                          Picture Mode.        (line   6)
* edit-tab-stops:                        Tab Stops.           (line  10)
* edit-tab-stops-note-changes:           Tab Stops.           (line  10)
* edt-emulation-off:                     Emulation.           (line  18)
* edt-emulation-on:                      Emulation.           (line  18)
* eldoc-mode:                            Lisp Doc.            (line  16)
* electric-nroff-mode:                   Nroff Mode.          (line  25)
* emacs-lisp-mode:                       Lisp Eval.           (line   6)
* emacs-version:                         Understanding Bug Reporting.
                                                              (line   6)
* emerge-auto-advance-mode:              Submodes of Emerge.  (line  31)
* emerge-buffers:                        Overview of Emerge.  (line  15)
* emerge-buffers-with-ancestor:          Overview of Emerge.  (line  18)
* emerge-files:                          Overview of Emerge.  (line   9)
* emerge-files-with-ancestor:            Overview of Emerge.  (line  12)
* emerge-skip-prefers-mode:              Submodes of Emerge.  (line  31)
* enable-command:                        Disabling.           (line  33)
* enable-theme:                          Custom Themes.       (line  47)
* end-of-buffer:                         Moving Point.        (line  15)
* end-of-defun:                          Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* enlarge-window:                        Change Window.       (line  51)
* enlarge-window-horizontally:           Change Window.       (line  51)
* enriched-mode:                         Requesting Formatted Text.
                                                              (line  11)
* european-calendar:                     Date Formats.        (line  43)
* eval-buffer:                           Lisp Eval.           (line  73)
* eval-defun:                            Lisp Eval.           (line  44)
* eval-expression:                       Lisp Eval.           (line  38)
* eval-last-sexp:                        Lisp Eval.           (line  58)
* eval-region:                           Lisp Eval.           (line  73)
* exchange-point-and-mark:               Setting Mark.        (line  48)
* execute-extended-command:              M-x.                 (line  57)
* exit-calendar:                         General Calendar.    (line  36)
* exit-recursive-edit:                   Recursive Edit.      (line  12)
* expand-abbrev:                         Expanding Abbrevs.   (line  26)
* expand-mail-aliases:                   Mail Aliases.        (line  62)
* expand-region-abbrevs:                 Expanding Abbrevs.   (line  59)
* f90-beginning-of-block:                Fortran Motion.      (line  41)
* f90-end-of-block:                      Fortran Motion.      (line  33)
* f90-mode:                              Fortran.             (line  19)
* f90-next-block:                        Fortran Motion.      (line  21)
* f90-next-statement:                    Fortran Motion.      (line  11)
* f90-previous-block:                    Fortran Motion.      (line  28)
* f90-previous-statement:                Fortran Motion.      (line  15)
* facemenu-remove-all:                   Editing Format Info. (line  23)
* facemenu-remove-face-props:            Editing Format Info. (line  19)
* facemenu-set-background:               Format Colors.       (line  26)
* facemenu-set-bold:                     Format Faces.        (line  15)
* facemenu-set-bold-italic:              Format Faces.        (line  23)
* facemenu-set-default:                  Format Faces.        (line  12)
* facemenu-set-face:                     Format Faces.        (line  31)
* facemenu-set-foreground:               Format Colors.       (line  26)
* facemenu-set-italic:                   Format Faces.        (line  19)
* facemenu-set-underline:                Format Faces.        (line  27)
* fancy-diary-display:                   Fancy Diary Display. (line  11)
* ff-find-related-file:                  Other C Commands.    (line 104)
* ffap:                                  FFAP.                (line   6)
* ffap-menu:                             FFAP.                (line   6)
* ffap-mode:                             FFAP.                (line  18)
* ffap-next:                             FFAP.                (line   6)
* file-cache-add-directory:              File Name Cache.     (line  17)
* file-cache-minibuffer-complete:        File Name Cache.     (line   6)
* file-name-shadow-mode:                 Minibuffer File.     (line  28)
* filesets-add-buffer:                   Filesets.            (line  13)
* filesets-init:                         Filesets.            (line   6)
* filesets-remove-buffer:                Filesets.            (line  13)
* fill-individual-paragraphs:            Fill Prefix.         (line  63)
* fill-nonuniform-paragraphs:            Fill Prefix.         (line  70)
* fill-paragraph:                        Fill Commands.       (line  21)
* fill-region:                           Fill Commands.       (line  26)
* fill-region-as-paragraph:              Fill Commands.       (line  29)
* find-alternate-file:                   Visiting.            (line 149)
* find-dired:                            Dired and Find.      (line  27)
* find-file:                             Visiting.            (line  55)
* find-file-at-point:                    FFAP.                (line   6)
* find-file-literally:                   Visiting.            (line 171)
* find-file-other-frame:                 Visiting.            (line 166)
* find-file-other-window:                Visiting.            (line 158)
* find-file-read-only:                   Visiting.            (line 145)
* find-file-read-only-other-frame:       Creating Frames.     (line  42)
* find-grep:                             Grep Searching.      (line  51)
* find-grep-dired:                       Dired and Find.      (line  17)
* find-name-dired:                       Dired and Find.      (line   9)
* find-tag:                              Find Tag.            (line  35)
* find-tag-other-frame:                  Find Tag.            (line  56)
* find-tag-other-window:                 Find Tag.            (line  56)
* find-tag-regexp:                       Find Tag.            (line  76)
* finder-by-keyword:                     Library Keywords.    (line   6)
* flush-lines:                           Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* flyspell-mode:                         Spelling.            (line  44)
* flyspell-prog-mode:                    Spelling.            (line  56)
* foldout-exit-fold:                     Foldout.             (line  39)
* foldout-zoom-subtree:                  Foldout.             (line  16)
* follow-mode:                           Follow Mode.         (line   6)
* font-lock-add-keywords:                Font Lock.           (line  85)
* font-lock-mode:                        Font Lock.           (line  15)
* font-lock-remove-keywords:             Font Lock.           (line  95)
* format-find-file:                      Forcing Enriched Mode.
                                                              (line  28)
* fortran-beginning-of-block:            Fortran Motion.      (line  41)
* fortran-column-ruler:                  Fortran Columns.     (line  23)
* fortran-comment-region:                Fortran Comments.    (line  79)
* fortran-end-of-block:                  Fortran Motion.      (line  33)
* fortran-indent-comment:                Fortran Comments.    (line  27)
* fortran-indent-subprogram:             ForIndent Commands.  (line  20)
* fortran-join-line:                     ForIndent Commands.  (line  29)
* fortran-mode:                          Fortran.             (line  19)
* fortran-next-statement:                Fortran Motion.      (line  11)
* fortran-previous-statement:            Fortran Motion.      (line  15)
* fortran-split-line:                    ForIndent Commands.  (line  24)
* fortran-strip-sequence-nos:            Fortran Columns.     (line  52)
* fortran-window-create:                 Fortran Columns.     (line  47)
* fortran-window-create-momentarily:     Fortran Columns.     (line  42)
* fortune-to-signature:                  Mail Amusements.     (line  24)
* forward-char:                          Moving Point.        (line  15)
* forward-list:                          Moving by Parens.    (line  25)
* forward-page:                          Pages.               (line  29)
* forward-paragraph:                     Paragraphs.          (line   6)
* forward-sentence:                      Sentences.           (line  22)
* forward-sexp:                          Expressions.         (line  37)
* forward-text-line:                     Nroff Mode.          (line  14)
* forward-word:                          Words.               (line  32)
* frame-configuration-to-register:       RegConfig.           (line   6)
* fringe-mode:                           Fringes.             (line  24)
* gdb:                                   Starting GUD.        (line  10)
* gdb-delete-breakpoint:                 Breakpoints Buffer.  (line  19)
* gdb-edit-value:                        Watch Expressions.   (line  28)
* gdb-frames-select:                     Stack Buffer.        (line  10)
* gdb-goto-breakpoint:                   Breakpoints Buffer.  (line  22)
* gdb-many-windows:                      GDB-UI Layout.       (line  31)
* gdb-restore-windows:                   GDB-UI Layout.       (line  27)
* gdb-threads-select:                    Other GDB-UI Buffers.
                                                              (line  46)
* gdb-toggle-breakpoint:                 Breakpoints Buffer.  (line  12)
* gdb-var-delete:                        Watch Expressions.   (line  25)
* gdba:                                  GDB Graphical Interface.
                                                              (line  18)
* getenv:                                Environment.         (line  19)
* glasses-mode:                          Glasses.             (line   6)
* global-auto-revert-mode:               Reverting.           (line  38)
* global-cwarn-mode:                     Other C Commands.    (line  82)
* global-font-lock-mode:                 Font Lock.           (line  20)
* global-hl-line-mode:                   Cursor Display.      (line  34)
* global-set-key:                        Rebinding.           (line  12)
* global-unset-key:                      Rebinding.           (line  12)
* gnus:                                  Gnus.                (line  13)
* gnus-group-exit:                       Summary of Gnus.     (line  18)
* gnus-group-kill-group:                 Summary of Gnus.     (line  40)
* gnus-group-list-all-groups:            Summary of Gnus.     (line  25)
* gnus-group-list-groups:                Summary of Gnus.     (line  29)
* gnus-group-next-group:                 Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* gnus-group-next-unread-group:          Summary of Gnus.     (line  72)
* gnus-group-prev-group:                 Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* gnus-group-prev-unread-group:          Summary of Gnus.     (line  76)
* gnus-group-read-group:                 Summary of Gnus.     (line  49)
* gnus-group-unsubscribe-current-group:  Summary of Gnus.     (line  33)
* gnus-summary-isearch-article:          Summary of Gnus.     (line  85)
* gnus-summary-next-subject:             Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* gnus-summary-next-unread-article:      Summary of Gnus.     (line  72)
* gnus-summary-prev-page:                Summary of Gnus.     (line  70)
* gnus-summary-prev-subject:             Summary of Gnus.     (line  80)
* gnus-summary-prev-unread-article:      Summary of Gnus.     (line  76)
* gnus-summary-search-article-forward:   Summary of Gnus.     (line  90)
* gomoku:                                Amusements.          (line   6)
* goto-address:                          Goto-address.        (line   6)
* goto-char:                             Moving Point.        (line  15)
* goto-line:                             Moving Point.        (line  15)
* grep:                                  Grep Searching.      (line  27)
* grep (MS-DOS):                         MS-DOS Processes.    (line   6)
* grep-find:                             Grep Searching.      (line  51)
* gud-cont:                              Commands of GUD.     (line  63)
* gud-def:                               GUD Customization.   (line  18)
* gud-down:                              Commands of GUD.     (line  86)
* gud-finish:                            Commands of GUD.     (line  98)
* gud-gdb-complete-command:              Commands of GUD.     (line 113)
* gud-jump:                              Commands of GUD.     (line 104)
* gud-next:                              Commands of GUD.     (line  48)
* gud-print:                             Commands of GUD.     (line  57)
* gud-refresh:                           Commands of GUD.     (line  36)
* gud-remove:                            Commands of GUD.     (line  69)
* gud-step:                              Commands of GUD.     (line  42)
* gud-stepi:                             Commands of GUD.     (line  53)
* gud-tbreak:                            Commands of GUD.     (line  75)
* gud-until:                             Commands of GUD.     (line  91)
* gud-up:                                Commands of GUD.     (line  81)
* gud-watch:                             Watch Expressions.   (line   6)
* handwrite:                             PostScript.          (line  54)
* hanoi:                                 Amusements.          (line   6)
* help-command:                          Help.                (line   6)
* help-for-help:                         Help.                (line  13)
* help-next-ref:                         Help Mode.           (line  42)
* help-previous-ref:                     Help Mode.           (line  42)
* help-with-tutorial:                    Basic.               (line   6)
* hi-lock-find-patterns:                 Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  64)
* hi-lock-mode:                          Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  10)
* hi-lock-write-interactive-patterns:    Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  53)
* hide-body:                             Outline Visibility.  (line  80)
* hide-entry:                            Outline Visibility.  (line  58)
* hide-ifdef-mode:                       Other C Commands.    (line  99)
* hide-leaves:                           Outline Visibility.  (line  70)
* hide-other:                            Outline Visibility.  (line  92)
* hide-sublevels:                        Outline Visibility.  (line  88)
* hide-subtree:                          Outline Visibility.  (line  63)
* highlight-changes-mode:                Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line   6)
* highlight-lines-matching-regexp:       Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  49)
* highlight-regexp:                      Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  24)
* hl-line-mode:                          Cursor Display.      (line  34)
* holidays:                              Holidays.            (line  57)
* how-many:                              Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* hs-hide-all:                           Hideshow.            (line  16)
* hs-hide-block:                         Hideshow.            (line  16)
* hs-hide-level:                         Hideshow.            (line  16)
* hs-minor-mode:                         Hideshow.            (line  16)
* hs-show-all:                           Hideshow.            (line  16)
* hs-show-block:                         Hideshow.            (line  16)
* hs-show-region:                        Hideshow.            (line  16)
* icalendar-export-file, icalendar-export-region: Importing Diary.
                                                              (line  43)
* icalendar-import-buffer:               Importing Diary.     (line  26)
* icalendar-import-file:                 Importing Diary.     (line  33)
* icomplete-mode:                        Completion Options.  (line  49)
* iconify-or-deiconify-frame <1>:        Frame Commands.      (line   9)
* iconify-or-deiconify-frame:            Exiting.             (line  30)
* ielm:                                  Lisp Interaction.    (line  25)
* image-dired-display-thumbs:            Image-Dired.         (line  10)
* image-mode:                            File Conveniences.   (line  20)
* image-toggle-display:                  File Conveniences.   (line  20)
* imenu:                                 Imenu.               (line  11)
* imenu-add-menubar-index:               Imenu.               (line  16)
* include-other-diary-files:             Fancy Diary Display. (line  52)
* increase-left-margin:                  Format Indentation.  (line  14)
* increment-register:                    RegNumbers.          (line  14)
* indent-code-rigidly:                   Multi-line Indent.   (line  47)
* indent-for-tab-command:                Basic Indent.        (line  16)
* indent-line-function:                  Basic Indent.        (line  16)
* indent-pp-sexp:                        Multi-line Indent.   (line  25)
* indent-region:                         Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  37)
* indent-relative:                       Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  50)
* indent-rigidly:                        Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  37)
* info:                                  Misc Help.           (line   6)
* Info-goto-emacs-command-node:          Name Help.           (line  55)
* Info-goto-emacs-key-command-node:      Key Help.            (line  16)
* info-lookup-file:                      Info Lookup.         (line   6)
* info-lookup-symbol <1>:                Info Lookup.         (line   6)
* info-lookup-symbol:                    Misc Help.           (line  22)
* insert-abbrevs:                        Saving Abbrevs.      (line  47)
* insert-anniversary-diary-entry:        Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  29)
* insert-block-diary-entry:              Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  53)
* insert-cyclic-diary-entry:             Special Diary Entries.
                                                              (line  58)
* insert-diary-entry:                    Adding to Diary.     (line  24)
* insert-file:                           Misc File Ops.       (line  22)
* insert-file-literally:                 Misc File Ops.       (line  26)
* insert-hebrew-diary-entry:             Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  71)
* insert-islamic-diary-entry:            Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  71)
* insert-kbd-macro:                      Save Keyboard Macro. (line  46)
* insert-monthly-diary-entry:            Adding to Diary.     (line  29)
* insert-monthly-hebrew-diary-entry:     Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  71)
* insert-monthly-islamic-diary-entry:    Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  71)
* insert-register:                       RegText.             (line  23)
* insert-weekly-diary-entry:             Adding to Diary.     (line  29)
* insert-yearly-diary-entry:             Adding to Diary.     (line  29)
* insert-yearly-hebrew-diary-entry:      Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  71)
* insert-yearly-islamic-diary-entry:     Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  71)
* inverse-add-global-abbrev:             Defining Abbrevs.    (line  49)
* inverse-add-mode-abbrev:               Defining Abbrevs.    (line  49)
* isearch-backward:                      Repeat Isearch.      (line  39)
* isearch-backward-regexp:               Regexp Search.       (line  12)
* isearch-forward:                       Basic Isearch.       (line   6)
* isearch-forward-regexp:                Regexp Search.       (line  12)
* isearch-toggle-input-method:           Non-ASCII Isearch.   (line  15)
* isearch-toggle-specified-input-method: Non-ASCII Isearch.   (line  15)
* iso-gtex2iso:                          TeX Misc.            (line  11)
* iso-iso2gtex:                          TeX Misc.            (line  11)
* iso-iso2tex:                           TeX Misc.            (line  11)
* iso-tex2iso:                           TeX Misc.            (line  11)
* ispell:                                Spelling.            (line  75)
* ispell-buffer:                         Spelling.            (line  69)
* ispell-complete-word:                  Spelling.            (line 155)
* ispell-kill-ispell:                    Spelling.            (line 164)
* ispell-message:                        Mail Mode Misc.      (line  39)
* ispell-region:                         Spelling.            (line  69)
* ispell-word:                           Spelling.            (line  64)
* iswitchb-mode:                         Iswitchb.            (line   6)
* jdb:                                   Starting GUD.        (line  41)
* jump-to-register:                      RegPos.              (line  20)
* just-one-space:                        Deletion.            (line  70)
* kbd-macro-query:                       Keyboard Macro Query.
                                                              (line  10)
* keep-lines:                            Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* keyboard-escape-quit:                  Quitting.            (line  74)
* keyboard-quit:                         Quitting.            (line  46)
* kill-all-abbrevs:                      Defining Abbrevs.    (line  65)
* kill-buffer:                           Kill Buffer.         (line  18)
* kill-buffer-and-window:                Change Window.       (line  43)
* kill-compilation:                      Compilation.         (line  69)
* kill-line:                             Killing by Lines.    (line  12)
* kill-local-variable:                   Locals.              (line  51)
* kill-rectangle:                        Rectangles.          (line  61)
* kill-region:                           Other Kill Commands. (line   6)
* kill-ring-save:                        Kill Ring.           (line  28)
* kill-sentence:                         Sentences.           (line  33)
* kill-sexp:                             Expressions.         (line  54)
* kill-some-buffers:                     Kill Buffer.         (line  18)
* kill-whole-line:                       Killing by Lines.    (line  38)
* kill-word:                             Words.               (line  41)
* kmacro-add-counter:                    Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  52)
* kmacro-bind-to-key:                    Save Keyboard Macro. (line  28)
* kmacro-cycle-ring-next:                Keyboard Macro Ring. (line  44)
* kmacro-cycle-ring-previous:            Keyboard Macro Ring. (line  44)
* kmacro-edit-lossage:                   Edit Keyboard Macro. (line  27)
* kmacro-edit-macro:                     Edit Keyboard Macro. (line  16)
* kmacro-end-and-call-macro:             Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* kmacro-end-macro:                      Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* kmacro-end-or-call-macro-repeat:       Keyboard Macro Ring. (line  34)
* kmacro-insert-counter:                 Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  27)
* kmacro-name-last-macro:                Save Keyboard Macro. (line  17)
* kmacro-set-counter:                    Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  44)
* kmacro-set-format:                     Keyboard Macro Counter.
                                                              (line  58)
* kmacro-start-macro:                    Basic Keyboard Macro.
                                                              (line  35)
* kmacro-step-edit-macro:                Keyboard Macro Step-Edit.
                                                              (line   6)
* latex-mode:                            TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* lgrep:                                 Grep Searching.      (line  57)
* life:                                  Amusements.          (line  30)
* line-number-mode:                      Optional Mode Line.  (line  21)
* lisp-complete-symbol:                  Symbol Completion.   (line  36)
* lisp-eval-defun:                       External Lisp.       (line  31)
* lisp-interaction-mode:                 Lisp Interaction.    (line  18)
* lisp-mode:                             External Lisp.       (line  27)
* list-abbrevs:                          Editing Abbrevs.     (line  13)
* list-bookmarks:                        Bookmarks.           (line  22)
* list-buffers:                          List Buffers.        (line   9)
* list-calendar-holidays:                Holidays.            (line  52)
* list-charset-chars:                    Charsets.            (line  21)
* list-coding-systems:                   Coding Systems.      (line  51)
* list-colors-display:                   Colors.              (line   6)
* list-command-history:                  Repetition.          (line  12)
* list-directory:                        Directories.         (line  26)
* list-faces-display:                    Standard Faces.      (line   6)
* list-hebrew-diary-entries:             Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  13)
* list-holidays:                         Holidays.            (line  69)
* list-input-methods:                    Select Input Method. (line  76)
* list-islamic-diary-entries:            Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  18)
* list-matching-lines:                   Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* list-tags:                             List Tags.           (line  12)
* list-yahrzeit-dates:                   From Other Calendar. (line  61)
* lm:                                    Amusements.          (line  26)
* load:                                  Lisp Libraries.      (line  22)
* load-file:                             Lisp Libraries.      (line  16)
* load-library:                          Lisp Libraries.      (line  22)
* load-theme:                            Custom Themes.       (line  47)
* local-set-key:                         Rebinding.           (line  12)
* local-unset-key:                       Rebinding.           (line  12)
* locate:                                Dired and Find.      (line  38)
* locate-with-filter:                    Dired and Find.      (line  38)
* log-edit-insert-changelog:             Log Buffer.          (line  14)
* longlines-auto-wrap:                   Longlines.           (line  19)
* longlines-mode:                        Longlines.           (line  11)
* longlines-show-hard-newlines:          Longlines.           (line  32)
* lpr-buffer:                            Printing.            (line  26)
* lpr-region:                            Printing.            (line  26)
* mac-file-name-to-posix:                Mac Functions.       (line   9)
* mac-get-file-creator:                  Mac Functions.       (line  15)
* mac-get-file-type:                     Mac Functions.       (line  15)
* mac-get-preference:                    Mac Functions.       (line  19)
* mac-set-file-creator:                  Mac Functions.       (line  15)
* mac-set-file-type:                     Mac Functions.       (line  15)
* mail-attach-file:                      Mail Mode Misc.      (line  46)
* mail-bcc:                              Header Editing.      (line  32)
* mail-cc:                               Header Editing.      (line  32)
* mail-complete:                         Header Editing.      (line  39)
* mail-fcc:                              Header Editing.      (line  32)
* mail-fill-yanked-message:              Citing Mail.         (line  41)
* mail-interactive-insert-alias:         Mail Aliases.        (line  81)
* mail-send:                             Mail Sending.        (line  16)
* mail-send-and-exit:                    Mail Sending.        (line  16)
* mail-signature:                        Mail Mode Misc.      (line  24)
* mail-subject:                          Header Editing.      (line  32)
* mail-text:                             Mail Mode Misc.      (line  21)
* mail-to:                               Header Editing.      (line  32)
* mail-yank-original:                    Citing Mail.         (line  20)
* mail-yank-region:                      Citing Mail.         (line  36)
* make-frame-command:                    Creating Frames.     (line  17)
* make-frame-on-display:                 Multiple Displays.   (line  11)
* make-indirect-buffer:                  Indirect Buffers.    (line  10)
* make-local-variable:                   Locals.              (line  22)
* make-symbolic-link:                    Misc File Ops.       (line  66)
* make-variable-buffer-local:            Locals.              (line  27)
* Man-fontify-manpage:                   Man Page.            (line  42)
* manual-entry:                          Man Page.            (line  12)
* mark-calendar-holidays:                Holidays.            (line  40)
* mark-defun:                            Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* mark-diary-entries:                    Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  49)
* mark-hebrew-diary-entries:             Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  13)
* mark-included-diary-files:             Fancy Diary Display. (line  52)
* mark-islamic-diary-entries:            Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  18)
* mark-page:                             Pages.               (line  35)
* mark-paragraph:                        Paragraphs.          (line  36)
* mark-sexp:                             Expressions.         (line  68)
* mark-whole-buffer:                     Marking Objects.     (line  36)
* mark-word:                             Words.               (line  61)
* menu-bar-enable-clipboard:             Clipboard.           (line   6)
* menu-bar-mode:                         Menu Bars.           (line   6)
* menu-bar-open:                         Menu Bar.            (line  10)
* minibuffer-complete:                   Completion Commands. (line  10)
* minibuffer-complete-word:              Completion Commands. (line  28)
* mode, thumbs:                          File Conveniences.   (line  26)
* mode25:                                MS-DOS Display.      (line  43)
* mode4350:                              MS-DOS Display.      (line  43)
* modify-face:                           Face Customization.  (line  55)
* morse-region:                          Amusements.          (line  32)
* mouse-avoidance-mode:                  Mouse Avoidance.     (line  32)
* mouse-buffer-menu:                     Buffer Menus.        (line  16)
* mouse-choose-completion:               Completion Commands. (line  38)
* mouse-save-then-click:                 Mouse Commands.      (line  18)
* mouse-secondary-save-then-kill:        Secondary Selection. (line  30)
* mouse-set-point:                       Mouse Commands.      (line  18)
* mouse-set-region:                      Mouse Commands.      (line  18)
* mouse-set-secondary:                   Secondary Selection. (line  10)
* mouse-start-secondary:                 Secondary Selection. (line  26)
* mouse-wheel-mode:                      Wheeled Mice.        (line   6)
* mouse-yank-at-click:                   Mouse Commands.      (line  18)
* mouse-yank-secondary:                  Secondary Selection. (line  36)
* move-beginning-of-line:                Moving Point.        (line  15)
* move-end-of-line:                      Moving Point.        (line  15)
* move-to-window-line:                   Moving Point.        (line  15)
* mpuz:                                  Amusements.          (line  13)
* msb-mode:                              Buffer Menus.        (line  16)
* msdos-set-mouse-buttons:               MS-DOS Mouse.        (line  18)
* multi-occur:                           Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* multi-occur-in-matching-buffers:       Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* narrow-to-defun:                       Narrowing.           (line  41)
* narrow-to-page:                        Narrowing.           (line  41)
* narrow-to-region:                      Narrowing.           (line  36)
* negative-argument:                     Arguments.           (line  15)
* newline:                               Inserting Text.      (line  91)
* newline-and-indent:                    Basic Indent.        (line  30)
* next-buffer:                           Select Buffer.       (line  34)
* next-completion:                       Completion Commands. (line  58)
* next-error:                            Compilation Mode.    (line  54)
* next-error-follow-minor-mode:          Compilation Mode.    (line 108)
* next-history-element:                  Minibuffer History.  (line  30)
* next-line:                             Moving Point.        (line  15)
* next-matching-history-element:         Minibuffer History.  (line  48)
* normal-erase-is-backspace-mode <1>:    Deletion.            (line  62)
* normal-erase-is-backspace-mode:        DEL Does Not Delete. (line  39)
* normal-mode:                           Choosing Modes.      (line 103)
* not-modified:                          Save Commands.       (line  74)
* nroff-mode:                            Nroff Mode.          (line   6)
* number-to-register:                    RegNumbers.          (line  11)
* occur:                                 Other Repeating Search.
                                                              (line  12)
* open-dribble-file:                     Checklist.           (line  80)
* open-line:                             Blank Lines.         (line  16)
* open-rectangle:                        Rectangles.          (line  91)
* open-termscript:                       Checklist.           (line  89)
* other-frame:                           Frame Commands.      (line  22)
* other-window:                          Other Window.        (line  20)
* outline-backward-same-level:           Outline Motion.      (line  36)
* outline-forward-same-level:            Outline Motion.      (line  36)
* outline-minor-mode:                    Outline Mode.        (line   6)
* outline-mode:                          Outline Mode.        (line   6)
* outline-next-visible-heading:          Outline Motion.      (line  29)
* outline-previous-visible-heading:      Outline Motion.      (line  29)
* outline-up-heading:                    Outline Motion.      (line  36)
* overwrite-mode:                        Minor Modes.         (line  87)
* paragraph-indent-minor-mode:           Text Mode.           (line  26)
* paragraph-indent-text-mode:            Text Mode.           (line  26)
* partial-completion-mode:               Completion Options.  (line  27)
* pdb:                                   Starting GUD.        (line  44)
* perldb:                                Starting GUD.        (line  37)
* phases-of-moon:                        Lunar Phases.        (line  23)
* picture-backward-clear-column:         Basic Picture.       (line  27)
* picture-backward-column:               Basic Picture.       (line   6)
* picture-clear-column:                  Basic Picture.       (line  27)
* picture-clear-line:                    Basic Picture.       (line  27)
* picture-clear-rectangle:               Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  27)
* picture-clear-rectangle-to-register:   Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  27)
* picture-forward-column:                Basic Picture.       (line   6)
* picture-motion:                        Insert in Picture.   (line  48)
* picture-motion-reverse:                Insert in Picture.   (line  48)
* picture-move-down:                     Basic Picture.       (line   6)
* picture-move-up:                       Basic Picture.       (line   6)
* picture-movement-down:                 Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-movement-left:                 Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-movement-ne:                   Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-movement-nw:                   Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-movement-right:                Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-movement-se:                   Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-movement-sw:                   Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-movement-up:                   Insert in Picture.   (line   6)
* picture-newline:                       Basic Picture.       (line  20)
* picture-open-line:                     Basic Picture.       (line  37)
* picture-set-tab-stops:                 Tabs in Picture.     (line  25)
* picture-tab:                           Tabs in Picture.     (line  20)
* picture-tab-search:                    Tabs in Picture.     (line   6)
* picture-yank-rectangle:                Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  38)
* picture-yank-rectangle-from-register:  Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line  38)
* plain-tex-mode:                        TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* point-to-register:                     RegPos.              (line  16)
* pong:                                  Amusements.          (line  35)
* pop-global-mark:                       Global Mark Ring.    (line  17)
* pop-tag-mark:                          Find Tag.            (line  67)
* posix-file-name-to-mac:                Mac Functions.       (line   9)
* pr-interface:                          Printing Package.    (line  15)
* prefer-coding-system:                  Recognize Coding.    (line  31)
* prepend-to-buffer:                     Accumulating Text.   (line   6)
* prepend-to-register:                   RegText.             (line  28)
* previous-buffer:                       Select Buffer.       (line  34)
* previous-completion:                   Completion Commands. (line  63)
* previous-history-element:              Minibuffer History.  (line  30)
* previous-line:                         Moving Point.        (line  15)
* previous-matching-history-element:     Minibuffer History.  (line  48)
* print-buffer:                          Printing.            (line  26)
* print-buffer (MS-DOS):                 Windows Printing.    (line  66)
* print-diary-entries:                   Diary Customizing.   (line  26)
* print-region:                          Printing.            (line  26)
* print-region (MS-DOS):                 Windows Printing.    (line  66)
* ps-print-buffer:                       PostScript.          (line  39)
* ps-print-buffer (MS-DOS):              Windows Printing.    (line  86)
* ps-print-buffer-with-faces:            PostScript.          (line  39)
* ps-print-region:                       PostScript.          (line  39)
* ps-print-region-with-faces:            PostScript.          (line  39)
* ps-spool-buffer:                       PostScript.          (line  50)
* ps-spool-buffer (MS-DOS):              Windows Printing.    (line  86)
* ps-spool-buffer-with-faces:            PostScript.          (line  50)
* ps-spool-region:                       PostScript.          (line  50)
* ps-spool-region-with-faces:            PostScript.          (line  50)
* pwd:                                   File Names.          (line  29)
* quail-set-keyboard-layout:             Select Input Method. (line  64)
* quail-show-key:                        Select Input Method. (line  70)
* query-replace:                         Query Replace.       (line  14)
* query-replace-regexp:                  Query Replace.       (line  24)
* quietly-read-abbrev-file:              Saving Abbrevs.      (line  30)
* quoted-insert:                         Inserting Text.      (line  54)
* re-search-backward:                    Regexp Search.       (line  49)
* re-search-forward:                     Regexp Search.       (line  49)
* read-abbrev-file:                      Saving Abbrevs.      (line  30)
* recenter:                              Scrolling.           (line  46)
* recentf-edit-list:                     File Conveniences.   (line  10)
* recentf-mode:                          File Conveniences.   (line  10)
* recentf-save-list:                     File Conveniences.   (line  10)
* recode-file-name:                      File Name Coding.    (line  35)
* recode-region:                         Text Coding.         (line  71)
* recompile:                             Compilation.         (line  58)
* recover-file:                          Recover.             (line   6)
* recover-session:                       Recover.             (line  22)
* redraw-calendar:                       General Calendar.    (line  27)
* remove-hook:                           Hooks.               (line  69)
* remove-untranslated-filesystem:        Text and Binary.     (line  71)
* rename-buffer:                         Misc Buffer.         (line  35)
* rename-file:                           Misc File Ops.       (line  42)
* rename-uniquely:                       Misc Buffer.         (line  40)
* repeat:                                Repeating.           (line  12)
* repeat-complex-command:                Repetition.          (line  20)
* replace-regexp:                        Regexp Replace.      (line   6)
* replace-string:                        Unconditional Replace.
                                                              (line   6)
* report-emacs-bug:                      Checklist.           (line  27)
* reposition-window:                     Scrolling.           (line 103)
* reveal-mode:                           Outline Visibility.  (line  97)
* revert-buffer:                         Reverting.           (line   6)
* revert-buffer (Dired):                 Dired Updating.      (line  29)
* revert-buffer-with-coding-system:      Text Coding.         (line  67)
* rgrep:                                 Grep Searching.      (line  57)
* rmail:                                 Rmail.               (line   6)
* rmail-add-label:                       Rmail Labels.        (line  34)
* rmail-beginning-of-message:            Rmail Scrolling.     (line  27)
* rmail-bury:                            Rmail Basics.        (line  35)
* rmail-continue:                        Rmail Reply.         (line 104)
* rmail-delete-backward:                 Rmail Deletion.      (line  31)
* rmail-delete-forward:                  Rmail Deletion.      (line  31)
* rmail-edit-current-message:            Rmail Editing.       (line  15)
* rmail-end-of-message:                  Rmail Scrolling.     (line  27)
* rmail-expunge:                         Rmail Deletion.      (line  45)
* rmail-expunge-and-save:                Rmail Basics.        (line  28)
* rmail-first-message:                   Rmail Motion.        (line  74)
* rmail-forward:                         Rmail Reply.         (line  73)
* rmail-get-new-mail:                    Rmail Files.         (line  55)
* rmail-input:                           Rmail Files.         (line  25)
* rmail-kill-label:                      Rmail Labels.        (line  34)
* rmail-last-message:                    Rmail Motion.        (line  74)
* rmail-mail:                            Rmail Reply.         (line  98)
* rmail-mode:                            Rmail.               (line   6)
* rmail-next-labeled-message:            Rmail Labels.        (line  42)
* rmail-next-message:                    Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* rmail-next-undeleted-message:          Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* rmail-output:                          Rmail Output.        (line  20)
* rmail-output-body-to-file:             Rmail Output.        (line  37)
* rmail-output-to-rmail-file:            Rmail Output.        (line  20)
* rmail-previous-labeled-message:        Rmail Labels.        (line  42)
* rmail-previous-message:                Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* rmail-previous-undeleted-message:      Rmail Motion.        (line  47)
* rmail-quit:                            Rmail Basics.        (line  35)
* rmail-redecode-body:                   Rmail Coding.        (line  24)
* rmail-reply:                           Rmail Reply.         (line  33)
* rmail-resend:                          Rmail Reply.         (line  91)
* rmail-retry-failure:                   Rmail Reply.         (line  62)
* rmail-search:                          Rmail Motion.        (line  60)
* rmail-show-message:                    Rmail Motion.        (line  74)
* rmail-summary:                         Rmail Make Summary.  (line  32)
* rmail-summary-by-labels:               Rmail Make Summary.  (line  37)
* rmail-summary-by-recipients:           Rmail Make Summary.  (line  41)
* rmail-summary-by-regexp:               Rmail Make Summary.  (line  50)
* rmail-summary-by-topic:                Rmail Make Summary.  (line  46)
* rmail-summary-quit:                    Rmail Summary Edit.  (line  69)
* rmail-summary-wipe:                    Rmail Summary Edit.  (line  69)
* rmail-toggle-header:                   Rmail Display.       (line  23)
* rmail-undelete-previous-message:       Rmail Deletion.      (line  45)
* rot13-other-window:                    Rmail Rot13.         (line  12)
* run-lisp:                              External Lisp.       (line  12)
* save-buffer:                           Save Commands.       (line  26)
* save-buffers-kill-emacs:               Exiting.             (line  53)
* save-some-buffers:                     Save Commands.       (line  39)
* scroll-all-mode:                       Emulation.           (line  10)
* scroll-bar-mode:                       Scroll Bars.         (line  27)
* scroll-calendar-left:                  Scroll Calendar.     (line  28)
* scroll-calendar-left-three-months:     Scroll Calendar.     (line  34)
* scroll-calendar-right:                 Scroll Calendar.     (line  28)
* scroll-calendar-right-three-months:    Scroll Calendar.     (line  34)
* scroll-down:                           Scrolling.           (line  52)
* scroll-left:                           Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line  21)
* scroll-other-window:                   Other Window.        (line  34)
* scroll-right:                          Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line  21)
* scroll-up:                             Scrolling.           (line  52)
* sdb:                                   Starting GUD.        (line  25)
* search-backward:                       Nonincremental Search.
                                                              (line  28)
* search-forward:                        Nonincremental Search.
                                                              (line  28)
* select-frame-by-name:                  Non-Window Terminals.
                                                              (line  19)
* self-insert:                           Inserting Text.      (line  91)
* send-invisible:                        Shell Mode.          (line 119)
* server-edit:                           Emacs Server.        (line  31)
* server-start:                          Emacs Server.        (line  19)
* set-buffer-file-coding-system:         Text Coding.         (line  23)
* set-buffer-process-coding-system:      Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  32)
* set-face-background:                   Faces.               (line  38)
* set-face-foreground:                   Faces.               (line  38)
* set-file-name-coding-system:           File Name Coding.    (line  13)
* set-fill-column:                       Fill Commands.       (line  49)
* set-fill-prefix:                       Fill Prefix.         (line  27)
* set-frame-name:                        Non-Window Terminals.
                                                              (line  19)
* set-fringe-style:                      Fringes.             (line  24)
* set-goal-column:                       Moving Point.        (line  93)
* set-input-method:                      Select Input Method. (line  22)
* set-justification-center:              Format Justification.
                                                              (line  51)
* set-justification-full:                Format Justification.
                                                              (line  48)
* set-justification-left:                Format Justification.
                                                              (line  44)
* set-justification-none:                Format Justification.
                                                              (line  55)
* set-justification-right:               Format Justification.
                                                              (line  45)
* set-keyboard-coding-system:            Terminal Coding.     (line  27)
* set-language-environment:              Language Environments.
                                                              (line  20)
* set-left-margin:                       Format Indentation.  (line  51)
* set-locale-environment:                Language Environments.
                                                              (line  45)
* set-mark-command:                      Setting Mark.        (line  31)
* set-next-selection-coding-system:      Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  24)
* set-right-margin:                      Format Indentation.  (line  51)
* set-rmail-inbox-list:                  Rmail Files.         (line  45)
* set-selection-coding-system:           Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  24)
* set-selective-display:                 Selective Display.   (line   6)
* set-terminal-coding-system:            Terminal Coding.     (line  12)
* set-variable:                          Examining.           (line  41)
* set-visited-file-name:                 Save Commands.       (line  90)
* setenv:                                Environment.         (line  19)
* setq-default:                          Locals.              (line  57)
* sgml-attributes:                       HTML Mode.           (line  27)
* sgml-close-tag:                        HTML Mode.           (line  52)
* sgml-delete-tag:                       HTML Mode.           (line  42)
* sgml-name-8bit-mode:                   HTML Mode.           (line  57)
* sgml-name-char:                        HTML Mode.           (line  12)
* sgml-skip-tag-backward:                HTML Mode.           (line  36)
* sgml-skip-tag-forward:                 HTML Mode.           (line  31)
* sgml-tag:                              HTML Mode.           (line  16)
* sgml-tag-help:                         HTML Mode.           (line  48)
* sgml-tags-invisible:                   HTML Mode.           (line  66)
* sgml-validate:                         HTML Mode.           (line  62)
* shadow-initialize:                     File Shadowing.      (line   6)
* shell:                                 Interactive Shell.   (line   6)
* shell-backward-command:                Shell Mode.          (line 111)
* shell-command:                         Single Shell.        (line   6)
* shell-command-on-region:               Single Shell.        (line  30)
* shell-forward-command:                 Shell Mode.          (line 105)
* shell-pushd-dextract:                  Shell Options.       (line  47)
* shell-pushd-dunique:                   Shell Options.       (line  47)
* shell-pushd-tohome:                    Shell Options.       (line  47)
* show-all:                              Outline Visibility.  (line  80)
* show-branches:                         Outline Visibility.  (line  70)
* show-children:                         Outline Visibility.  (line  76)
* show-entry:                            Outline Visibility.  (line  58)
* show-paren-mode:                       Matching.            (line  33)
* show-subtree:                          Outline Visibility.  (line  63)
* shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer:   Change Window.       (line  65)
* simple-diary-display:                  Fancy Diary Display. (line   6)
* size-indication-mode:                  Optional Mode Line.  (line   6)
* slitex-mode:                           TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* smerge-mode:                           Comparing Files.     (line  37)
* snake:                                 Amusements.          (line  46)
* solitaire:                             Amusements.          (line  38)
* sort-columns:                          Sorting.             (line  96)
* sort-diary-entries:                    Fancy Diary Display. (line  35)
* sort-fields:                           Sorting.             (line  22)
* sort-lines:                            Sorting.             (line  22)
* sort-numeric-fields:                   Sorting.             (line  22)
* sort-pages:                            Sorting.             (line  22)
* sort-paragraphs:                       Sorting.             (line  22)
* split-line:                            Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  17)
* split-window-horizontally:             Split Window.        (line  23)
* split-window-vertically:               Split Window.        (line  17)
* spook:                                 Mail Amusements.     (line   6)
* standard-display-8bit:                 Unibyte Mode.        (line  33)
* string-insert-rectangle:               Rectangles.          (line 109)
* string-rectangle:                      Rectangles.          (line 103)
* studlify-region:                       Amusements.          (line  41)
* substitute-in-file-name:               File Names.          (line  83)
* substitute-key-definition:             Init Examples.       (line 125)
* sunrise-sunset:                        Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  22)
* suspend-emacs:                         Exiting.             (line  38)
* switch-to-buffer:                      Select Buffer.       (line  28)
* switch-to-buffer-other-frame:          Select Buffer.       (line  48)
* switch-to-buffer-other-window:         Select Buffer.       (line  40)
* switch-to-completions:                 Completion Commands. (line  44)
* tab-to-tab-stop:                       Tab Stops.           (line   6)
* tabify:                                Just Spaces.         (line  17)
* table-backward-cell:                   Cell Commands.       (line   6)
* table-capture:                         Table Conversion.    (line   6)
* table-delete-row:                      Row Commands.        (line  14)
* table-fixed-width-mode:                Fixed Width Mode.    (line   6)
* table-forward-cell:                    Cell Commands.       (line   6)
* table-generate-source:                 Table Misc.          (line  10)
* table-heighten-cell:                   Cell Commands.       (line  40)
* table-insert:                          Table Creation.      (line   6)
* table-insert-column:                   Column Commands.     (line   6)
* table-insert-row:                      Row Commands.        (line   6)
* table-insert-sequence:                 Table Misc.          (line   6)
* table-justify:                         Cell Justification.  (line  10)
* table-narrow-cell:                     Cell Commands.       (line  47)
* table-query-dimension:                 Measuring Tables.    (line   6)
* table-recognize:                       Table Recognition.   (line   6)
* table-recognize-cell:                  Table Recognition.   (line  30)
* table-recognize-region:                Table Recognition.   (line  20)
* table-recognize-table:                 Table Recognition.   (line  24)
* table-release:                         Table Conversion.    (line  34)
* table-shorten-cell:                    Cell Commands.       (line  41)
* table-span-cell:                       Cell Commands.       (line  13)
* table-split-cell:                      Cell Commands.       (line  18)
* table-split-cell-horizontally:         Cell Commands.       (line  28)
* table-split-cell-vertically:           Cell Commands.       (line  24)
* table-unrecognize:                     Table Recognition.   (line   6)
* table-unrecognize-cell:                Table Recognition.   (line  33)
* table-unrecognize-region:              Table Recognition.   (line  21)
* table-unrecognize-table:               Table Recognition.   (line  27)
* table-widen-cell:                      Cell Commands.       (line  44)
* tags-apropos:                          List Tags.           (line  22)
* tags-loop-continue:                    Tags Search.         (line  31)
* tags-query-replace:                    Tags Search.         (line  36)
* tags-search:                           Tags Search.         (line  25)
* term:                                  Terminal emulator.   (line   6)
* term-char-mode:                        Term Mode.           (line  13)
* term-line-mode:                        Term Mode.           (line  16)
* term-pager-toggle:                     Paging in Term.      (line   9)
* tetris:                                Amusements.          (line  46)
* tex-bibtex-file:                       TeX Print.           (line 138)
* tex-buffer:                            TeX Print.           (line  46)
* tex-close-latex-block:                 LaTeX Editing.       (line  28)
* tex-compile:                           TeX Print.           (line 148)
* tex-file:                              TeX Print.           (line 109)
* tex-insert-braces:                     TeX Editing.         (line  52)
* tex-insert-quote:                      TeX Editing.         (line  28)
* tex-kill-job:                          TeX Print.           (line  77)
* tex-latex-block:                       LaTeX Editing.       (line  17)
* tex-mode:                              TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* tex-print:                             TeX Print.           (line  46)
* tex-recenter-output-buffer:            TeX Print.           (line  77)
* tex-region:                            TeX Print.           (line  87)
* tex-show-print-queue:                  TeX Print.           (line  46)
* tex-terminate-paragraph:               TeX Editing.         (line  59)
* tex-validate-region:                   TeX Editing.         (line  59)
* tex-view:                              TeX Print.           (line  46)
* text-mode:                             Text Mode.           (line   6)
* thumbs-mode:                           File Conveniences.   (line  26)
* time-stamp:                            Time Stamps.         (line  17)
* timeclock-change:                      Time Intervals.      (line   9)
* timeclock-in:                          Time Intervals.      (line   9)
* timeclock-modeline-display:            Time Intervals.      (line  20)
* timeclock-out:                         Time Intervals.      (line   9)
* timeclock-reread-log:                  Time Intervals.      (line  32)
* timeclock-when-to-leave:               Time Intervals.      (line   9)
* timeclock-workday-remaining:           Time Intervals.      (line   9)
* tmm-menubar:                           Menu Bar.            (line  10)
* toggle-debug-on-error:                 Checklist.           (line 162)
* toggle-enable-multibyte-characters:    Enabling Multibyte.  (line  40)
* toggle-gdb-all-registers:              Other GDB-UI Buffers.
                                                              (line  31)
* toggle-input-method:                   Select Input Method. (line  28)
* toggle-read-only:                      Misc Buffer.         (line  25)
* toggle-scroll-bar:                     Scroll Bars.         (line  40)
* toggle-truncate-lines:                 Line Truncation.     (line  14)
* tool-bar-mode:                         Tool Bars.           (line  19)
* tooltip-mode:                          Tooltips.            (line  15)
* top-level:                             Quitting.            (line  84)
* tpu-edt-on:                            Emulation.           (line  28)
* transient-mark-mode:                   Transient Mark.      (line  27)
* transpose-chars:                       Transpose.           (line  18)
* transpose-lines:                       Transpose.           (line  31)
* transpose-sexps:                       Expressions.         (line  58)
* transpose-words:                       Transpose.           (line  31)
* tty-suppress-bold-inverse-default-colors: Display Custom.   (line  50)
* turn-on-font-lock:                     Font Lock.           (line  30)
* undigestify-rmail-message:             Rmail Digest.        (line  15)
* undo:                                  Undo.                (line  20)
* undo-only:                             Undo.                (line  43)
* unexpand-abbrev:                       Expanding Abbrevs.   (line  50)
* unforward-rmail-message:               Rmail Reply.         (line  81)
* unhighlight-regexp:                    Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  37)
* unify-8859-on-decoding-mode:           Coding Systems.      (line 116)
* universal-argument:                    Arguments.           (line  29)
* universal-coding-system-argument:      Text Coding.         (line  36)
* unmorse-region:                        Amusements.          (line  32)
* unrmail:                               Out of Rmail.        (line   6)
* untabify:                              Just Spaces.         (line  17)
* up-list:                               TeX Editing.         (line  52)
* upcase-region:                         Case.                (line  47)
* upcase-word:                           Case.                (line  24)
* vc-annotate:                           Old Versions.        (line  64)
* vc-cancel-version:                     VC Undo.             (line  24)
* vc-create-snapshot:                    Making Snapshots.    (line   9)
* vc-diff:                               Old Versions.        (line  31)
* vc-directory:                          VC Dired Mode.       (line  11)
* vc-dired-mark-locked:                  VC Dired Commands.   (line  25)
* vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode:            VC Dired Commands.   (line  25)
* vc-insert-headers:                     Version Headers.     (line  29)
* vc-merge:                              Merging.             (line  16)
* vc-next-action:                        Basic VC Editing.    (line  12)
* vc-print-log:                          VC Status.           (line   9)
* vc-register:                           Registering.         (line   6)
* vc-rename-file:                        Renaming and VC.     (line   6)
* vc-retrieve-snapshot:                  Making Snapshots.    (line  14)
* vc-revert-buffer:                      VC Undo.             (line  14)
* vc-switch-backend:                     Local Version Control.
                                                              (line  74)
* vc-toggle-read-only:                   Basic VC Editing.    (line  16)
* vc-update-change-log:                  Change Logs and VC.  (line  11)
* vc-version-other-window:               Old Versions.        (line  24)
* vi-mode:                               Emulation.           (line  40)
* view-buffer:                           Misc Buffer.         (line  52)
* view-echo-area-messages:               Misc Help.           (line  33)
* view-emacs-FAQ:                        Help Files.          (line  12)
* view-emacs-news:                       Help Files.          (line  12)
* view-emacs-problems:                   Help Files.          (line  12)
* view-emacs-todo:                       Help Files.          (line  12)
* view-file:                             Misc File Ops.       (line   9)
* view-hello-file:                       International Chars. (line  17)
* view-lossage:                          Misc Help.           (line  28)
* view-register:                         Registers.           (line  12)
* vip-mode:                              Emulation.           (line  53)
* viper-mode:                            Emulation.           (line  32)
* visit-tags-table:                      Select Tags Table.   (line   6)
* w32-shell-execute:                     Windows Processes.   (line  57)
* wdired-change-to-wdired-mode:          Wdired.              (line   6)
* wdired-finish-edit:                    Wdired.              (line  12)
* what-cursor-position:                  Position Info.       (line  53)
* what-line:                             Position Info.       (line  38)
* what-page:                             Position Info.       (line  38)
* where-is:                              Key Help.            (line  25)
* which-function-mode:                   Which Function.      (line   9)
* widen:                                 Narrowing.           (line  46)
* widget-backward:                       Changing a Variable. (line 103)
* widget-complete:                       Changing a Variable. (line  49)
* widget-forward:                        Changing a Variable. (line 103)
* windmove-default-keybindings:          Window Convenience.  (line  14)
* windmove-right:                        Window Convenience.  (line  14)
* window-configuration-to-register:      RegConfig.           (line   6)
* winner-mode:                           Window Convenience.  (line   6)
* woman:                                 Man Page.            (line  46)
* word-search-backward:                  Word Search.         (line  39)
* word-search-forward:                   Word Search.         (line  39)
* wordstar-mode:                         Emulation.           (line  68)
* write-abbrev-file:                     Saving Abbrevs.      (line  24)
* write-file:                            Save Commands.       (line  98)
* write-region:                          Misc File Ops.       (line  31)
* xdb:                                   Starting GUD.        (line  21)
* yank:                                  Kill Ring.           (line  12)
* yank-pop:                              Earlier Kills.       (line   6)
* yank-rectangle:                        Rectangles.          (line  75)
* yow:                                   Amusements.          (line   6)
* zap-to-char:                           Other Kill Commands. (line  34)
* zone:                                  Amusements.          (line  54)


File: emacs,  Node: Variable Index,  Next: Concept Index,  Prev: Command Index,  Up: Top

Variable Index
**************

[index]
* Menu:

* abbrev-all-caps:                       Expanding Abbrevs.   (line  14)
* abbrev-file-name:                      Saving Abbrevs.      (line  30)
* abbrev-mode:                           Abbrev Concepts.     (line  13)
* adaptive-fill-first-line-regexp:       Adaptive Fill.       (line  31)
* adaptive-fill-function:                Adaptive Fill.       (line  52)
* adaptive-fill-mode:                    Adaptive Fill.       (line  46)
* adaptive-fill-regexp:                  Adaptive Fill.       (line  46)
* add-log-always-start-new-record:       Change Log.          (line  28)
* add-log-keep-changes-together:         Change Log.          (line  24)
* all-christian-calendar-holidays:       Holiday Customizing. (line  22)
* all-hebrew-calendar-holidays:          Holiday Customizing. (line  22)
* all-islamic-calendar-holidays:         Holiday Customizing. (line  22)
* ange-ftp-default-user:                 Remote Files.        (line  46)
* ange-ftp-gateway-host:                 Remote Files.        (line  58)
* ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password:  Remote Files.        (line  50)
* ange-ftp-make-backup-files:            Remote Files.        (line  39)
* ange-ftp-smart-gateway:                Remote Files.        (line  58)
* appt-audible:                          Appointments.        (line   6)
* appt-delete-window-function:           Appointments.        (line  15)
* appt-disp-window-function:             Appointments.        (line  15)
* appt-display-diary:                    Appointments.        (line  45)
* appt-display-duration:                 Appointments.        (line  15)
* appt-display-format:                   Appointments.        (line   6)
* appt-display-mode-line:                Appointments.        (line   6)
* appt-message-warning-time:             Appointments.        (line  34)
* apropos-do-all:                        Apropos.             (line  89)
* apropos-documentation-sort-by-scores:  Apropos.             (line  97)
* apropos-sort-by-scores:                Apropos.             (line  92)
* auto-coding-alist:                     Recognize Coding.    (line  85)
* auto-coding-functions:                 Recognize Coding.    (line  85)
* auto-coding-regexp-alist:              Recognize Coding.    (line  85)
* auto-compression-mode:                 Compressed Files.    (line  17)
* auto-hscroll-mode:                     Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line  52)
* auto-mode-alist:                       Choosing Modes.      (line  15)
* auto-mode-case-fold:                   Choosing Modes.      (line  71)
* auto-revert-check-vc-info:             VC Mode Line.        (line  17)
* auto-revert-interval:                  Reverting.           (line  54)
* auto-save-default:                     Auto Save Control.   (line   6)
* auto-save-file-name-transforms:        Auto Save Files.     (line  27)
* auto-save-interval:                    Auto Save Control.   (line  15)
* auto-save-list-file-prefix:            Recover.             (line  37)
* auto-save-timeout:                     Auto Save Control.   (line  22)
* auto-save-visited-file-name:           Auto Save Files.     (line  41)
* backup-by-copying:                     Backup Copying.      (line  27)
* backup-by-copying-when-linked:         Backup Copying.      (line  27)
* backup-by-copying-when-mismatch:       Backup Copying.      (line  27)
* backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch: Backup Copying. (line  27)
* backup-directory-alist:                Backup Names.        (line  10)
* backup-enable-predicate:               Backup.              (line  25)
* baud-rate:                             Display Custom.      (line  23)
* bdf-directory-list:                    PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  62)
* blink-cursor-alist:                    Cursor Display.      (line   6)
* blink-matching-delay:                  Matching.            (line  17)
* blink-matching-paren:                  Matching.            (line  17)
* blink-matching-paren-distance:         Matching.            (line  17)
* bookmark-save-flag:                    Bookmarks.           (line  47)
* bookmark-search-size:                  Bookmarks.           (line  53)
* browse-url-browser-function:           Browse-URL.          (line  20)
* buffer-file-coding-system:             Output Coding.       (line   6)
* buffer-read-only:                      Misc Buffer.         (line  18)
* buffer-stale-function:                 Supporting additional buffers.
                                                              (line  16)
* c-default-style:                       Custom C Indent.     (line  33)
* c-hungry-delete-key:                   Hungry Delete.       (line  34)
* c-mode-hook:                           Program Modes.       (line  45)
* c-tab-always-indent:                   C Indent.            (line  21)
* cal-html-css-default:                  Writing Calendar Files.
                                                              (line  16)
* calendar-date-display-form:            Date Display Format. (line   6)
* calendar-daylight-savings-ends:        Daylight Saving.     (line  13)
* calendar-daylight-savings-ends-time:   Daylight Saving.     (line  52)
* calendar-daylight-savings-starts:      Daylight Saving.     (line  13)
* calendar-daylight-time-offset:         Daylight Saving.     (line  48)
* calendar-daylight-time-zone-name:      Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  53)
* calendar-holiday-marker:               Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line   6)
* calendar-holidays:                     Holiday Customizing. (line   6)
* calendar-latitude:                     Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  41)
* calendar-load-hook:                    Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  14)
* calendar-location-name:                Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  41)
* calendar-longitude:                    Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  41)
* calendar-move-hook:                    Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  45)
* calendar-standard-time-zone-name:      Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  53)
* calendar-time-display-form:            Time Display Format. (line   6)
* calendar-time-zone:                    Sunrise/Sunset.      (line  53)
* calendar-today-marker:                 Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  36)
* calendar-week-start-day:               Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  33)
* cannot-suspend:                        Exiting.             (line  48)
* case-fold-search:                      Search Case.         (line  23)
* case-replace:                          Replacement and Case.
                                                              (line  12)
* change-log-version-info-enabled:       Change Log.          (line  32)
* change-log-version-number-regexp-list: Change Log.          (line  32)
* change-major-mode-with-file-name:      Choosing Modes.      (line 109)
* christian-holidays:                    Holiday Customizing. (line   6)
* coding:                                Specify Coding.      (line  12)
* colon-double-space:                    Fill Commands.       (line  71)
* comint-completion-addsuffix:           Shell Options.       (line  33)
* comint-completion-autolist:            Shell Options.       (line  33)
* comint-completion-fignore:             Shell Mode.          (line  25)
* comint-completion-recexact:            Shell Options.       (line  33)
* comint-input-autoexpand:               History References.  (line  17)
* comint-input-ignoredups:               Shell Options.       (line  27)
* comint-move-point-for-output:          Shell Options.       (line  16)
* comint-prompt-read-only:               Shell Options.       (line  24)
* comint-prompt-regexp:                  Shell Prompts.       (line   6)
* comint-scroll-show-maximum-output:     Shell Options.       (line  10)
* comint-scroll-to-bottom-on-input:      Shell Options.       (line   6)
* comint-use-prompt-regexp:              Shell Prompts.       (line   6)
* command-history:                       Repetition.          (line  47)
* command-line-args:                     Emacs Invocation.    (line  41)
* comment-column:                        Options for Comments.
                                                              (line   6)
* comment-end:                           Options for Comments.
                                                              (line  31)
* comment-indent-function:               Options for Comments.
                                                              (line  54)
* comment-multi-line:                    Options for Comments.
                                                              (line  44)
* comment-padding:                       Options for Comments.
                                                              (line  38)
* comment-start:                         Options for Comments.
                                                              (line  31)
* comment-start-skip:                    Options for Comments.
                                                              (line  20)
* compare-ignore-case:                   Comparing Files.     (line  31)
* compare-ignore-whitespace:             Comparing Files.     (line  31)
* compilation-environment:               Compilation.         (line  97)
* compilation-error-regexp-alist:        Compilation Mode.    (line  93)
* compilation-scroll-output:             Compilation.         (line  54)
* compilation-skip-threshold:            Compilation Mode.    (line  71)
* compile-command:                       Compilation.         (line  29)
* completion-auto-help:                  Completion Options.  (line  23)
* completion-ignored-extensions:         Completion Options.  (line   6)
* confirm-kill-emacs:                    Exiting.             (line  62)
* crisp-override-meta-x:                 Emulation.           (line  10)
* ctl-arrow:                             Text Display.        (line  24)
* ctl-x-4-map:                           Prefix Keymaps.      (line  35)
* ctl-x-map:                             Prefix Keymaps.      (line  27)
* cua-enable-cua-keys:                   CUA Bindings.        (line   6)
* cua-mode:                              CUA Bindings.        (line   6)
* current-input-method:                  Select Input Method. (line  22)
* current-language-environment:          Language Environments.
                                                              (line  20)
* cursor-in-non-selected-windows:        Cursor Display.      (line  21)
* custom-buffer-done-function:           Changing a Variable. (line 160)
* custom-enabled-themes:                 Custom Themes.       (line  35)
* custom-file:                           Saving Customizations.
                                                              (line  10)
* custom-theme-directory:                Custom Themes.       (line  20)
* dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp:            Dabbrev Customization.
                                                              (line  35)
* dabbrev-abbrev-skip-leading-regexp:    Dabbrev Customization.
                                                              (line  43)
* dabbrev-case-fold-search:              Dabbrev Customization.
                                                              (line  10)
* dabbrev-case-replace:                  Dabbrev Customization.
                                                              (line  17)
* dabbrev-check-all-buffers:             Dynamic Abbrevs.     (line  31)
* dabbrev-ignored-buffer-regexps:        Dynamic Abbrevs.     (line  34)
* dabbrev-limit:                         Dynamic Abbrevs.     (line  21)
* dbx-mode-hook:                         GUD Customization.   (line   6)
* default-buffer-file-coding-system:     Text Coding.         (line  60)
* default-case-fold-search:              Search Case.         (line  23)
* default-directory:                     File Names.          (line  21)
* default-enable-multibyte-characters:   Enabling Multibyte.  (line  33)
* default-indicate-buffer-boundaries:    Displaying Boundaries.
                                                              (line  30)
* default-indicate-empty-lines:          Useless Whitespace.  (line  29)
* default-input-method:                  Select Input Method. (line  41)
* default-justification:                 Format Justification.
                                                              (line  65)
* default-major-mode:                    Choosing Modes.      (line  96)
* default-tab-width:                     Text Display.        (line  46)
* delete-auto-save-files:                Auto Save Files.     (line  46)
* delete-old-versions:                   Backup Deletion.     (line  21)
* desktop-clear-preserve-buffers-regexp: Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  41)
* desktop-globals-to-clear:              Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  41)
* desktop-restore-eager:                 Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  35)
* desktop-save-mode:                     Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line  11)
* diary-date-forms:                      Diary Customizing.   (line  36)
* diary-display-hook:                    Fancy Diary Display. (line   6)
* diary-entry-marker:                    Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line   6)
* diary-file:                            Format of Diary File.
                                                              (line   6)
* diary-list-include-blanks:             Fancy Diary Display. (line  26)
* diary-mail-days:                       Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  81)
* diary-outlook-formats:                 Importing Diary.     (line   9)
* diff-switches:                         Comparing Files.     (line   6)
* directory-free-space-args:             Directories.         (line  50)
* directory-free-space-program:          Directories.         (line  50)
* dired-chown-program:                   Operating on Files.  (line  90)
* dired-copy-preserve-time:              Operating on Files.  (line  39)
* dired-dwim-target:                     Operating on Files.  (line  25)
* dired-garbage-files-regexp:            Flagging Many Files. (line  32)
* dired-kept-versions:                   Flagging Many Files. (line  46)
* dired-listing-switches:                Dired Enter.         (line   6)
* dired-listing-switches (MS-DOS):       MS-DOS Processes.    (line  44)
* dired-recursive-copies:                Operating on Files.  (line  43)
* dired-recursive-deletes:               Dired Deletion.      (line  47)
* display-buffer-reuse-frames:           Select Buffer.       (line  51)
* display-time-24hr-format:              Optional Mode Line.  (line  56)
* display-time-mail-directory:           Optional Mode Line.  (line  62)
* display-time-mail-face:                Optional Mode Line.  (line  62)
* display-time-mail-file:                Optional Mode Line.  (line  62)
* display-time-use-mail-icon:            Optional Mode Line.  (line  62)
* dnd-open-file-other-window:            Drag and Drop.       (line  13)
* dos-codepage:                          MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  48)
* dos-display-scancodes:                 MS-DOS Mouse.        (line  49)
* dos-hyper-key:                         MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  20)
* dos-keypad-mode:                       MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  31)
* dos-printer:                           MS-DOS Printing.     (line  27)
* dos-ps-printer:                        MS-DOS Printing.     (line  27)
* dos-super-key:                         MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  20)
* dos-unsupported-character-glyph:       MS-DOS and MULE.     (line 109)
* double-click-fuzz:                     Mouse Buttons.       (line  74)
* double-click-time:                     Mouse Buttons.       (line  68)
* echo-keystrokes:                       Display Custom.      (line  17)
* emacs-lisp-mode-hook:                  Program Modes.       (line  45)
* emerge-combine-versions-template:      Combining in Emerge. (line  16)
* emerge-startup-hook:                   Fine Points of Emerge.
                                                              (line  20)
* enable-character-translation:          Coding Systems.      (line 126)
* enable-local-eval:                     Safe File Variables. (line  43)
* enable-local-variables:                Safe File Variables. (line  35)
* enable-multibyte-characters:           Enabling Multibyte.  (line  33)
* enable-recursive-minibuffers:          Minibuffer Edit.     (line  47)
* enriched-translations:                 Requesting Formatted Text.
                                                              (line  27)
* eol-mnemonic-dos:                      Optional Mode Line.  (line  90)
* eol-mnemonic-mac:                      Optional Mode Line.  (line  90)
* eol-mnemonic-undecided:                Optional Mode Line.  (line  90)
* eol-mnemonic-unix:                     Optional Mode Line.  (line  90)
* esc-map:                               Prefix Keymaps.      (line  32)
* european-calendar-style:               Date Formats.        (line  43)
* eval-expression-debug-on-error:        Lisp Eval.           (line  82)
* eval-expression-print-length:          Lisp Eval.           (line  82)
* eval-expression-print-level:           Lisp Eval.           (line  82)
* even-window-heights:                   Select Buffer.       (line  40)
* exit-language-environment-hook:        Language Environments.
                                                              (line  93)
* explicit-shell-file-name:              Interactive Shell.   (line  32)
* ff-related-file-alist:                 Other C Commands.    (line 104)
* file-coding-system-alist:              Recognize Coding.    (line  43)
* file-name-buffer-file-type-alist:      Text and Binary.     (line  81)
* file-name-coding-system:               File Name Coding.    (line   9)
* file-name-handler-alist:               Remote Files.        (line  69)
* fill-column:                           Fill Commands.       (line  49)
* fill-nobreak-predicate:                Fill Commands.       (line  74)
* fill-prefix:                           Fill Prefix.         (line  79)
* find-file-existing-other-name:         File Aliases.        (line  15)
* find-file-hook:                        Visiting.            (line 181)
* find-file-not-found-functions:         Visiting.            (line 181)
* find-file-run-dired:                   Visiting.            (line 118)
* find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings: File Aliases.        (line  15)
* find-file-visit-truename:              File Aliases.        (line  27)
* find-file-wildcards:                   Visiting.            (line 130)
* find-ls-option:                        Dired and Find.      (line  33)
* find-tag-marker-ring-length:           Find Tag.            (line  67)
* focus-follows-mouse:                   Frame Commands.      (line  29)
* foldout-mouse-modifiers:               Foldout.             (line  79)
* font-lock-beginning-of-syntax-function: Font Lock.          (line  63)
* font-lock-maximum-decoration:          Font Lock.           (line  47)
* font-lock-maximum-size:                Font Lock.           (line  58)
* fortran-analyze-depth:                 ForIndent Cont.      (line  17)
* fortran-break-before-delimiters:       Fortran Autofill.    (line  14)
* fortran-check-all-num...:              ForIndent Vars.      (line   6)
* fortran-column-ruler-fixed:            Fortran Columns.     (line  35)
* fortran-column-ruler-tabs:             Fortran Columns.     (line  35)
* fortran-comment-indent-char:           Fortran Comments.    (line  63)
* fortran-comment-indent-style:          Fortran Comments.    (line  46)
* fortran-comment-line-extra-indent:     Fortran Comments.    (line  46)
* fortran-comment-line-start:            Fortran Comments.    (line  11)
* fortran-comment-region:                Fortran Comments.    (line  79)
* fortran-continuation-indent:           ForIndent Vars.      (line   6)
* fortran-continuation-string:           ForIndent Cont.      (line   6)
* fortran-directive-re:                  Fortran Comments.    (line  68)
* fortran-do-indent:                     ForIndent Vars.      (line   6)
* fortran-electric-line-number:          ForIndent Num.       (line  18)
* fortran-if-indent:                     ForIndent Vars.      (line   6)
* fortran-line-number-indent:            ForIndent Num.       (line  10)
* fortran-minimum-statement-indent...:   ForIndent Vars.      (line   6)
* fortran-structure-indent:              ForIndent Vars.      (line   6)
* fortran-tab-mode-default:              ForIndent Cont.      (line  17)
* gdb-many-windows:                      GDB-UI Layout.       (line   6)
* gdb-mode-hook:                         GUD Customization.   (line   6)
* gdb-show-changed-values:               Watch Expressions.   (line  33)
* gdb-speedbar-auto-raise:               Watch Expressions.   (line  44)
* gdb-use-colon-colon-notation:          Watch Expressions.   (line  39)
* gdb-use-separate-io-buffer:            Other GDB-UI Buffers.
                                                              (line   7)
* general-holidays:                      Holiday Customizing. (line  14)
* global-cwarn-mode:                     Other C Commands.    (line  82)
* global-font-lock-mode:                 Font Lock.           (line  20)
* grep-regexp-alist:                     Compilation Mode.    (line  93)
* gud-gdb-command-name:                  GDB Graphical Interface.
                                                              (line  18)
* gud-tooltip-echo-area:                 Debugger Operation.  (line  26)
* gud-tooltip-mode:                      Debugger Operation.  (line  26)
* gud-xdb-directories:                   Starting GUD.        (line  21)
* hebrew-holidays:                       Holiday Customizing. (line   6)
* help-at-pt-display-when-idle:          Help Echo.           (line  15)
* help-map:                              Prefix Keymaps.      (line  30)
* hi-lock-exclude-modes:                 Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  83)
* hi-lock-file-patterns-policy:          Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  72)
* highlight-nonselected-windows:         Transient Mark.      (line  78)
* history-delete-duplicates:             Minibuffer History.  (line  75)
* history-length:                        Minibuffer History.  (line  70)
* holidays-in-diary-buffer:              Diary Customizing.   (line   6)
* hourglass-delay:                       Display Custom.      (line  35)
* hs-hide-comments-when-hiding-all:      Hideshow.            (line  38)
* hs-isearch-open:                       Hideshow.            (line  38)
* hs-special-modes-alist:                Hideshow.            (line  38)
* hscroll-margin:                        Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line  39)
* hscroll-step:                          Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line  45)
* image-dired-external-viewer:           Image-Dired.         (line  32)
* imenu-auto-rescan:                     Imenu.               (line  25)
* imenu-sort-function:                   Imenu.               (line  31)
* indent-tabs-mode:                      Just Spaces.         (line   6)
* indent-tabs-mode (Fortran mode):       ForIndent Cont.      (line  17)
* indicate-buffer-boundaries:            Displaying Boundaries.
                                                              (line   6)
* indicate-empty-lines:                  Useless Whitespace.  (line  29)
* inferior-lisp-program:                 External Lisp.       (line  12)
* inhibit-eol-conversion:                Recognize Coding.    (line  56)
* inhibit-iso-escape-detection:          Recognize Coding.    (line  66)
* inhibit-splash-screen:                 Initial Options.     (line  87)
* inhibit-startup-buffer-menu:           Action Arguments.    (line  12)
* initial-calendar-window-hook:          Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  18)
* initial-major-mode:                    Entering Emacs.      (line  18)
* input-method-highlight-flag:           Input Methods.       (line  91)
* input-method-verbose-flag:             Input Methods.       (line  91)
* insert-default-directory:              File Names.          (line  43)
* interpreter-mode-alist:                Choosing Modes.      (line  78)
* inverse-video:                         Display Custom.      (line   9)
* isearch-lazy-highlight:                Highlight Isearch.   (line   6)
* isearch-mode-map:                      Special Isearch.     (line  25)
* isearch-resume-in-command-history:     Repetition.          (line  40)
* islamic-holidays:                      Holiday Customizing. (line   6)
* ispell-complete-word-dict:             Spelling.            (line 178)
* ispell-dictionary:                     Spelling.            (line 170)
* jdb-mode-hook:                         GUD Customization.   (line   6)
* kept-new-versions:                     Backup Deletion.     (line  11)
* kept-old-versions:                     Backup Deletion.     (line  11)
* keyboard-coding-system:                Terminal Coding.     (line  27)
* kill-buffer-hook:                      Kill Buffer.         (line  34)
* kill-read-only-ok:                     Killing.             (line  32)
* kill-ring:                             Earlier Kills.       (line  51)
* kill-ring-max:                         Earlier Kills.       (line  48)
* kill-whole-line:                       Killing by Lines.    (line  34)
* kmacro-ring-max:                       Keyboard Macro Ring. (line  56)
* large-file-warning-threshold:          Visiting.            (line  77)
* latex-block-names:                     LaTeX Editing.       (line  17)
* latex-mode-hook:                       TeX Misc.            (line   6)
* latex-run-command:                     TeX Print.           (line  61)
* latin1-display:                        Undisplayable Characters.
                                                              (line  20)
* line-number-display-limit:             Optional Mode Line.  (line  33)
* line-number-display-limit-width:       Optional Mode Line.  (line  38)
* lisp-body-indent:                      Lisp Indent.         (line  22)
* lisp-indent-offset:                    Lisp Indent.         (line  17)
* lisp-interaction-mode-hook:            Program Modes.       (line  45)
* lisp-mode-hook:                        Program Modes.       (line  45)
* list-diary-entries-hook:               Fancy Diary Display. (line  52)
* list-directory-brief-switches:         Directories.         (line  43)
* list-directory-verbose-switches:       Directories.         (line  43)
* load-dangerous-libraries:              Lisp Libraries.      (line  61)
* load-path:                             Lisp Libraries.      (line  45)
* local-holidays:                        Holiday Customizing. (line  18)
* locale-charset-language-names:         Language Environments.
                                                              (line  45)
* locale-coding-system:                  Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  46)
* locale-language-names:                 Language Environments.
                                                              (line  45)
* locale-preferred-coding-systems:       Language Environments.
                                                              (line  62)
* locate-command:                        Dired and Find.      (line  38)
* lpr-add-switches:                      Printing.            (line  38)
* lpr-command (MS-DOS):                  Windows Printing.    (line  78)
* lpr-commands:                          Printing.            (line  38)
* lpr-headers-switches:                  Printing.            (line  38)
* lpr-headers-switches (MS-DOS):         Windows Printing.    (line  66)
* lpr-switches:                          Printing.            (line  26)
* lpr-switches (MS-DOS):                 Windows Printing.    (line  78)
* ls-lisp-dirs-first:                    ls in Lisp.          (line  35)
* ls-lisp-emulation:                     ls in Lisp.          (line  50)
* ls-lisp-format-time-list:              ls in Lisp.          (line  87)
* ls-lisp-ignore-case:                   ls in Lisp.          (line  29)
* ls-lisp-support-shell-wildcards:       ls in Lisp.          (line  82)
* ls-lisp-use-insert-directory-program:  ls in Lisp.          (line  22)
* ls-lisp-use-localized-time-format:     ls in Lisp.          (line 105)
* ls-lisp-verbosity:                     ls in Lisp.          (line  40)
* mac-allow-anti-aliasing:               Mac Font Specs.      (line  80)
* mac-command-modifier:                  Mac Input.           (line   6)
* mac-control-modifier:                  Mac Input.           (line   6)
* mac-emulate-three-button-mouse:        Mac Input.           (line  32)
* mac-function-modifier:                 Mac Input.           (line   6)
* mac-option-modifier:                   Mac Input.           (line   6)
* mac-pass-command-to-system:            Mac Input.           (line  27)
* mac-pass-control-to-system:            Mac Input.           (line  27)
* mac-wheel-button-is-mouse-2:           Mac Input.           (line  39)
* magic-mode-alist:                      Choosing Modes.      (line  36)
* mail-abbrevs:                          Mail Aliases.        (line  74)
* mail-aliases:                          Mail Aliases.        (line  53)
* mail-archive-file-name:                Mail Headers.        (line  50)
* mail-default-directory:                Sending Mail.        (line  51)
* mail-default-headers:                  Mail Headers.        (line 119)
* mail-default-reply-to:                 Mail Headers.        (line  71)
* mail-from-style:                       Mail Headers.        (line 101)
* mail-mode-hook:                        Mail Mode Misc.      (line  53)
* mail-personal-alias-file:              Mail Aliases.        (line  59)
* mail-self-blind:                       Mail Headers.        (line  37)
* mail-setup-hook:                       Mail Mode Misc.      (line  53)
* mail-signature:                        Mail Mode Misc.      (line  24)
* mail-user-agent:                       Mail Methods.        (line  14)
* mail-yank-prefix:                      Citing Mail.         (line  30)
* make-backup-file-name-function:        Backup Names.        (line  10)
* make-backup-files:                     Backup.              (line   6)
* Man-fontify-manpage-flag:              Man Page.            (line  37)
* Man-switches:                          Man Page.            (line  31)
* mark-diary-entries-hook:               Fancy Diary Display. (line  52)
* mark-diary-entries-in-calendar:        Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  49)
* mark-even-if-inactive:                 Transient Mark.      (line  86)
* mark-holidays-in-calendar:             Holidays.            (line  40)
* mark-ring:                             Mark Ring.           (line  43)
* mark-ring-max:                         Mark Ring.           (line  38)
* max-mini-window-height:                Minibuffer Edit.     (line  35)
* menu-bar-mode:                         Menu Bars.           (line   6)
* message-log-max:                       Echo Area.           (line  49)
* midnight-hook:                         Kill Buffer.         (line  47)
* midnight-mode:                         Kill Buffer.         (line  47)
* minibuffer-local-completion-map:       Minibuffer Maps.     (line   6)
* minibuffer-local-filename-completion-map: Minibuffer Maps.  (line   6)
* minibuffer-local-map:                  Minibuffer Maps.     (line   6)
* minibuffer-local-must-match-filename-map: Minibuffer Maps.  (line   6)
* minibuffer-local-must-match-map:       Minibuffer Maps.     (line   6)
* minibuffer-local-ns-map:               Minibuffer Maps.     (line   6)
* minibuffer-prompt-properties:          Standard Faces.      (line 136)
* mode-line-in-non-selected-windows:     Optional Mode Line.  (line  86)
* mode-require-final-newline:            Customize Save.      (line  16)
* mode-specific-map:                     Prefix Keymaps.      (line  37)
* mouse-1-click-follows-link:            Mouse References.    (line  39)
* mouse-1-click-in-non-selected-windows: Mouse References.    (line  28)
* mouse-autoselect-window:               Other Window.        (line  46)
* mouse-avoidance-mode:                  Mouse Avoidance.     (line   6)
* mouse-drag-copy-region:                Mouse Commands.      (line  46)
* mouse-highlight:                       Mouse References.    (line  33)
* mouse-scroll-min-lines:                Mouse Commands.      (line  38)
* mouse-wheel-follow-mouse:              Wheeled Mice.        (line  14)
* mouse-wheel-progressive-speed:         Wheeled Mice.        (line  14)
* mouse-wheel-scroll-amount:             Wheeled Mice.        (line  14)
* mouse-yank-at-point:                   Mouse Commands.      (line  92)
* next-error-highlight:                  Compilation Mode.    (line  54)
* next-line-add-newlines:                Moving Point.        (line 108)
* next-screen-context-lines:             Scrolling.           (line  59)
* no-redraw-on-reenter:                  Display Custom.      (line  55)
* nobreak-char-display:                  Text Display.        (line  37)
* nongregorian-diary-listing-hook:       Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  13)
* nongregorian-diary-marking-hook:       Hebrew/Islamic Entries.
                                                              (line  13)
* normal-erase-is-backspace:             DEL Does Not Delete. (line  52)
* nroff-mode-hook:                       Nroff Mode.          (line  38)
* number-of-diary-entries:               Diary Customizing.   (line  14)
* open-paren-in-column-0-is-defun-start: Left Margin Paren.   (line  38)
* other-holidays:                        Holiday Customizing. (line  31)
* outline-level:                         Outline Format.      (line  56)
* outline-minor-mode-prefix:             Outline Mode.        (line   6)
* outline-mode-hook:                     Outline Mode.        (line  36)
* outline-regexp:                        Outline Format.      (line  37)
* overflow-newline-into-fringe:          Line Truncation.     (line  30)
* overline-margin:                       Display Custom.      (line  41)
* page-delimiter:                        Pages.               (line  61)
* paragraph-separate:                    Paragraphs.          (line  46)
* paragraph-start:                       Paragraphs.          (line  46)
* partial-completion-mode:               Completion Options.  (line  27)
* PC-disable-includes:                   Completion Options.  (line  44)
* PC-include-file-path:                  Completion Options.  (line  44)
* pdb-mode-hook:                         GUD Customization.   (line   6)
* perldb-mode-hook:                      GUD Customization.   (line   6)
* picture-mode-hook:                     Picture Mode.        (line  40)
* picture-tab-chars:                     Tabs in Picture.     (line   6)
* plain-tex-mode-hook:                   TeX Misc.            (line   6)
* print-diary-entries-hook:              Diary Customizing.   (line  26)
* print-region-function (MS-DOS):        Windows Printing.    (line  78)
* printer-name:                          Printing.            (line  35)
* printer-name, (MS-DOS/MW-Windows):     Windows Printing.    (line  19)
* ps-font-family:                        PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  42)
* ps-font-info-database:                 PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  42)
* ps-font-size:                          PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  42)
* ps-landscape-mode:                     PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  35)
* ps-lpr-command:                        PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line   6)
* ps-lpr-command (MS-DOS):               Windows Printing.    (line  86)
* ps-lpr-switches:                       PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line   6)
* ps-lpr-switches (MS-DOS):              Windows Printing.    (line  86)
* ps-multibyte-buffer:                   PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  48)
* ps-number-of-columns:                  PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  39)
* ps-page-dimensions-database:           PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  29)
* ps-paper-type:                         PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  29)
* ps-print-color-p:                      PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  17)
* ps-print-header:                       PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  14)
* ps-printer-name:                       PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line   6)
* ps-printer-name (MS-DOS):              Windows Printing.    (line  86)
* ps-use-face-background:                PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  24)
* read-quoted-char-radix:                Inserting Text.      (line  83)
* recentf-mode:                          File Conveniences.   (line  10)
* require-final-newline:                 Customize Save.      (line   6)
* resize-mini-windows:                   Minibuffer Edit.     (line  27)
* revert-without-query:                  Reverting.           (line  26)
* rmail-decode-mime-charset:             Recognize Coding.    (line  97)
* rmail-delete-after-output:             Rmail Output.        (line  54)
* rmail-delete-message-hook:             Rmail Deletion.      (line  40)
* rmail-dont-reply-to-names:             Rmail Reply.         (line  42)
* rmail-edit-mode-hook:                  Rmail Editing.       (line  25)
* rmail-file-coding-system:              Recognize Coding.    (line 103)
* rmail-file-name:                       Rmail Basics.        (line   6)
* rmail-highlighted-headers:             Rmail Display.       (line  40)
* rmail-ignored-headers:                 Rmail Display.       (line  14)
* rmail-mail-new-frame:                  Rmail Reply.         (line 108)
* rmail-mode-hook:                       Rmail.               (line   6)
* rmail-movemail-flags:                  Remote Mailboxes.    (line  60)
* rmail-movemail-program:                Movemail.            (line  84)
* rmail-movemail-search-path:            Movemail.            (line  84)
* rmail-nonignored-headers:              Rmail Display.       (line  14)
* rmail-output-file-alist:               Rmail Output.        (line  67)
* rmail-pop-password:                    Remote Mailboxes.    (line  43)
* rmail-pop-password-required:           Remote Mailboxes.    (line  43)
* rmail-preserve-inbox:                  Rmail Inbox.         (line  47)
* rmail-primary-inbox-list:              Rmail Inbox.         (line  15)
* rmail-redisplay-summary:               Rmail Summary Edit.  (line  64)
* rmail-remote-password:                 Remote Mailboxes.    (line  43)
* rmail-remote-password-required:        Remote Mailboxes.    (line  43)
* rmail-retry-ignored-headers:           Rmail Reply.         (line  62)
* rmail-secondary-file-directory:        Rmail Files.         (line  36)
* rmail-secondary-file-regexp:           Rmail Files.         (line  36)
* rmail-summary-line-count-flag:         Rmail Make Summary.  (line  57)
* rmail-summary-window-size:             Rmail Make Summary.  (line  57)
* safe-local-eval-forms:                 Safe File Variables. (line  49)
* safe-local-variable-values:            Safe File Variables. (line  27)
* same-window-buffer-names:              Force Same Window.   (line  12)
* same-window-regexps:                   Force Same Window.   (line  26)
* save-abbrevs:                          Saving Abbrevs.      (line  41)
* scheme-mode-hook:                      Program Modes.       (line  45)
* scroll-all-mode:                       Window Convenience.  (line  25)
* scroll-bar-mode:                       Scroll Bars.         (line  27)
* scroll-bar-width:                      Scroll Bars.         (line  43)
* scroll-conservatively:                 Auto Scrolling.      (line   6)
* scroll-down-aggressively:              Auto Scrolling.      (line  17)
* scroll-margin:                         Auto Scrolling.      (line  35)
* scroll-preserve-screen-position:       Scrolling.           (line  81)
* scroll-up-aggressively:                Auto Scrolling.      (line  17)
* sdb-mode-hook:                         GUD Customization.   (line   6)
* search-slow-speed:                     Slow Isearch.        (line  17)
* search-slow-window-lines:              Slow Isearch.        (line  22)
* search-whitespace-regexp:              Regexp Search.       (line  31)
* selective-display-ellipses:            Selective Display.   (line  28)
* send-mail-function:                    Mail Sending.        (line  39)
* sendmail-coding-system:                Output Coding.       (line  41)
* sentence-end:                          Sentences.           (line  62)
* sentence-end-double-space:             Sentences.           (line  53)
* sentence-end-without-period:           Sentences.           (line  71)
* server-kill-new-buffers:               Emacs Server.        (line  48)
* server-name:                           Emacs Server.        (line  58)
* server-temp-file-regexp:               Emacs Server.        (line  48)
* server-window:                         Emacs Server.        (line  55)
* set-language-environment-hook:         Language Environments.
                                                              (line  83)
* set-mark-command-repeat-pop:           Mark Ring.           (line  15)
* sgml-xml-mode:                         HTML Mode.           (line  69)
* shell-cd-regexp:                       Directory Tracking.  (line   6)
* shell-command-default-error-buffer:    Single Shell.        (line  67)
* shell-command-regexp:                  Shell Mode.          (line 105)
* shell-completion-execonly:             Shell Options.       (line  43)
* shell-completion-fignore:              Shell Mode.          (line  25)
* shell-file-name:                       Single Shell.        (line  43)
* shell-input-ring-file-name:            Shell Ring.          (line  76)
* shell-popd-regexp:                     Directory Tracking.  (line   6)
* shell-prompt-pattern:                  Shell Prompts.       (line   6)
* shell-pushd-regexp:                    Directory Tracking.  (line   6)
* show-trailing-whitespace:              Useless Whitespace.  (line   6)
* slitex-mode-hook:                      TeX Misc.            (line   6)
* slitex-run-command:                    TeX Print.           (line  61)
* small-temporary-file-directory:        Backup.              (line  25)
* sort-fold-case:                        Sorting.             (line 115)
* sort-numeric-base:                     Sorting.             (line  22)
* special-display-buffer-names:          Special Buffer Frames.
                                                              (line   6)
* special-display-frame-alist:           Special Buffer Frames.
                                                              (line  31)
* special-display-regexps:               Special Buffer Frames.
                                                              (line  25)
* split-window-keep-point:               Split Window.        (line  48)
* standard-fontset-spec:                 Defining Fontsets.   (line   6)
* standard-indent:                       Format Indentation.  (line  46)
* suggest-key-bindings:                  M-x.                 (line  45)
* tab-stop-list:                         Tab Stops.           (line  10)
* tab-width:                             Text Display.        (line  46)
* table-cell-horizontal-char:            Table Definition.    (line  29)
* table-cell-intersection-char:          Table Definition.    (line  33)
* table-cell-vertical-char:              Table Definition.    (line  25)
* table-detect-cell-alignment:           Cell Justification.  (line  24)
* tags-apropos-additional-actions:       List Tags.           (line  28)
* tags-apropos-verbose:                  List Tags.           (line  22)
* tags-case-fold-search:                 Tags Search.         (line  43)
* tags-file-name:                        Select Tags Table.   (line   6)
* tags-table-list:                       Select Tags Table.   (line  26)
* tags-tag-face:                         List Tags.           (line  28)
* temporary-file-directory:              Backup.              (line  25)
* term-file-prefix:                      Terminal Init.       (line  27)
* term-setup-hook:                       Terminal Init.       (line  32)
* tex-bibtex-command:                    TeX Print.           (line 138)
* tex-default-mode:                      TeX Mode.            (line  16)
* tex-directory:                         TeX Print.           (line  54)
* tex-dvi-print-command:                 TeX Print.           (line  61)
* tex-dvi-view-command:                  TeX Print.           (line  61)
* tex-main-file:                         TeX Print.           (line 128)
* tex-mode-hook:                         TeX Misc.            (line   6)
* tex-run-command:                       TeX Print.           (line  61)
* tex-shell-hook:                        TeX Misc.            (line   6)
* tex-show-queue-command:                TeX Print.           (line  61)
* tex-start-commands:                    TeX Print.           (line 124)
* tex-start-options:                     TeX Print.           (line 121)
* text-mode-hook:                        Text Mode.           (line  43)
* timeclock-ask-before-exiting:          Time Intervals.      (line  25)
* timeclock-file:                        Time Intervals.      (line  32)
* timeclock-modeline-display:            Time Intervals.      (line  20)
* today-invisible-calendar-hook:         Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  42)
* today-visible-calendar-hook:           Calendar Customizing.
                                                              (line  23)
* tool-bar-mode:                         Tool Bars.           (line  19)
* tooltip-delay:                         Tooltips.            (line  22)
* tooltip-gud-modes:                     Debugger Operation.  (line  26)
* track-eol:                             Moving Point.        (line 103)
* truncate-lines:                        Line Truncation.     (line  14)
* truncate-partial-width-windows:        Split Window.        (line  38)
* undo-limit:                            Undo.                (line  68)
* undo-outer-limit:                      Undo.                (line  68)
* undo-strong-limit:                     Undo.                (line  68)
* unibyte-display-via-language-environment: Unibyte Mode.     (line  19)
* uniquify-buffer-name-style:            Uniquify.            (line  11)
* use-dialog-box:                        Dialog Boxes.        (line   6)
* use-file-dialog:                       Dialog Boxes.        (line  15)
* user-mail-address:                     Init Examples.       (line  28)
* user-mail-address, initialization:     General Variables.   (line  40)
* vc-BACKEND-header:                     Version Headers.     (line  35)
* vc-command-messages:                   General VC Options.  (line  37)
* vc-comment-alist:                      Version Headers.     (line  49)
* vc-consult-headers:                    RCS and SCCS.        (line  21)
* vc-cvs-global-switches:                CVS Options.         (line  58)
* vc-cvs-stay-local <1>:                 VC Dired Mode.       (line  61)
* vc-cvs-stay-local:                     CVS Options.         (line  29)
* vc-default-init-version:               Registering.         (line  30)
* vc-diff-switches:                      Old Versions.        (line  49)
* vc-directory-exclusion-list:           VC Dired Mode.       (line  76)
* vc-dired-recurse:                      VC Dired Mode.       (line  27)
* vc-dired-terse-display:                VC Dired Mode.       (line  18)
* vc-follow-symlinks:                    General VC Options.  (line  17)
* vc-handled-backends:                   Customizing VC.      (line   6)
* vc-initial-comment:                    Registering.         (line  36)
* vc-keep-workfiles:                     General VC Options.  (line  11)
* vc-log-mode-hook:                      Log Buffer.          (line  45)
* vc-make-backup-files <1>:              Backup.              (line   6)
* vc-make-backup-files:                  General VC Options.  (line   6)
* vc-mistrust-permissions:               RCS and SCCS.        (line  26)
* vc-path:                               General VC Options.  (line  42)
* vc-rcs-diff-switches:                  Old Versions.        (line  49)
* vc-static-header-alist:                Version Headers.     (line  56)
* vc-stay-local <1>:                     CVS Options.         (line  29)
* vc-stay-local:                         VC Dired Mode.       (line  61)
* vc-suppress-confirm:                   General VC Options.  (line  31)
* version-control:                       Numbered Backups.    (line   6)
* view-calendar-holidays-initially:      Holidays.            (line  33)
* view-diary-entries-initially:          Displaying the Diary.
                                                              (line  35)
* visible-bell:                          Display Custom.      (line  12)
* visible-cursor:                        Cursor Display.      (line  14)
* w32-alt-is-meta:                       Windows Keyboard.    (line  22)
* w32-apps-modifier:                     Windows Keyboard.    (line  42)
* w32-capslock-is-shiftlock:             Windows Keyboard.    (line  26)
* w32-enable-caps-lock:                  Windows Keyboard.    (line  33)
* w32-enable-num-lock:                   Windows Keyboard.    (line  37)
* w32-get-true-file-attributes:          Windows Files.       (line  14)
* w32-grab-focus-on-raise:               Windows Misc.        (line  16)
* w32-list-proportional-fonts:           Windows Misc.        (line  20)
* w32-lwindow-modifier:                  Windows Keyboard.    (line  48)
* w32-mouse-button-tolerance:            Windows Mouse.       (line   8)
* w32-pass-alt-to-system:                Windows Keyboard.    (line  59)
* w32-pass-extra-mouse-buttons-to-system: Windows Mouse.      (line  14)
* w32-pass-lwindow-to-system:            Windows Keyboard.    (line  70)
* w32-pass-rwindow-to-system:            Windows Keyboard.    (line  70)
* w32-quote-process-args:                Windows Processes.   (line  51)
* w32-recognize-altgr:                   Windows Keyboard.    (line  78)
* w32-rwindow-modifier:                  Windows Keyboard.    (line  48)
* w32-scroll-lock-modifier:              Windows Keyboard.    (line  48)
* w32-swap-mouse-buttons:                Windows Mouse.       (line  17)
* w32-use-visible-system-caret:          Windows Misc.        (line   8)
* which-func-modes:                      Which Function.      (line   9)
* window-min-height:                     Change Window.       (line  51)
* window-min-width:                      Change Window.       (line  51)
* write-region-inhibit-fsync:            Customize Save.      (line  22)
* x-cut-buffer-max:                      Cut/Paste Other App. (line  14)
* x-gtk-file-dialog-help-text:           Dialog Boxes.        (line  33)
* x-gtk-show-hidden-files:               Dialog Boxes.        (line  21)
* x-gtk-use-old-file-dialog:             Dialog Boxes.        (line  27)
* x-mouse-click-focus-ignore-position:   Mouse Commands.      (line  22)
* x-select-enable-clipboard:             Clipboard.           (line   6)
* x-stretch-cursor:                      Cursor Display.      (line  28)
* x-underline-at-descent-line:           Display Custom.      (line  45)
* xdb-mode-hook:                         GUD Customization.   (line   6)
* yank-excluded-properties:              Kill Ring.           (line  21)


File: emacs,  Node: Concept Index,  Next: Acknowledgments,  Prev: Variable Index,  Up: Top

Concept Index
*************

[index]
* Menu:

* $ in file names:                       File Names.          (line  64)
* ( in leftmost column:                  Left Margin Paren.   (line   6)
* *Messages* buffer:                     Echo Area.           (line  42)
* -/--/.-./.../.:                        Amusements.          (line  32)
* .mailrc file:                          Mail Aliases.        (line   6)
* .timelog file:                         Time Intervals.      (line  32)
* // in file name:                       Minibuffer File.     (line  28)
* 8-bit character codes:                 Inserting Text.      (line  76)
* 8-bit display:                         Unibyte Mode.        (line  33)
* 8-bit input:                           Unibyte Mode.        (line  40)
* <BACKSPACE> vs <DEL>:                  DEL Does Not Delete. (line   6)
* <DEL> vs <BACKSPACE>:                  DEL Does Not Delete. (line   6)
* <ESC> replacing <META> key:            User Input.          (line  53)
* ? in display:                          International Chars. (line  17)
* _emacs init file, MS-Windows:          Windows HOME.        (line  33)
* A and B buffers (Emerge):              Overview of Emerge.  (line  21)
* Abbrev mode:                           Abbrev Concepts.     (line  13)
* abbrevs:                               Abbrevs.             (line   6)
* abnormal hook:                         Hooks.               (line  27)
* aborting recursive edit:               Quitting.            (line  66)
* accented characters:                   Unibyte Mode.        (line   6)
* accessible portion:                    Narrowing.           (line   6)
* accumulating scattered text:           Accumulating Text.   (line   6)
* action options (command line):         Emacs Invocation.    (line  41)
* adaptive filling:                      Adaptive Fill.       (line   6)
* Adding to the kill ring in Dired.:     Misc Dired Features. (line  10)
* addpm, MS-Windows installation program: MS-Windows Registry.
                                                              (line   6)
* againformation:                        Dissociated Press.   (line  28)
* aggressive scrolling:                  Auto Scrolling.      (line  17)
* alarm clock:                           Appointments.        (line  52)
* alignment for comments:                Comment Commands.    (line   6)
* Alt key (MS-Windows):                  Windows Keyboard.    (line  22)
* Alt key invokes menu (Windows):        Windows Keyboard.    (line  59)
* ALTERNATE_EDITOR environment variable: Invoking emacsclient.
                                                              (line  37)
* AltGr key (MS-Windows):                Windows Keyboard.    (line  78)
* ange-ftp:                              Remote Files.        (line  46)
* anonymous FTP:                         Remote Files.        (line  50)
* appending kills in the ring:           Appending Kills.     (line   6)
* appointment notification:              Appointments.        (line   6)
* apropos:                               Apropos.             (line  31)
* apropos search results, order by score: Apropos.            (line  92)
* arc:                                   File Archives.       (line  42)
* Arch:                                  Version Systems.     (line  19)
* Archive mode:                          File Archives.       (line  42)
* arguments (command line):              Emacs Invocation.    (line   6)
* arguments to commands:                 Arguments.           (line   6)
* arrow keys:                            Moving Point.        (line   6)
* ASCII:                                 User Input.          (line   6)
* ASCII art:                             Text.                (line  38)
* Asm mode:                              Asm Mode.            (line   6)
* assembler mode:                        Asm Mode.            (line   6)
* astronomical day numbers:              Calendar Systems.    (line  12)
* attached frame (of speedbar):          Speedbar.            (line   6)
* attribute (Rmail):                     Rmail Labels.        (line   6)
* attributes of mode line, changing:     Optional Mode Line.  (line  72)
* Auto Compression mode:                 Compressed Files.    (line   6)
* Auto Fill mode:                        Auto Fill.           (line   6)
* Auto Save mode:                        Auto Save.           (line   6)
* Auto-Lower mode:                       Frame Parameters.    (line   6)
* Auto-Raise mode:                       Frame Parameters.    (line   6)
* Auto-Revert mode:                      Reverting.           (line  38)
* auto-save for remote files:            Auto Save Files.     (line  27)
* autoload:                              Lisp Libraries.      (line  55)
* autoload Lisp libraries:               Init Examples.       (line  92)
* automatic typing:                      Text.                (line  43)
* automatic version backups:             Version Backups.     (line   6)
* autotyping:                            Text.                (line  43)
* available colors:                      Colors.              (line   6)
* avoiding mouse in the way of your typing: Mouse Avoidance.  (line   6)
* AWK mode:                              C Modes.             (line   6)
* b2m:                                   Out of Rmail.        (line  12)
* Babyl format to Inbox format:          Out of Rmail.        (line   6)
* back end (version control):            Version Systems.     (line   6)
* back reference, in regexp:             Regexp Backslash.    (line  54)
* back reference, in regexp replacement: Regexp Replace.      (line  13)
* background color, command-line argument: Colors.            (line  29)
* background mode, on xterm:             General Variables.   (line 146)
* background syntax highlighting:        Font Lock.           (line 100)
* backtrace for bug reports:             Checklist.           (line 213)
* backup file:                           Backup.              (line   6)
* backup file names on MS-DOS:           MS-DOS File Names.   (line  20)
* backup, and user-id:                   Backup Copying.      (line  27)
* backups for remote files:              Remote Files.        (line  39)
* balanced expression:                   Expressions.         (line   6)
* balloon help:                          Help Echo.           (line   6)
* base buffer:                           Indirect Buffers.    (line   6)
* Bash command to use Emacs server:      Emacs Server.        (line  27)
* batch mode:                            Initial Options.     (line  34)
* binary files, on MS-DOS/MS-Windows:    Text and Binary.     (line  81)
* binding:                               Commands.            (line   6)
* binding keyboard macros:               Save Keyboard Macro. (line  28)
* blank lines:                           Blank Lines.         (line  16)
* blank lines in programs:               Multi-Line Comments. (line   6)
* blinking cursor disable, command-line argument: Misc X.     (line  21)
* body lines (Outline mode):             Outline Format.      (line   6)
* bold font:                             Face Customization.  (line   6)
* bookmarks:                             Bookmarks.           (line   6)
* border color, command-line argument:   Colors.              (line  33)
* borders (X Window System):             Borders X.           (line   6)
* boredom:                               Amusements.          (line   6)
* box-drawing characters (MS-DOS):       MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  99)
* brace in column zero and fontification: Font Lock.          (line  63)
* braces, moving across:                 Moving by Parens.    (line   6)
* branch (version control):              Branches.            (line   6)
* Brief emulation:                       Emulation.           (line  10)
* Browse-URL:                            Browse-URL.          (line   6)
* buffer definitions index:              Imenu.               (line   6)
* buffer list, customizable:             Buffer Menus.        (line   6)
* buffer menu <1>:                       Buffer Menus.        (line  16)
* buffer menu:                           Several Buffers.     (line   6)
* buffer size display:                   Optional Mode Line.  (line   6)
* buffer size, maximum:                  Buffers.             (line  38)
* buffers:                               Buffers.             (line   6)
* buggestion:                            Dissociated Press.   (line  45)
* bugs:                                  Bugs.                (line   6)
* building programs:                     Building.            (line   6)
* button down events:                    Mouse Buttons.       (line   6)
* buttons (customization buffer):        Customization Groups.
                                                              (line  35)
* buttons at buffer position:            Editing Format Info. (line  27)
* bypassing init and default.el file:    Initial Options.     (line  70)
* byte code:                             Lisp Libraries.      (line  10)
* byte-compiling several files (in Dired): Operating on Files.
                                                              (line 114)
* C editing:                             Programs.            (line   6)
* C mode:                                C Modes.             (line   6)
* C++ class browser, tags:               Tags.                (line  29)
* C++ mode:                              C Modes.             (line   6)
* C-:                                    User Input.          (line   6)
* cache of file names:                   File Name Cache.     (line   6)
* calendar:                              Calendar/Diary.      (line   6)
* calendar and HTML:                     Writing Calendar Files.
                                                              (line   9)
* calendar and LaTeX:                    Writing Calendar Files.
                                                              (line  38)
* calendar, first day of week:           Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  33)
* call Lisp functions, command-line argument: Action Arguments.
                                                              (line  41)
* candle lighting times:                 Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* capitalizing words:                    Case.                (line  24)
* case conversion:                       Case.                (line   6)
* case-sensitivity and tags search:      Tags Search.         (line  43)
* categories of characters:              Regexp Backslash.    (line 140)
* cell text justification:               Cell Justification.  (line   6)
* Celtic:                                International.       (line   6)
* centering:                             Fill Commands.       (line  44)
* change buffers:                        Select Buffer.       (line   6)
* change log:                            Change Log.          (line  13)
* Change Log mode:                       Change Log.          (line  38)
* changes, undoing:                      Undo.                (line   6)
* changing file group (in Dired):        Operating on Files.  (line  81)
* changing file owner (in Dired):        Operating on Files.  (line  85)
* changing file permissions (in Dired):  Operating on Files.  (line  76)
* changing file time (in Dired):         Operating on Files.  (line  94)
* character set (keyboard):              User Input.          (line   6)
* character set of character at point:   Position Info.       (line 100)
* characters (in text) <1>:              Text Display.        (line   6)
* characters (in text):                  Text Characters.     (line   6)
* characters in a certain charset:       Charsets.            (line  21)
* characters which belong to a specific language: Regexp Backslash.
                                                              (line 140)
* charsets:                              Charsets.            (line   6)
* checking out files:                    VC Concepts.         (line  14)
* checking spelling:                     Spelling.            (line   6)
* checking syntax:                       Flymake.             (line   6)
* Chinese:                               International.       (line   6)
* Chinese calendar:                      Calendar Systems.    (line  58)
* choosing a major mode:                 Choosing Modes.      (line   6)
* ciphers:                               Amusements.          (line  20)
* citing mail:                           Citing Mail.         (line   6)
* class browser, C++:                    Tags.                (line  29)
* click events:                          Mouse Buttons.       (line   6)
* clipboard:                             Clipboard.           (line   6)
* clipboard support (Mac OS):            Mac International.   (line   6)
* codepage, MS-DOS:                      MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  26)
* coding systems:                        Coding Systems.      (line   6)
* collision:                             Interlocking.        (line  25)
* color customization, in ~/.emacs:      Creating Frames.     (line  46)
* color emulation on black-and-white printers: PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  17)
* color of window, from command line:    Colors.              (line   6)
* Column Number mode:                    Optional Mode Line.  (line  44)
* columns (and rectangles):              Rectangles.          (line   6)
* columns (indentation):                 Indentation.         (line   6)
* columns, splitting:                    Two-Column.          (line   6)
* Comint mode:                           Shell Mode.          (line 152)
* comint-highlight-input face:           Interactive Shell.   (line  20)
* comint-highlight-prompt face:          Interactive Shell.   (line  20)
* command:                               Commands.            (line   6)
* command history:                       Repetition.          (line   6)
* command line arguments:                Emacs Invocation.    (line   6)
* comments:                              Comments.            (line   6)
* comments on customized settings:       Changing a Variable. (line 145)
* compare files (in Dired):              Comparison in Dired. (line   6)
* comparing 3 files (diff3):             Comparing Files.     (line  37)
* comparing files:                       Comparing Files.     (line   6)
* compilation buffer, keeping point at end: Compilation.      (line  54)
* compilation errors:                    Compilation.         (line   6)
* Compilation mode:                      Compilation Mode.    (line   6)
* compilation under MS-DOS:              MS-DOS Processes.    (line   6)
* complete key:                          Keys.                (line  12)
* completion:                            Completion.          (line   6)
* completion (Lisp symbols):             Symbol Completion.   (line  36)
* completion (symbol names):             Symbol Completion.   (line   6)
* compose character:                     Unibyte Mode.        (line  61)
* compressing files (in Dired):          Operating on Files.  (line 106)
* compression:                           Compressed Files.    (line   6)
* Conf mode:                             Program Modes.       (line  20)
* conflicts:                             Merging.             (line  46)
* connecting to remote host:             Remote Host.         (line   6)
* continuation line:                     Continuation Lines.  (line   6)
* Control:                               User Input.          (line   6)
* control characters:                    User Input.          (line   6)
* Control-Meta:                          Expressions.         (line  31)
* converting Rmail file to mailbox format: Out of Rmail.      (line   6)
* converting text to upper or lower case: Case.               (line  24)
* Coptic calendar:                       Calendar Systems.    (line  41)
* copy of every outgoing message:        Mail Headers.        (line  37)
* copying files:                         Misc File Ops.       (line  63)
* copying files (in Dired):              Operating on Files.  (line  34)
* copying text:                          Yanking.             (line   6)
* CORBA IDL mode:                        C Modes.             (line   6)
* correcting spelling:                   Spelling.            (line   6)
* CPerl mode:                            Program Modes.       (line  20)
* crashes:                               Auto Save.           (line   6)
* create a text-based table:             Table Creation.      (line   6)
* creating files:                        Visiting.            (line 101)
* creating frames:                       Creating Frames.     (line   6)
* CRiSP mode:                            Emulation.           (line  10)
* cryptanalysis:                         Amusements.          (line  20)
* CUA key bindings:                      CUA Bindings.        (line   6)
* current buffer:                        Buffers.             (line  13)
* current function name in mode line:    Which Function.      (line   6)
* cursor:                                Point.               (line   6)
* cursor color, command-line argument:   Colors.              (line  37)
* cursor in non-selected windows:        Cursor Display.      (line  21)
* cursor location:                       Position Info.       (line  38)
* cursor location, on MS-DOS:            Text and Binary.     (line  19)
* cursor motion:                         Moving Point.        (line   6)
* cursor shape on MS-DOS:                MS-DOS Display.      (line  19)
* cursor, blinking:                      Cursor Display.      (line   6)
* cursor, locating visually:             Cursor Display.      (line   6)
* custom themes:                         Custom Themes.       (line   6)
* customization:                         Customization.       (line   6)
* customization buffer:                  Easy Customization.  (line  13)
* customization groups:                  Customization Groups.
                                                              (line   6)
* customization of menu face:            Standard Faces.      (line 169)
* customizing faces:                     Face Customization.  (line   6)
* customizing Lisp indentation:          Lisp Indent.         (line   6)
* cut and paste:                         Glossary.            (line 299)
* cut buffer:                            Cut/Paste Other App. (line  14)
* cutting:                               Cut/Paste Other App. (line   6)
* cutting text:                          Killing.             (line  15)
* cvs:                                   VC Dired Mode.       (line   6)
* CVS:                                   Version Systems.     (line   9)
* CVS Dired Mode:                        VC Dired Mode.       (line   6)
* cvs watch feature:                     CVS Options.         (line  21)
* CVSREAD environment variable (CVS):    CVS Options.         (line  11)
* CWarn mode:                            Other C Commands.    (line  82)
* Cyrillic:                              International.       (line   6)
* Czech:                                 International.       (line   6)
* day of year:                           General Calendar.    (line  21)
* daylight saving time:                  Daylight Saving.     (line   6)
* DBX:                                   Debuggers.           (line   6)
* dead character:                        Unibyte Mode.        (line  61)
* debuggers:                             Debuggers.           (line   6)
* debugging Emacs, tricks and techniques: Checklist.          (line 248)
* debugging X problems:                  Table of Resources.  (line 104)
* decoding mail messages (Rmail):        Rmail Coding.        (line   6)
* decoding non-ASCII keyboard input on X: Communication Coding.
                                                              (line  46)
* default argument:                      Minibuffer.          (line  20)
* default-frame-alist:                   Creating Frames.     (line  46)
* default.el file, not loading:          Initial Options.     (line  70)
* default.el, the default init file:     Init File.           (line  16)
* defining keyboard macros:              Keyboard Macros.     (line   6)
* defuns:                                Moving by Defuns.    (line   6)
* delete column in table:                Column Commands.     (line  13)
* delete row in table:                   Row Commands.        (line  14)
* Delete Selection mode:                 Mouse Commands.      (line  99)
* deleting auto-save files:              Flagging Many Files. (line  38)
* deleting blank lines:                  Blank Lines.         (line   6)
* deleting characters and lines:         Erasing.             (line  29)
* deleting files (in Dired):             Dired Deletion.      (line   6)
* deleting some backup files:            Flagging Many Files. (line  32)
* deletion:                              Killing.             (line  15)
* deletion (of files):                   Misc File Ops.       (line  38)
* deletion (Rmail):                      Rmail Deletion.      (line   6)
* Delphi mode:                           Program Modes.       (line  20)
* desktop:                               Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line   6)
* Devanagari:                            International.       (line   6)
* developediment:                        Dissociated Press.   (line  45)
* device for Emacs terminal I/O:         Initial Options.     (line  19)
* dialog boxes:                          Dialog Boxes.        (line   6)
* diary:                                 Diary.               (line   6)
* diary buffer:                          Fancy Diary Display. (line  11)
* diary file:                            Format of Diary File.
                                                              (line   6)
* Diff mode:                             Diff Mode.           (line   6)
* digest message:                        Rmail Digest.        (line   6)
* directional window selection:          Window Convenience.  (line  14)
* directories in buffer names:           Uniquify.            (line   6)
* directory header lines:                Subdirectory Motion. (line  10)
* directory listing:                     Directories.         (line   6)
* directory listing on MS-DOS:           MS-DOS Processes.    (line  44)
* directory tracking:                    Directory Tracking.  (line   6)
* Dired:                                 Dired.               (line   6)
* Dired sorting:                         Dired Updating.      (line  59)
* Dired, and MS-Windows/MS-DOS:          ls in Lisp.          (line   6)
* disable window system:                 Initial Options.     (line  29)
* disabled command:                      Disabling.           (line   6)
* disabling remote files:                Remote Files.        (line  69)
* DISPLAY environment variable:          Display X.           (line   6)
* display for Emacs frame:               Initial Options.     (line  24)
* display name (X Window System):        Display X.           (line   6)
* display of buffer size:                Optional Mode Line.  (line   6)
* display of line number:                Optional Mode Line.  (line  21)
* DNS mode:                              Program Modes.       (line  20)
* DocTeX mode:                           TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* doctor:                                Total Frustration.   (line   6)
* DOS applications, running from Emacs:  Windows Processes.   (line   6)
* DOS codepages:                         MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  26)
* DOS-style end-of-line display:         Recognize Coding.    (line  56)
* DOS-to-Unix conversion of files:       Text and Binary.     (line  38)
* double clicks:                         Mouse Buttons.       (line  28)
* double slash in file name:             Minibuffer File.     (line  28)
* down events:                           Mouse Buttons.       (line   6)
* downcase file names:                   Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  27)
* drag and drop:                         Drag and Drop.       (line   6)
* drag and drop, Dired:                  Misc Dired Features. (line  49)
* drag events:                           Mouse Buttons.       (line   6)
* drastic changes:                       Reverting.           (line   6)
* dribble file:                          Checklist.           (line  80)
* DSSSL mode:                            Program Modes.       (line  20)
* Dutch:                                 International.       (line   6)
* Ebrowse:                               Tags.                (line  29)
* echo area:                             Echo Area.           (line   6)
* Edebug:                                Checklist.           (line 162)
* editable fields (customization buffer): Customization Groups.
                                                              (line  35)
* editing binary files:                  Editing Binary Files.
                                                              (line   6)
* editing in Picture mode:               Basic Picture.       (line   6)
* editing level, recursive:              Recursive Edit.      (line   6)
* EDITOR environment variable:           Emacs Server.        (line   6)
* EDT:                                   Emulation.           (line   6)
* Eldoc mode:                            Lisp Doc.            (line  16)
* Eliza:                                 Total Frustration.   (line   6)
* Emacs as a server:                     Emacs Server.        (line   6)
* EMACS environment variable:            Interactive Shell.   (line  56)
* Emacs icon, a gnu:                     Icons X.             (line  14)
* Emacs initialization file:             Init File.           (line   6)
* Emacs-Lisp mode:                       Lisp Eval.           (line   6)
* emacs.bash:                            Emacs Server.        (line  27)
* EMACS_SERVER_FILE environment variable: Invoking emacsclient.
                                                              (line  54)
* emacsclient:                           Emacs Server.        (line   6)
* emacsclient invocation and options:    Invoking emacsclient.
                                                              (line   6)
* Emerge:                                Emerge.              (line   6)
* emulating other editors:               Emulation.           (line   6)
* emulation of Brief:                    Emulation.           (line  10)
* encoding of characters:                International.       (line   6)
* end-of-line conversion:                Coding Systems.      (line  56)
* end-of-line conversion on MS-DOS/MS-Windows: Text and Binary.
                                                              (line   9)
* end-of-line conversion, mode-line indication: Mode Line.    (line 104)
* enlarge a table cell:                  Cell Commands.       (line  36)
* Enriched mode:                         Formatted Text.      (line   6)
* entering Emacs:                        Entering Emacs.      (line   6)
* environment variables:                 Environment.         (line   6)
* environment variables (Mac OS):        Mac Environment Variables.
                                                              (line   6)
* environment variables for subshells:   Interactive Shell.   (line  32)
* environment variables in file names:   File Names.          (line  64)
* environment variables, and non-ASCII characters: Enabling Multibyte.
                                                              (line  47)
* erasing characters and lines:          Erasing.             (line  29)
* error log:                             Compilation.         (line   6)
* error message in the echo area:        Echo Area.           (line  24)
* errors in init file:                   Initial Options.     (line 101)
* escape sequences in files:             Recognize Coding.    (line  66)
* ESHELL environment variable:           Interactive Shell.   (line  32)
* etags program:                         Create Tags Table.   (line   6)
* Ethiopic:                              International.       (line   6)
* Ethiopic calendar:                     Calendar Systems.    (line  41)
* Euro sign:                             Language Environments.
                                                              (line  26)
* European character sets:               Unibyte Mode.        (line   6)
* evaluate expression, command-line argument: Action Arguments.
                                                              (line  48)
* exiting:                               Exiting.             (line   6)
* exiting recursive edit:                Recursive Edit.      (line  12)
* expanding subdirectories in Dired:     Subdirectories in Dired.
                                                              (line   6)
* expansion (of abbrevs):                Abbrevs.             (line   6)
* expansion of C macros:                 Other C Commands.    (line  45)
* expansion of environment variables:    File Names.          (line  64)
* expression:                            Expressions.         (line   6)
* expunging (Dired):                     Dired Deletion.      (line  36)
* expunging (Rmail):                     Rmail Deletion.      (line  11)
* face colors, setting:                  Faces.               (line  38)
* face customization, in ~/.emacs:       Creating Frames.     (line  46)
* faces:                                 Faces.               (line   6)
* faces for highlighting query replace:  Query Replace.       (line  28)
* faces for highlighting search matches: Highlight Isearch.   (line  14)
* faces under MS-DOS:                    MS-DOS Display.      (line   6)
* failed merges:                         Comparing Files.     (line  37)
* Feedmail:                              Mail Sending.        (line  39)
* FFAP minor mode:                       FFAP.                (line  18)
* file archives:                         File Archives.       (line   6)
* file comparison (in Dired):            Comparison in Dired. (line   6)
* file database (locate):                Dired and Find.      (line  38)
* file dates:                            Interlocking.        (line   6)
* file directory:                        Directories.         (line   6)
* file local variables:                  File Variables.      (line   6)
* file management:                       Dired.               (line   6)
* file name caching:                     File Name Cache.     (line   6)
* file names:                            File Names.          (line   6)
* file names (Mac OS):                   Mac Directories.     (line   6)
* file names on MS-Windows:              Windows Files.       (line   6)
* file names under MS-DOS:               MS-DOS File Names.   (line   6)
* file names under Windows 95/NT:        MS-DOS File Names.   (line  26)
* file names with non-ASCII characters:  File Name Coding.    (line   9)
* file names, quote special characters:  Quoted File Names.   (line   6)
* file ownership, and backup:            Backup Copying.      (line  27)
* file selection dialog:                 Visiting.            (line  86)
* file shadows:                          File Shadowing.      (line   6)
* file truenames:                        File Aliases.        (line  27)
* file version in change log entries:    Change Log.          (line  32)
* file-name completion, on MS-Windows:   Windows Files.       (line  11)
* files:                                 Files.               (line   6)
* files, visiting and saving:            Visiting.            (line  28)
* filesets:                              Filesets.            (line   6)
* fill prefix:                           Fill Prefix.         (line   6)
* filling text:                          Filling.             (line   6)
* find:                                  File Name Cache.     (line   6)
* find and Dired:                        Dired and Find.      (line   6)
* find Info manual by its file name:     Misc Help.           (line  11)
* finding file at point:                 FFAP.                (line   6)
* finding files containing regexp matches (in Dired): Marks vs Flags.
                                                              (line 112)
* finding strings within text:           Search.              (line   6)
* firewall, and accessing remote files:  Remote Files.        (line  58)
* fix width of table cells:              Fixed Width Mode.    (line   6)
* fixing incorrectly decoded mail messages: Rmail Coding.     (line  16)
* flagging files (in Dired):             Dired Deletion.      (line   6)
* flagging many files for deletion (in Dired): Flagging Many Files.
                                                              (line   6)
* Flyspell mode:                         Spelling.            (line  44)
* folding editing:                       Foldout.             (line   6)
* Follow mode:                           Follow Mode.         (line   6)
* font (default):                        Creating Frames.     (line  52)
* font for menus:                        Table of Resources.  (line  72)
* Font Lock mode:                        Font Lock.           (line   6)
* font name (X Window System):           Font X.              (line   6)
* font names (Mac OS):                   Mac Font Specs.      (line   6)
* font of character at point:            Position Info.       (line 100)
* fonts and faces:                       Face Customization.  (line   6)
* fonts for PostScript printing:         PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  48)
* fonts for various scripts:             Language Environments.
                                                              (line  39)
* fonts, emulating under MS-DOS:         MS-DOS Display.      (line   6)
* fontsets:                              Fontsets.            (line   6)
* foreground color, command-line argument: Colors.            (line  23)
* formatted text:                        Formatted Text.      (line   6)
* formfeed:                              Pages.               (line   6)
* Fortran continuation lines:            ForIndent Cont.      (line   6)
* Fortran mode:                          Fortran.             (line   6)
* Fortran77 and Fortran90:               Fortran.             (line  19)
* fortune cookies:                       Mail Amusements.     (line  24)
* forwarding a message:                  Rmail Reply.         (line  73)
* frame focus policy, MS-Windows:        Windows Misc.        (line  16)
* frame size under MS-DOS:               MS-DOS Display.      (line  43)
* frame title, command-line argument:    Title X.             (line  17)
* frames:                                Frames.              (line   6)
* frames on MS-DOS:                      MS-DOS Display.      (line  36)
* French Revolutionary calendar:         Calendar Systems.    (line  29)
* fringe face:                           Standard Faces.      (line 143)
* fringes:                               Fringes.             (line   6)
* fringes, and continuation lines:       Continuation Lines.  (line   6)
* fringes, and current execution line in GUD: Debugger Operation.
                                                              (line   6)
* fringes, and unused line indication:   Useless Whitespace.  (line  29)
* FTP:                                   Remote Files.        (line   6)
* fullheight, command-line argument:     Window Size X.       (line  22)
* fullscreen, command-line argument:     Window Size X.       (line  18)
* fullwidth, command-line argument:      Window Size X.       (line  26)
* function definition:                   Commands.            (line   6)
* function key:                          Keymaps.             (line  38)
* function, move to beginning or end:    Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* gamma correction:                      Table of Resources.  (line  86)
* gateway, and remote file access with ange-ftp: Remote Files.
                                                              (line  58)
* GDB:                                   Debuggers.           (line   6)
* GDB commands in Fringe:                Source Buffers.      (line   6)
* GDB User Interface layout:             GDB-UI Layout.       (line   6)
* geometry of Emacs window:              Window Size X.       (line   6)
* geometry, command-line argument:       Window Size X.       (line  11)
* German:                                International.       (line   6)
* getting help with keys:                Basic Help.          (line   6)
* Glasses mode:                          Glasses.             (line   6)
* Global Auto-Revert mode:               Reverting.           (line  38)
* global keymap:                         Keymaps.             (line  17)
* global mark:                           CUA Bindings.        (line  37)
* global mark ring:                      Global Mark Ring.    (line   6)
* global substitution:                   Replace.             (line   6)
* Gnome:                                 Clipboard.           (line   6)
* GNU Arch:                              Version Systems.     (line  19)
* Gnus:                                  Gnus.                (line   6)
* Go Moku:                               Amusements.          (line  10)
* Goto-address:                          Goto-address.        (line   6)
* graphic characters:                    Inserting Text.      (line   6)
* Greek:                                 International.       (line   6)
* Gregorian calendar:                    Other Calendars.     (line   6)
* growing minibuffer:                    Minibuffer Edit.     (line  23)
* GTK resources and customization:       GTK resources.       (line   6)
* GTK styles:                            GTK styles.          (line   6)
* GTK widget classes:                    GTK Names in Emacs.  (line   6)
* GTK widget names <1>:                  GTK widget names.    (line   6)
* GTK widget names:                      GTK Names in Emacs.  (line   6)
* GUD library:                           Debuggers.           (line   6)
* gzip:                                  Compressed Files.    (line   6)
* handwriting:                           PostScript.          (line  54)
* hard links (creation):                 Misc File Ops.       (line  56)
* hard links (in Dired):                 Operating on Files.  (line  64)
* hard links (visiting):                 File Aliases.        (line   6)
* hard newline:                          Hard and Soft Newlines.
                                                              (line   6)
* hardcopy:                              Printing.            (line   6)
* head version:                          Branches.            (line  23)
* header (TeX mode):                     TeX Print.           (line  96)
* header line (Dired):                   Subdirectory Motion. (line  10)
* headers (of mail message):             Mail Headers.        (line   6)
* heading lines (Outline mode):          Outline Format.      (line   6)
* Hebrew:                                International.       (line   6)
* Hebrew calendar:                       Calendar Systems.    (line  16)
* height of minibuffer:                  Minibuffer Edit.     (line  23)
* help:                                  Help.                (line   6)
* help, viewing web pages:               Help Mode.           (line  38)
* hex editing:                           Editing Binary Files.
                                                              (line   6)
* Hexl mode:                             Editing Binary Files.
                                                              (line   6)
* Hi Lock mode:                          Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  10)
* Hide-ifdef mode:                       Other C Commands.    (line  99)
* hiding in Dired (Dired):               Hiding Subdirectories.
                                                              (line   6)
* Highlight Changes mode:                Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line   6)
* highlight current line:                Cursor Display.      (line  34)
* highlighting by matching:              Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line   6)
* highlighting lines of text:            Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  49)
* highlighting matching parentheses:     Matching.            (line  33)
* highlighting region:                   Transient Mark.      (line   6)
* Hindi:                                 International.       (line   6)
* history of commands:                   Repetition.          (line   6)
* history of minibuffer input:           Minibuffer History.  (line   6)
* history reference:                     History References.  (line   6)
* holiday forms:                         Holiday Customizing. (line  34)
* holidays:                              Holidays.            (line   6)
* HOME directory on MS-Windows:          Windows HOME.        (line   6)
* home directory shorthand:              File Names.          (line  60)
* HOME directory under MS-DOS:           MS-DOS File Names.   (line  35)
* hook:                                  Hooks.               (line   6)
* horizontal scrolling:                  Horizontal Scrolling.
                                                              (line   6)
* hourglass pointer display:             Display Custom.      (line  35)
* hungry deletion (C Mode):              Hungry Delete.       (line   6)
* Hyper (under MS-DOS):                  MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  20)
* hyperlinking:                          Hyperlinking.        (line   6)
* IBM graphics characters (MS-DOS):      MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  99)
* iCalendar support:                     Importing Diary.     (line  15)
* Icomplete mode:                        Completion Options.  (line  49)
* Icon mode:                             Program Modes.       (line  20)
* icons (X Window System):               Icons X.             (line   6)
* icons, toolbar:                        Tool Bars.           (line   6)
* identifiers, making long ones readable: Glasses.            (line   6)
* IDL mode:                              C Modes.             (line   6)
* ignored file names, in completion:     Completion Options.  (line   6)
* ignoriginal:                           Dissociated Press.   (line  37)
* image-dired:                           Image-Dired.         (line   6)
* image-dired mode:                      Image-Dired.         (line   6)
* images, viewing:                       File Conveniences.   (line  20)
* IMAP mailboxes:                        Remote Mailboxes.    (line  37)
* in-situ subdirectory (Dired):          Subdirectories in Dired.
                                                              (line  19)
* inbox file:                            Rmail Inbox.         (line   6)
* incorrect fontification:               Font Lock.           (line  63)
* incremental search:                    Incremental Search.  (line   6)
* incremental search, input method interference: Input Methods.
                                                              (line  84)
* indentation:                           Indentation.         (line   6)
* indentation for comments:              Comment Commands.    (line   6)
* indentation for programs:              Program Indent.      (line   6)
* index of buffer definitions:           Imenu.               (line   6)
* indirect buffer:                       Indirect Buffers.    (line   6)
* indirect buffers and outlines:         Outline Views.       (line   6)
* inferior process:                      Compilation.         (line   6)
* inferior processes under MS-DOS:       MS-DOS Processes.    (line   6)
* Info:                                  Misc Help.           (line   6)
* Info index completion:                 Symbol Completion.   (line  25)
* init file:                             Init File.           (line   6)
* init file .emacs on MS-Windows:        Windows HOME.        (line  14)
* init file, and non-ASCII characters:   Enabling Multibyte.  (line  47)
* init file, default name under MS-DOS:  MS-DOS File Names.   (line   6)
* init file, not loading:                Initial Options.     (line  70)
* initial options (command line):        Emacs Invocation.    (line  41)
* initial version number to register:    Registering.         (line  30)
* initial-frame-alist:                   Creating Frames.     (line  46)
* input event:                           User Input.          (line  93)
* input method, during incremental search: Non-ASCII Isearch. (line   6)
* input methods:                         Input Methods.       (line   6)
* input methods, X:                      Table of Resources.  (line 121)
* input with the keyboard:               User Input.          (line   6)
* insert column in table:                Column Commands.     (line   6)
* insert file contents, command-line argument: Action Arguments.
                                                              (line  51)
* insert row in table:                   Row Commands.        (line   6)
* insert string into table cells:        Table Misc.          (line   6)
* inserted subdirectory (Dired):         Subdirectories in Dired.
                                                              (line  19)
* inserting blank lines:                 Blank Lines.         (line   6)
* insertion:                             Inserting Text.      (line   6)
* INSIDE_EMACS environment variable:     Interactive Shell.   (line  52)
* interactive highlighting:              Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line   6)
* internal border width, command-line argument: Borders X.    (line  15)
* international characters in .emacs:    Init Non-ASCII.      (line   6)
* international files from DOS/Windows systems: Coding Systems.
                                                              (line  21)
* international scripts:                 International.       (line   6)
* international support (MS-DOS):        MS-DOS and MULE.     (line   6)
* Intlfonts for PostScript printing:     PostScript Variables.
                                                              (line  48)
* Intlfonts package, installation:       Language Environments.
                                                              (line  39)
* invisible lines:                       Outline Mode.        (line   6)
* invocation (command line arguments):   Emacs Invocation.    (line   6)
* IPA:                                   International.       (line   6)
* isearch:                               Incremental Search.  (line   6)
* Islamic calendar:                      Calendar Systems.    (line  20)
* ISO commercial calendar:               Calendar Systems.    (line   6)
* ISO Latin character sets:              Unibyte Mode.        (line   6)
* iso-ascii library:                     Unibyte Mode.        (line  27)
* iso-transl library:                    Unibyte Mode.        (line  61)
* ispell program:                        Spelling.            (line 164)
* Iswitchb mode:                         Iswitchb.            (line   6)
* italic font:                           Face Customization.  (line   6)
* Japanese:                              International.       (line   6)
* jar:                                   File Archives.       (line  42)
* Java class archives:                   File Archives.       (line  42)
* Java mode:                             C Modes.             (line   6)
* JDB:                                   Debuggers.           (line   6)
* Julian calendar:                       Calendar Systems.    (line   8)
* Julian day numbers:                    Calendar Systems.    (line  12)
* just-in-time (JIT) font-lock:          Font Lock.           (line 100)
* justification:                         Fill Commands.       (line  36)
* Kerberos POP authentication:           Remote Mailboxes.    (line  65)
* key:                                   Keys.                (line   6)
* key bindings:                          Key Bindings.        (line   6)
* key rebinding, permanent:              Init File.           (line   6)
* key rebinding, this session:           Rebinding.           (line   6)
* key sequence:                          Keys.                (line   6)
* keyboard coding (Mac OS):              Mac Input.           (line   6)
* keyboard input:                        User Input.          (line   6)
* keyboard macro:                        Keyboard Macros.     (line   6)
* keyboard shortcuts:                    Glossary.            (line 678)
* keyboard, MS-Windows:                  Windows Keyboard.    (line   6)
* keymap:                                Keymaps.             (line   6)
* keypad:                                Function Keys.       (line  77)
* keypad keys (MS-Windows):              Windows Keyboard.    (line  37)
* keys stolen by window manager:         User Input.          (line 106)
* kill DOS application:                  Windows Processes.   (line  37)
* kill ring:                             Yanking.             (line   6)
* killing buffers:                       Kill Buffer.         (line   6)
* killing characters and lines:          Erasing.             (line  29)
* killing Emacs:                         Exiting.             (line   6)
* killing expressions:                   Expressions.         (line  54)
* killing rectangular areas of text:     Rectangles.          (line   6)
* killing text:                          Killing.             (line  15)
* Korean:                                International.       (line   6)
* label (Rmail):                         Rmail Labels.        (line   6)
* landmark game:                         Amusements.          (line  26)
* language environment, automatic selection on MS-DOS: MS-DOS and MULE.
                                                              (line  58)
* language environments:                 Language Environments.
                                                              (line   6)
* Lao:                                   International.       (line   6)
* LaTeX mode:                            TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* LaTeX references:                      TeX Misc.            (line  15)
* Latin:                                 International.       (line   6)
* Latin-1 TeX encoding:                  TeX Misc.            (line  11)
* lazy search highlighting:              Highlight Isearch.   (line   6)
* leading:                               Table of Resources.  (line  60)
* leaving Emacs:                         Exiting.             (line   6)
* LessTif Widget X Resources:            LessTif Resources.   (line   6)
* libraries:                             Lisp Libraries.      (line   6)
* Life:                                  Amusements.          (line  30)
* line endings:                          Coding Systems.      (line  56)
* line number commands:                  Position Info.       (line  38)
* line number display:                   Optional Mode Line.  (line  21)
* line spacing:                          Table of Resources.  (line  60)
* line spacing, command-line argument:   Misc X.              (line  17)
* line truncation, and fringes <1>:      Continuation Lines.  (line  25)
* line truncation, and fringes:          Line Truncation.     (line   6)
* line wrapping:                         Continuation Lines.  (line   6)
* line-drawing characters (MS-DOS):      MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  99)
* lines, highlighting:                   Highlight Interactively.
                                                              (line  49)
* links (customization buffer):          Customization Groups.
                                                              (line  35)
* Lisp editing:                          Programs.            (line   6)
* Lisp files byte-compiled by XEmacs:    Lisp Libraries.      (line  61)
* Lisp files, and multibyte operation:   Enabling Multibyte.  (line  47)
* Lisp functions specific to Mac OS:     Mac Functions.       (line   6)
* Lisp string syntax:                    Init Syntax.         (line  32)
* Lisp symbol completion:                Symbol Completion.   (line  36)
* lisp-indent-function property:         Lisp Indent.         (line  27)
* list commands:                         Moving by Parens.    (line   6)
* listing current buffers:               List Buffers.        (line   9)
* listing system fonts:                  Font X.              (line 109)
* load init file of another user:        Initial Options.     (line  98)
* loading Lisp code:                     Lisp Libraries.      (line   6)
* loading Lisp libraries automatically:  Init Examples.       (line  92)
* loading Lisp libraries, command-line argument: Action Arguments.
                                                              (line  26)
* loading several files (in Dired):      Operating on Files.  (line 110)
* local back end (version control):      Local Version Control.
                                                              (line   6)
* local keymap:                          Local Keymaps.       (line   6)
* local variables:                       Locals.              (line  16)
* local variables in files:              File Variables.      (line   6)
* local version control:                 Local Version Control.
                                                              (line   6)
* locale, date format:                   Time Stamps.         (line   6)
* locales:                               Language Environments.
                                                              (line  45)
* location of point:                     Position Info.       (line  38)
* locking (CVS):                         CVS Options.         (line   6)
* locking and version control:           VC Concepts.         (line  27)
* locking files:                         Interlocking.        (line  18)
* locking, non-strict (RCS):             RCS and SCCS.        (line   6)
* log File, types of:                    Types of Log File.   (line   6)
* logging keystrokes:                    Checklist.           (line  80)
* long file names in DOS box under Windows 95/NT: MS-DOS File Names.
                                                              (line  26)
* Long Lines minor mode:                 Longlines.           (line   6)
* looking for a subject in documentation: Help.               (line  29)
* lpr usage under MS-DOS:                Windows Printing.    (line  78)
* ls emulation:                          ls in Lisp.          (line   6)
* Lucid Widget X Resources:              Lucid Resources.     (line   6)
* lzh:                                   File Archives.       (line  42)
* M-:                                    User Input.          (line  53)
* M4 mode:                               Program Modes.       (line  20)
* Mac OS:                                Mac OS.              (line   6)
* Mac Preferences:                       Mac Environment Variables.
                                                              (line  36)
* Mac Roman coding system:               Mac International.   (line   6)
* Macintosh:                             Mac OS.              (line   6)
* Macintosh end-of-line conversion:      Coding Systems.      (line  56)
* Macintosh key bindings:                Emulation.           (line   6)
* macro expansion in C:                  Other C Commands.    (line  45)
* mail:                                  Sending Mail.        (line   6)
* mail (on mode line):                   Optional Mode Line.  (line  62)
* mail aliases:                          Mail Aliases.        (line   6)
* MAIL environment variable:             Rmail Inbox.         (line  15)
* Mail mode:                             Mail Mode.           (line   6)
* mail-composition methods:              Mail Methods.        (line   6)
* MAILHOST environment variable:         Remote Mailboxes.    (line  18)
* mailrc file:                           Mail Aliases.        (line   6)
* main border width, command-line argument: Borders X.        (line  20)
* major modes:                           Major Modes.         (line   6)
* make:                                  Compilation.         (line   6)
* Makefile mode:                         Program Modes.       (line  20)
* making pictures out of text characters: Picture Mode.       (line   6)
* manipulating paragraphs:               Paragraphs.          (line   6)
* manipulating sentences:                Sentences.           (line   6)
* manipulating text:                     Text.                (line   6)
* manual page:                           Man Page.            (line   6)
* manual pages, on MS-DOS/MS-Windows:    Man Page.            (line  46)
* manual version backups:                Version Backups.     (line  24)
* manuals, on-line:                      Misc Help.           (line   6)
* Marathi:                               International.       (line   6)
* mark:                                  Mark.                (line   6)
* mark rectangle:                        Rectangles.          (line  13)
* mark ring:                             Mark Ring.           (line   6)
* marking executable files (in Dired):   Marks vs Flags.      (line  22)
* marking many files (in Dired):         Marks vs Flags.      (line   6)
* marking sections of text:              Marking Objects.     (line   6)
* marking subdirectories (in Dired):     Marks vs Flags.      (line  30)
* marking symbolic links (in Dired):     Marks vs Flags.      (line  26)
* Markov chain:                          Dissociated Press.   (line  37)
* master file:                           VC Concepts.         (line   6)
* matching parentheses:                  Matching.            (line   6)
* matching parenthesis and braces, moving to: Moving by Parens.
                                                              (line   6)
* maximum buffer size exceeded, error message: Visiting.      (line  77)
* Mayan calendar:                        Calendar Systems.    (line  35)
* Mayan calendar round:                  Mayan Calendar.      (line  64)
* Mayan haab calendar:                   Mayan Calendar.      (line  56)
* Mayan long count:                      Mayan Calendar.      (line  36)
* Mayan tzolkin calendar:                Mayan Calendar.      (line  48)
* MCVS:                                  Version Systems.     (line  40)
* memory full:                           Memory Full.         (line   6)
* menu bar <1>:                          Menu Bar.            (line   6)
* menu bar:                              Table of Resources.  (line  63)
* menu bar access using keyboard (MS-Windows): Windows Keyboard.
                                                              (line  17)
* menu bar appearance:                   Standard Faces.      (line 169)
* Menu Bar mode:                         Menu Bars.           (line   6)
* menu face, no effect if customized:    Standard Faces.      (line 169)
* Menu X Resources (LessTif widgets):    LessTif Resources.   (line   6)
* Menu X Resources (Lucid widgets):      Lucid Resources.     (line   6)
* merge buffer (Emerge):                 Overview of Emerge.  (line  21)
* merges, failed:                        Comparing Files.     (line  37)
* merging changes:                       Merging.             (line   6)
* merging files:                         Emerge.              (line   6)
* message:                               Sending Mail.        (line   6)
* Message mode for sending mail:         Mail Methods.        (line   6)
* message number:                        Rmail Basics.        (line  20)
* messages saved from echo area:         Echo Area.           (line  42)
* Meta:                                  User Input.          (line  53)
* Meta (Mac OS):                         Mac Input.           (line   6)
* Meta (under MS-DOS):                   MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  20)
* Meta commands and words:               Words.               (line   6)
* Meta-CVS:                              Version Systems.     (line  40)
* Metafont mode:                         Program Modes.       (line  20)
* MH mail interface:                     Mail Methods.        (line   6)
* Microsoft Windows:                     Microsoft Windows.   (line   6)
* Midnight mode:                         Kill Buffer.         (line  47)
* minibuffer:                            Minibuffer.          (line   6)
* minibuffer history:                    Minibuffer History.  (line   6)
* minibuffer keymaps:                    Minibuffer Maps.     (line   6)
* minibuffer-prompt face:                Standard Faces.      (line 136)
* minor mode keymap:                     Local Keymaps.       (line  13)
* minor modes:                           Minor Modes.         (line   6)
* mistakes, correcting:                  Fixit.               (line   6)
* mode hook:                             Program Modes.       (line  45)
* mode line:                             Mode Line.           (line   6)
* mode line (MS-DOS):                    MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  75)
* mode line, 3D appearance:              Optional Mode Line.  (line  72)
* mode line, mouse:                      Mode Line Mouse.     (line   6)
* mode, Abbrev:                          Abbrev Concepts.     (line  13)
* mode, archive:                         File Archives.       (line  42)
* mode, Auto Compression:                Compressed Files.    (line   6)
* mode, Auto Fill:                       Auto Fill.           (line   6)
* mode, Auto Save:                       Auto Save.           (line   6)
* mode, Auto-Revert:                     Reverting.           (line  38)
* mode, AWK:                             C Modes.             (line   6)
* mode, C:                               C Modes.             (line   6)
* mode, C++:                             C Modes.             (line   6)
* mode, Column Number:                   Optional Mode Line.  (line  44)
* mode, Comint:                          Shell Mode.          (line 152)
* mode, Compilation:                     Compilation Mode.    (line   6)
* mode, CORBA IDL:                       C Modes.             (line   6)
* mode, CRiSP:                           Emulation.           (line  10)
* mode, Delete Selection:                Mouse Commands.      (line  99)
* mode, DocTeX:                          TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* mode, Emacs-Lisp:                      Lisp Eval.           (line   6)
* mode, Enriched:                        Formatted Text.      (line   6)
* mode, Follow:                          Follow Mode.         (line   6)
* mode, Font Lock:                       Font Lock.           (line   6)
* mode, Fortran:                         Fortran.             (line   6)
* mode, Global Auto-Revert:              Reverting.           (line  38)
* mode, Hexl:                            Editing Binary Files.
                                                              (line   6)
* mode, Iswitchb:                        Iswitchb.            (line   6)
* mode, Java:                            C Modes.             (line   6)
* mode, LaTeX:                           TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* mode, Mail:                            Mail Mode.           (line   6)
* mode, major:                           Major Modes.         (line   6)
* mode, Menu Bar:                        Menu Bars.           (line   6)
* mode, minor:                           Minor Modes.         (line   6)
* mode, Mouse Wheel:                     Wheeled Mice.        (line   6)
* mode, MSB:                             Buffer Menus.        (line  16)
* mode, Objective C:                     C Modes.             (line   6)
* mode, Outline:                         Outline Mode.        (line   6)
* mode, Overwrite:                       Minor Modes.         (line  79)
* mode, Paragraph-Indent Text:           Text Mode.           (line  26)
* mode, Pike:                            C Modes.             (line   6)
* mode, Scroll Bar:                      Scroll Bars.         (line   6)
* mode, Scroll-all:                      Window Convenience.  (line  25)
* mode, Shell:                           Shell Mode.          (line   6)
* mode, SliTeX:                          TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* mode, tar:                             File Archives.       (line   6)
* mode, Term:                            Term Mode.           (line   6)
* mode, TeX:                             TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* mode, Text:                            Text Mode.           (line   6)
* mode, Tool Bar:                        Tool Bars.           (line   6)
* mode, Transient Mark:                  Transient Mark.      (line   6)
* mode, View:                            Misc File Ops.       (line   9)
* mode, Winner:                          Window Convenience.  (line   6)
* modes for programming languages:       Program Modes.       (line   6)
* modes, Long Lines:                     Longlines.           (line   6)
* modes, Refill:                         Refill.              (line   6)
* modification dates:                    Time Stamps.         (line   6)
* modified (buffer):                     Visiting.            (line  49)
* Modula2 mode:                          Program Modes.       (line  20)
* moon, phases of:                       Lunar Phases.        (line   6)
* Morse code:                            Amusements.          (line  32)
* Motif key bindings:                    Emulation.           (line   6)
* mouse:                                 Keymaps.             (line  51)
* mouse avoidance:                       Mouse Avoidance.     (line   6)
* mouse button events:                   Mouse Buttons.       (line   6)
* mouse buttons (what they do):          Mouse Commands.      (line   6)
* mouse on mode line:                    Mode Line Mouse.     (line   6)
* mouse pointer color, command-line argument: Colors.         (line  42)
* mouse support:                         Text-Only Mouse.     (line   6)
* mouse support under MS-DOS:            MS-DOS Mouse.        (line   6)
* mouse wheel:                           Wheeled Mice.        (line   6)
* Mouse Wheel minor mode:                Wheeled Mice.        (line   6)
* mouse, and MS-Windows:                 Windows Mouse.       (line   6)
* mouse, set number of buttons:          MS-DOS Mouse.        (line  18)
* move to beginning or end of function:  Moving by Defuns.    (line  19)
* movemail:                              Remote Mailboxes.    (line   6)
* movemail program:                      Movemail.            (line   6)
* movement:                              Moving Point.        (line   6)
* moving files (in Dired):               Operating on Files.  (line  55)
* moving inside the calendar:            Calendar Motion.     (line   6)
* moving point:                          Moving Point.        (line   6)
* moving text:                           Yanking.             (line   6)
* moving the cursor:                     Moving Point.        (line   6)
* MS-DOG:                                MS-DOS.              (line   6)
* MS-DOS end-of-line conversion:         Coding Systems.      (line  56)
* MS-DOS peculiarities:                  MS-DOS.              (line   6)
* MS-Windows codepages:                  MS-DOS and MULE.     (line 129)
* MS-Windows keyboard shortcuts:         Windows Keyboard.    (line   9)
* MS-Windows, Emacs peculiarities:       Microsoft Windows.   (line   6)
* MSB mode:                              Buffer Menus.        (line  16)
* MULE:                                  International.       (line   6)
* multibyte characters:                  International.       (line   6)
* multibyte operation, and Lisp files:   Enabling Multibyte.  (line  47)
* multiple displays:                     Multiple Displays.   (line   6)
* multiple views of outline:             Outline Views.       (line   6)
* multiple windows in Emacs:             Windows.             (line   6)
* multiple-file search and replace:      Tags Search.         (line   6)
* mustatement:                           Dissociated Press.   (line  45)
* named configurations (RCS):            Snapshot Caveats.    (line   6)
* narrowing:                             Narrowing.           (line   6)
* narrowing, and buffer size display:    Optional Mode Line.  (line  18)
* narrowing, and line number display:    Optional Mode Line.  (line  28)
* navigation:                            Hyperlinking.        (line   6)
* net use, and printing on MS-Windows:   Windows Printing.    (line  38)
* networked printers (MS-Windows):       Windows Printing.    (line  38)
* newline:                               Inserting Text.      (line  38)
* newlines, hard and soft:               Hard and Soft Newlines.
                                                              (line   6)
* Next Error Follow mode:                Compilation Mode.    (line 108)
* NFS and quitting:                      Quitting.            (line  56)
* nil:                                   Glossary.            (line 898)
* no-break hyphen, display:              Text Display.        (line  37)
* no-break space, display:               Text Display.        (line  37)
* non-ASCII characters in .emacs:        Init Non-ASCII.      (line   6)
* non-ASCII keys, binding:               Init Non-ASCII.      (line   6)
* non-greedy regexp matching:            Regexps.             (line  78)
* non-integral number of lines in a window: Optional Mode Line.
                                                              (line  72)
* non-selected windows, mode line appearance: Optional Mode Line.
                                                              (line  78)
* non-strict locking (RCS):              RCS and SCCS.        (line   6)
* non-window terminals:                  Non-Window Terminals.
                                                              (line   6)
* nonincremental search:                 Nonincremental Search.
                                                              (line   6)
* normal hook:                           Hooks.               (line  21)
* nroff:                                 Nroff Mode.          (line   6)
* NSA:                                   Mail Amusements.     (line   6)
* numeric arguments:                     Arguments.           (line   6)
* Objective C mode:                      C Modes.             (line   6)
* Octave mode:                           Program Modes.       (line  20)
* omer count:                            Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* on-line manuals:                       Misc Help.           (line   6)
* open file:                             Visiting.            (line   6)
* open-parenthesis in leftmost column:   Left Margin Paren.   (line   6)
* OpenWindows:                           Clipboard.           (line   6)
* operating on files in Dired:           Operating on Files.  (line   6)
* operations on a marked region:         Using Region.        (line   6)
* option, user:                          Variables.           (line   6)
* options (command line):                Emacs Invocation.    (line   6)
* other editors:                         Emulation.           (line   6)
* out of memory:                         Memory Full.         (line   6)
* Outline mode:                          Outline Mode.        (line   6)
* outline with multiple views:           Outline Views.       (line   6)
* outragedy:                             Dissociated Press.   (line  45)
* overlays at character position:        Editing Format Info. (line  27)
* override character terminal color support: Colors.          (line  51)
* Overwrite mode:                        Minor Modes.         (line  79)
* page-at-a-time:                        Paging in Term.      (line   6)
* pages:                                 Pages.               (line   6)
* Pango font name:                       GTK styles.          (line 134)
* Paragraph-Indent Text mode:            Text Mode.           (line  26)
* paragraphs:                            Paragraphs.          (line   6)
* parasha, weekly:                       Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* parentheses, displaying matches:       Matching.            (line   6)
* parentheses, moving across:            Moving by Parens.    (line   6)
* parenthesis in column zero and fontification: Font Lock.    (line  63)
* parenthetical groupings:               Moving by Parens.    (line   6)
* Partial Completion mode:               Completion Options.  (line  27)
* parts of the screen:                   Screen.              (line   6)
* pasting <1>:                           Cut/Paste Other App. (line   6)
* pasting:                               Yanking.             (line   6)
* patches, editing:                      Diff Mode.           (line   6)
* patches, sending:                      Sending Patches.     (line   6)
* PC key bindings:                       Emulation.           (line   6)
* PC selection:                          Emulation.           (line   6)
* PCL-CVS:                               VC Dired Mode.       (line   6)
* PDB:                                   Debuggers.           (line   6)
* per-buffer variables:                  Locals.              (line  27)
* Perl mode:                             Program Modes.       (line  20)
* Perldb:                                Debuggers.           (line   6)
* Persian calendar:                      Calendar Systems.    (line  47)
* phases of the moon:                    Lunar Phases.        (line   6)
* Picture mode and rectangles:           Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line   6)
* pictures:                              Picture Mode.        (line   6)
* Pike mode:                             C Modes.             (line   6)
* point:                                 Point.               (line   6)
* point location:                        Position Info.       (line  38)
* point location, on MS-DOS:             Text and Binary.     (line  19)
* Polish:                                International.       (line   6)
* Pong game:                             Amusements.          (line  35)
* POP mailboxes:                         Remote Mailboxes.    (line  18)
* position and size of Emacs frame:      Window Size X.       (line   6)
* PostScript mode:                       Program Modes.       (line  20)
* prefix arguments:                      Arguments.           (line   6)
* prefix key:                            Keys.                (line  12)
* preprocessor highlighting:             Other C Commands.    (line  67)
* presidentagon:                         Dissociated Press.   (line  19)
* pretty-printer:                        Program Indent.      (line  19)
* primary Rmail file:                    Rmail Basics.        (line   6)
* primary selection:                     Cut/Paste Other App. (line  14)
* printing:                              Printing.            (line   6)
* printing files (in Dired):             Operating on Files.  (line  99)
* Printing package:                      Printing Package.    (line   6)
* printing under MS-DOS:                 MS-DOS Processes.    (line  29)
* program building:                      Building.            (line   6)
* program editing:                       Programs.            (line   6)
* Prolog mode:                           Program Modes.       (line  20)
* prompt:                                Minibuffer.          (line  14)
* prompt, shell:                         Shell Prompts.       (line   6)
* properbose:                            Dissociated Press.   (line  45)
* puzzles:                               Amusements.          (line  13)
* query replace:                         Query Replace.       (line   6)
* quitting:                              Quitting.            (line  30)
* quitting (in search):                  Error in Isearch.    (line  19)
* quitting Emacs:                        Exiting.             (line   6)
* quitting on MS-DOS:                    MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  12)
* quoting:                               Inserting Text.      (line  54)
* quoting file names:                    Quoted File Names.   (line   6)
* RCS:                                   Version Systems.     (line  28)
* read-only buffer:                      Misc Buffer.         (line  18)
* read-only text, killing:               Killing.             (line  32)
* reading mail:                          Rmail.               (line   6)
* reading netnews:                       Gnus.                (line   6)
* rebinding keys, permanently:           Init File.           (line   6)
* rebinding major mode keys:             Local Keymaps.       (line  35)
* rebinding mouse buttons:               Mouse Buttons.       (line   6)
* rebinding non-ASCII keys:              Init Non-ASCII.      (line   6)
* rectangle:                             Rectangles.          (line   6)
* rectangle highlighting:                CUA Bindings.        (line  24)
* rectangles and Picture mode:           Rectangles in Picture.
                                                              (line   6)
* recursive copying:                     Operating on Files.  (line  43)
* recursive deletion:                    Dired Deletion.      (line  47)
* recursive editing level:               Recursive Edit.      (line   6)
* redefining keys, this session:         Rebinding.           (line   6)
* references, LaTeX:                     TeX Misc.            (line  15)
* Refill minor mode:                     Refill.              (line   6)
* refilling text, word processor style <1>: Refill.           (line   6)
* refilling text, word processor style:  Longlines.           (line   6)
* refreshing displayed files:            Dired Updating.      (line   6)
* RefTeX package:                        TeX Misc.            (line  15)
* regexp:                                Regexp Search.       (line   6)
* region:                                Mark.                (line   6)
* region face:                           Standard Faces.      (line  90)
* region highlighting:                   Transient Mark.      (line   6)
* registered file:                       VC Concepts.         (line   6)
* registers:                             Registers.           (line   6)
* Registry (MS-Windows):                 Resources.           (line  18)
* registry, setting environment variables and resources on MS-Windows: MS-Windows Registry.
                                                              (line   6)
* regular expression:                    Regexp Search.       (line   6)
* related files:                         Other C Commands.    (line 104)
* reload files:                          Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line   6)
* remember editing session:              Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line   6)
* remote file access:                    Remote Files.        (line   6)
* remote host:                           Remote Host.         (line   6)
* remote repositories (CVS) <1>:         CVS Options.         (line  29)
* remote repositories (CVS):             Remote Repositories. (line   6)
* remove indentation:                    Indentation Commands.
                                                              (line  47)
* renaming files (in Dired):             Operating on Files.  (line  55)
* repeating a command:                   Repeating.           (line   6)
* replacement:                           Replace.             (line   6)
* reply to a message:                    Rmail Reply.         (line  33)
* REPLYTO environment variable:          Mail Headers.        (line  71)
* reporting bugs:                        Checklist.           (line   6)
* reread a file:                         Reverting.           (line   6)
* resizing minibuffer:                   Minibuffer Edit.     (line  23)
* resolving conflicts:                   Merging.             (line  46)
* resource files for GTK:                GTK resources.       (line   6)
* resource name, command-line argument:  Resources.           (line  66)
* resource values, command-line argument: Resources.          (line  75)
* resources:                             Resources.           (line   6)
* restore session:                       Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line   6)
* restriction:                           Narrowing.           (line   6)
* retrying a failed message:             Rmail Reply.         (line  62)
* reverse order in POP inboxes:          Remote Mailboxes.    (line  70)
* reverse video, command-line argument:  Colors.              (line  48)
* risky variable:                        Safe File Variables. (line  27)
* Rlogin:                                Remote Host.         (line   6)
* Rmail:                                 Rmail.               (line   6)
* Romanian:                              International.       (line   6)
* rosh hodesh:                           Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* rot13 code:                            Rmail Rot13.         (line   6)
* running a hook:                        Hooks.               (line   6)
* running Lisp functions:                Building.            (line   6)
* saved echo area messages:              Echo Area.           (line  42)
* saving a setting:                      Changing a Variable. (line 114)
* saving file name in a register:        RegFiles.            (line   6)
* saving files:                          Visiting.            (line  28)
* saving keyboard macros:                Save Keyboard Macro. (line  17)
* saving number in a register:           RegNumbers.          (line   6)
* saving position in a register:         RegPos.              (line   6)
* saving rectangle in a register:        RegRect.             (line   6)
* saving sessions:                       Saving Emacs Sessions.
                                                              (line   6)
* saving text in a register:             RegText.             (line   6)
* saving window configuration in a register: RegConfig.       (line   6)
* SCCS:                                  Version Systems.     (line  44)
* screen:                                Screen.              (line   6)
* screen reader software, MS-Windows:    Windows Misc.        (line   8)
* script mode:                           Initial Options.     (line  56)
* Scroll Bar mode:                       Scroll Bars.         (line   6)
* Scroll-all mode:                       Window Convenience.  (line  25)
* scrollbar width:                       Table of Resources.  (line  90)
* scrolling:                             Scrolling.           (line  10)
* scrolling all windows:                 Emulation.           (line   6)
* scrolling in the calendar:             Scroll Calendar.     (line   6)
* scrolling windows together:            Window Convenience.  (line  25)
* SDB:                                   Debuggers.           (line   6)
* search and replace in multiple files:  Tags Search.         (line   6)
* search and replace in multiple files (in Dired): Operating on Files.
                                                              (line 127)
* search multiple files (in Dired):      Operating on Files.  (line 119)
* search-and-replace commands:           Replace.             (line   6)
* searching:                             Search.              (line   6)
* searching documentation efficiently:   Help.                (line  29)
* searching for non-ASCII characters:    Non-ASCII Isearch.   (line   6)
* searching in Rmail:                    Rmail Motion.        (line  60)
* secondary selection:                   Secondary Selection. (line   6)
* sections of manual pages:              Man Page.            (line  22)
* selected buffer:                       Buffers.             (line  13)
* selected window:                       Basic Window.        (line  12)
* selecting buffers in other windows:    Pop Up Window.       (line   6)
* selection, primary:                    Cut/Paste Other App. (line  14)
* selective display:                     Selective Display.   (line   6)
* selective undo:                        Undo.                (line  52)
* self-documentation:                    Help.                (line   6)
* sending mail:                          Sending Mail.        (line   6)
* sending patches for GNU Emacs:         Sending Patches.     (line   6)
* Sendmail:                              Mail Sending.        (line  39)
* sentences:                             Sentences.           (line   6)
* server, using Emacs as:                Emacs Server.        (line   6)
* setting a mark:                        Mark.                (line   6)
* setting variables:                     Examining.           (line   6)
* settings:                              Easy Customization.  (line   6)
* settings, how to save:                 Changing a Variable. (line 114)
* settings, how to set:                  Changing a Variable. (line  37)
* sexp:                                  Expressions.         (line   6)
* sexp diary entries:                    Sexp Diary Entries.  (line   6)
* shadow files:                          File Shadowing.      (line   6)
* shell commands:                        Shell.               (line   6)
* shell commands, Dired:                 Shell Commands in Dired.
                                                              (line   6)
* SHELL environment variable:            Interactive Shell.   (line  32)
* Shell mode:                            Shell Mode.          (line   6)
* shell scripts, and local file variables: Specifying File Variables.
                                                              (line  29)
* Shell-script mode:                     Program Modes.       (line  20)
* Show Paren mode:                       Matching.            (line  33)
* shrink a table cell:                   Cell Commands.       (line  36)
* shy group, in regexp:                  Regexp Backslash.    (line  47)
* Simula mode:                           Program Modes.       (line  20)
* simulation of middle mouse button:     Windows Mouse.       (line   8)
* simultaneous editing:                  Interlocking.        (line   6)
* single-frame terminals:                Non-Window Terminals.
                                                              (line   6)
* site init file:                        Init File.           (line  24)
* site-start.el file, not loading:       Initial Options.     (line  77)
* site-start.el, the site startup file:  Init File.           (line  24)
* size of minibuffer:                    Minibuffer Edit.     (line  23)
* skeletons:                             Text.                (line  43)
* slashes repeated in file name:         Minibuffer File.     (line  28)
* SliTeX mode:                           TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* Slovak:                                International.       (line   6)
* Slovenian:                             International.       (line   6)
* slow display during scrolling:         Font Lock.           (line  73)
* Smerge mode:                           Comparing Files.     (line  37)
* SMTP:                                  Mail Sending.        (line  39)
* Snake:                                 Amusements.          (line  46)
* snapshots and version control:         Snapshots.           (line   6)
* soft hyphen, display:                  Text Display.        (line  37)
* soft newline:                          Hard and Soft Newlines.
                                                              (line   6)
* solitaire:                             Amusements.          (line  38)
* sorting:                               Sorting.             (line   6)
* sorting diary entries:                 Fancy Diary Display. (line  31)
* sorting Dired buffer:                  Dired Updating.      (line  59)
* Spanish:                               International.       (line   6)
* specific version control system:       Advanced C-x v v.    (line  21)
* specify default font from the command line: Font X.         (line  13)
* specify end-of-line conversion:        Text Coding.         (line  31)
* specifying fullscreen for Emacs frame: Window Size X.       (line   6)
* speedbar:                              Speedbar.            (line   6)
* spell-checking the active region:      Spelling.            (line  75)
* spelling, checking and correcting:     Spelling.            (line   6)
* splash screen:                         Initial Options.     (line  87)
* split table cell:                      Cell Commands.       (line  18)
* splitting columns:                     Two-Column.          (line   6)
* standard colors on a character terminal: Colors.            (line  51)
* standard fontset:                      Defining Fontsets.   (line   6)
* start iconified, command-line argument: Icons X.            (line  18)
* starting Emacs:                        Entering Emacs.      (line   6)
* startup (command line arguments):      Emacs Invocation.    (line   6)
* startup (init file):                   Init File.           (line   6)
* startup fontset:                       Defining Fontsets.   (line  17)
* startup message:                       Initial Options.     (line  87)
* string substitution:                   Replace.             (line   6)
* string syntax:                         Init Syntax.         (line  32)
* StudlyCaps:                            Amusements.          (line  41)
* StudlyCaps, making them readable:      Glasses.             (line   6)
* style (for indentation):               Custom C Indent.     (line   6)
* subdirectories in Dired:               Subdirectories in Dired.
                                                              (line   6)
* subprocesses on MS-Windows:            Windows Processes.   (line   6)
* subscribe groups:                      Summary of Gnus.     (line  33)
* subshell:                              Shell.               (line   6)
* subtree (Outline mode):                Outline Visibility.  (line  63)
* Subversion:                            Version Systems.     (line  35)
* summary (Rmail):                       Rmail Summary.       (line   6)
* summing time intervals:                Time Intervals.      (line   6)
* sunrise and sunset:                    Sunrise/Sunset.      (line   6)
* Super (under MS-DOS):                  MS-DOS Keyboard.     (line  20)
* suspending:                            Exiting.             (line   6)
* suspicious constructions in C, C++:    Other C Commands.    (line  82)
* SVN:                                   Version Systems.     (line  35)
* switch buffers:                        Select Buffer.       (line   6)
* switches (command line):               Emacs Invocation.    (line   6)
* symbolic links (creation in Dired):    Operating on Files.  (line  70)
* symbolic links (creation):             Misc File Ops.       (line  66)
* symbolic links (visiting):             File Aliases.        (line   6)
* synchronizing windows:                 Follow Mode.         (line   6)
* synchronous X mode:                    Table of Resources.  (line 104)
* syntax highlighting and coloring:      Font Lock.           (line   6)
* syntax of regexps:                     Regexps.             (line   6)
* syntax table:                          Syntax.              (line   6)
* t:                                     Glossary.            (line 898)
* tab stops:                             Tab Stops.           (line   6)
* table column commands:                 Column Commands.     (line   6)
* table creation:                        Table Creation.      (line   6)
* table dimensions:                      Measuring Tables.    (line   6)
* table for HTML and LaTeX:              Table Misc.          (line  10)
* table in language format:              Table Misc.          (line  10)
* table mode:                            Text Based Tables.   (line   6)
* table recognition:                     Table Recognition.   (line   6)
* table row commands:                    Row Commands.        (line   6)
* table to text:                         Table Conversion.    (line   6)
* tables, indentation for:               Tab Stops.           (line   6)
* tags:                                  Imenu.               (line   6)
* tags table:                            Tags.                (line   6)
* tags, C++:                             Tags.                (line  29)
* tags-based completion:                 Symbol Completion.   (line  25)
* Tar mode:                              File Archives.       (line   6)
* Tcl mode:                              Program Modes.       (line  20)
* techniquitous:                         Dissociated Press.   (line  37)
* television:                            Appending Kills.     (line   6)
* Telnet:                                Remote Host.         (line   6)
* templates:                             Text.                (line  43)
* TERM environment variable:             Checklist.           (line  89)
* Term mode:                             Term Mode.           (line   6)
* terminal emulators, mouse support:     Text-Only Mouse.     (line   6)
* termscript file:                       Checklist.           (line  89)
* Tetris:                                Amusements.          (line  46)
* TeX encoding:                          TeX Misc.            (line  11)
* TeX mode:                              TeX Mode.            (line   6)
* TEXEDIT environment variable:          Emacs Server.        (line  19)
* TEXINPUTS environment variable:        TeX Print.           (line  54)
* text:                                  Text.                (line   6)
* text and binary files on MS-DOS/MS-Windows: Text and Binary.
                                                              (line   6)
* text colors, from command line:        Colors.              (line   6)
* Text mode:                             Text Mode.           (line   6)
* text properties at point:              Position Info.       (line 100)
* text properties of characters:         Editing Format Info. (line  27)
* text to table:                         Table Conversion.    (line   6)
* text-based tables:                     Text Based Tables.   (line   6)
* text-based tables, split a cell:       Cell Commands.       (line  18)
* text/enriched MIME format:             Formatted Text.      (line  17)
* Thai:                                  International.       (line   6)
* Tibetan:                               International.       (line   6)
* time (on mode line):                   Optional Mode Line.  (line  48)
* time intervals, summing:               Time Intervals.      (line   6)
* time stamps:                           Time Stamps.         (line   6)
* timeclock:                             Time Intervals.      (line   6)
* TLS encryption (Rmail):                Remote Mailboxes.    (line  75)
* toggling marks (in Dired):             Marks vs Flags.      (line  76)
* tool bar:                              Table of Resources.  (line 111)
* Tool Bar mode:                         Tool Bars.           (line   6)
* tooltips <1>:                          Help Echo.           (line   6)
* tooltips:                              Tooltips.            (line   6)
* tooltips with GUD:                     Debugger Operation.  (line  26)
* top level:                             Mode Line.           (line   6)
* tower of Hanoi:                        Amusements.          (line   6)
* TPU:                                   Emulation.           (line  28)
* trailing whitespace:                   Useless Whitespace.  (line   6)
* Tramp:                                 Remote Files.        (line   6)
* Transient Mark mode:                   Transient Mark.      (line   6)
* transposition of expressions:          Expressions.         (line  58)
* triple clicks:                         Mouse Buttons.       (line  28)
* truenames of files:                    File Aliases.        (line  27)
* truncation <1>:                        Continuation Lines.  (line  25)
* truncation:                            Line Truncation.     (line   6)
* trunk (version control):               Branches.            (line   6)
* Turkish:                               International.       (line   6)
* turn multibyte support on or off:      Enabling Multibyte.  (line   9)
* two directories (in Dired):            Operating on Files.  (line  25)
* two-column editing:                    Two-Column.          (line   6)
* types of log file:                     Types of Log File.   (line   6)
* typos, fixing:                         Fixit.               (line   6)
* unbalanced parentheses and quotes:     Parentheses.         (line   6)
* uncompression:                         Compressed Files.    (line   6)
* undecided, coding system:              Coding Systems.      (line  86)
* undeletion (Rmail):                    Rmail Deletion.      (line  45)
* undigestify:                           Rmail Digest.        (line   6)
* undisplayable characters:              International Chars. (line  17)
* undo:                                  Undo.                (line   6)
* undo limit:                            Undo.                (line  68)
* undoing window configuration changes:  Window Convenience.  (line   6)
* Unibyte operation:                     Unibyte Mode.        (line   6)
* unibyte operation (MS-DOS):            MS-DOS and MULE.     (line  41)
* unibyte operation, and Lisp files:     Enabling Multibyte.  (line  47)
* unibyte operation, command-line argument: Initial Options.  (line 106)
* unibyte operation, environment variable: General Variables. (line  17)
* unique buffer names:                   Uniquify.            (line   6)
* unmarking files (in Dired):            Marks vs Flags.      (line  44)
* unsubscribe groups:                    Summary of Gnus.     (line  33)
* untranslated file system:              Text and Binary.     (line  50)
* unused lines:                          Useless Whitespace.  (line  29)
* unzip archives:                        File Archives.       (line  42)
* upcase file names:                     Transforming File Names.
                                                              (line  21)
* updating Dired buffer:                 Dired Updating.      (line   6)
* URL, viewing in help:                  Help Mode.           (line  38)
* URLs:                                  Browse-URL.          (line   6)
* URLs, activating:                      Goto-address.        (line   6)
* use-hard-newlines:                     Hard and Soft Newlines.
                                                              (line   6)
* user name for remote file access:      Remote Files.        (line  46)
* user option:                           Variables.           (line   6)
* user options, how to set:              Changing a Variable. (line  37)
* userenced:                             Dissociated Press.   (line  45)
* using tab stops in making tables:      Tab Stops.           (line   6)
* usual erasure key:                     DEL Does Not Delete. (line   6)
* UTF-8:                                 Language Environments.
                                                              (line  26)
* variable:                              Variables.           (line   6)
* variables, how to set:                 Changing a Variable. (line  37)
* vc-resolve-conflicts:                  Merging.             (line  65)
* version backups:                       Version Backups.     (line   6)
* version control:                       Version Control.     (line   6)
* version control log:                   Types of Log File.   (line   6)
* version number to check in/out:        Advanced C-x v v.    (line   6)
* VERSION_CONTROL environment variable:  Numbered Backups.    (line  26)
* vertical scroll bars, command-line argument: Misc X.        (line  13)
* VHDL mode:                             Program Modes.       (line  20)
* vi:                                    Emulation.           (line   6)
* Vietnamese:                            International.       (line   6)
* View mode:                             Misc File Ops.       (line   9)
* viewing:                               Misc File Ops.       (line   9)
* viewing web pages in help:             Help Mode.           (line  38)
* views of an outline:                   Outline Views.       (line   6)
* visiting files:                        Visiting.            (line   6)
* visiting files, command-line argument: Action Arguments.    (line  12)
* Watching expressions in GDB:           Watch Expressions.   (line   6)
* watching files (CVS):                  CVS Options.         (line  21)
* wdired mode:                           Wdired.              (line   6)
* Web:                                   Browse-URL.          (line   6)
* web pages, viewing in help:            Help Mode.           (line  38)
* weeks, which day they start on:        Move to Beginning or End.
                                                              (line  33)
* wheel, mouse:                          Wheeled Mice.        (line   6)
* whitespace, trailing:                  Useless Whitespace.  (line   6)
* wide block cursor:                     Cursor Display.      (line  28)
* widening:                              Narrowing.           (line   6)
* widgets at buffer position:            Editing Format Info. (line  27)
* width and height of Emacs frame:       Window Size X.       (line   6)
* width of the scroll bar:               Scroll Bars.         (line  43)
* wildcard characters in file names:     Visiting.            (line 130)
* Windmove package:                      Window Convenience.  (line  14)
* window configuration changes, undoing: Window Convenience.  (line   6)
* window manager, keys stolen by:        User Input.          (line 106)
* Windows clipboard support:             MS-DOS Mouse.        (line  29)
* windows in Emacs:                      Windows.             (line   6)
* Windows system menu:                   Windows Keyboard.    (line  59)
* windows, synchronizing:                Follow Mode.         (line   6)
* Winner mode:                           Window Convenience.  (line   6)
* word processing:                       Formatted Text.      (line   6)
* word search:                           Word Search.         (line   6)
* word wrap:                             Longlines.           (line   6)
* words:                                 Words.               (line   6)
* words, case conversion:                Case.                (line  24)
* WordStar:                              Emulation.           (line   6)
* work file:                             VC Concepts.         (line  14)
* World Wide Web:                        Browse-URL.          (line   6)
* wrapping:                              Continuation Lines.  (line   6)
* WYSIWYG:                               Formatted Text.      (line   6)
* X cutting and pasting:                 Cut/Paste Other App. (line   6)
* X input methods:                       Table of Resources.  (line 121)
* X resources:                           Resources.           (line   6)
* XDB:                                   Debuggers.           (line   6)
* XIM:                                   Table of Resources.  (line 121)
* xterm:                                 Text-Only Mouse.     (line   8)
* yahrzeits <1>:                         Sexp Diary Entries.  (line 164)
* yahrzeits:                             From Other Calendar. (line  61)
* yanking:                               Yanking.             (line   6)
* yanking and text properties:           Kill Ring.           (line  21)
* yanking previous kills:                Earlier Kills.       (line   6)
* zip:                                   File Archives.       (line  42)
* Zippy:                                 Amusements.          (line  52)
* Zmacs mode:                            Transient Mark.      (line  93)
* zoo:                                   File Archives.       (line  42)
* ~/.emacs.d/gtkrc file:                 GTK resources.       (line   6)
* ~/.gtkrc-2.0 file:                     GTK resources.       (line   6)
* ~/.Xdefaults file:                     Resources.           (line   6)
* ~/.Xresources file:                    Resources.           (line   6)



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Ref: Distrib-Footnote-145652
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Node: Point51430
Node: Echo Area53785
Node: Mode Line56919
Node: Menu Bar62983
Node: User Input64729
Node: Keys70548
Node: Commands73425
Node: Text Characters76033
Node: Entering Emacs77450
Node: Exiting80306
Node: Basic84380
Node: Inserting Text85548
Node: Moving Point90280
Node: Erasing94454
Node: Basic Undo95935
Node: Basic Files97205
Node: Basic Help98818
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Node: Arguments108317
Node: Repeating112245
Node: Minibuffer113461
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Node: Completion120097
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Node: Backup Deletion397912
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Node: VC Concepts437121
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Node: Basic VC Editing442471
Node: VC with Locking443745
Node: Without Locking444918
Node: Advanced C-x v v447014
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Node: Registering456260
Node: VC Status458109
Node: VC Undo460134
Node: VC Dired Mode462563
Node: VC Dired Commands466562
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Node: Switching Branches469799
Node: Creating Branches470602
Node: Merging472308
Node: Multi-User Branching475694
Node: Remote Repositories476820
Node: Version Backups477672
Node: Local Version Control480095
Node: Snapshots484914
Node: Making Snapshots485425
Node: Snapshot Caveats486705
Node: Miscellaneous VC488779
Node: Change Logs and VC489317
Node: Renaming and VC493035
Node: Version Headers493943
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Node: General VC Options498545
Node: RCS and SCCS500793
Node: CVS Options502916
Node: Directories506026
Node: Comparing Files508195
Node: Diff Mode510444
Node: Misc File Ops513048
Node: Compressed Files516862
Node: File Archives517729
Node: Remote Files520729
Node: Quoted File Names524084
Node: File Name Cache525663
Node: File Conveniences527445
Node: Filesets528718
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Node: Select Buffer533148
Node: List Buffers537247
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Node: Drag and Drop608665
Node: Menu Bars609463
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Node: Dialog Boxes611276
Node: Tooltips612957
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Node: Select Input Method637443
Node: Multibyte Conversion640979
Node: Coding Systems642167
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Node: Specify Coding654714
Node: Output Coding656224
Node: Text Coding658994
Node: Communication Coding662764
Node: File Name Coding665360
Node: Terminal Coding667283
Node: Fontsets669601
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Node: Defining Fontsets671525
Node: Undisplayable Characters675623
Node: Unibyte Mode676824
Node: Charsets680703
Node: Major Modes682086
Node: Choosing Modes684567
Node: Indentation689798
Node: Indentation Commands693058
Node: Tab Stops696163
Node: Just Spaces697906
Node: Text698999
Node: Words701891
Node: Sentences704902
Node: Paragraphs708415
Node: Pages711141
Node: Filling713885
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Node: Fill Commands717213
Node: Fill Prefix720909
Node: Adaptive Fill724902
Node: Refill727504
Node: Longlines728606
Node: Case730920
Node: Text Mode733237
Node: Outline Mode736118
Node: Outline Format738261
Node: Outline Motion740929
Node: Outline Visibility742513
Node: Outline Views746688
Node: Foldout747588
Node: TeX Mode751312
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Node: TeX Editing753203
Node: LaTeX Editing756436
Node: TeX Print757798
Node: TeX Misc764851
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Node: Format Colors780080
Node: Format Indentation781518
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Node: Format Properties787258
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Node: Table Definition792620
Node: Table Creation794747
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Node: Cell Commands797186
Node: Cell Justification799387
Node: Row Commands801432
Node: Column Commands802165
Node: Fixed Width Mode802882
Node: Table Conversion803376
Node: Measuring Tables808587
Node: Table Misc809290
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Node: Program Modes811543
Node: Defuns814416
Node: Left Margin Paren815116
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Node: Which Function822138
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Node: Diary1194371
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Node: Holiday Customizing1223981
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Node: Time Display Format1231032
Node: Diary Customizing1232067
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Node: Shell Options1281260
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Node: Colors1558604
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Node: Glossary1713832
Node: Acknowledgments1767951
Node: Key Index1813725
Node: Option Index1876265
Node: Command Index1882487
Node: Variable Index1983795
Node: Concept Index2037590

End Tag Table
