8.7. Other type system extensions
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## 8.7. Other type system extensions

### 8.7.1. Type signatures

#### 8.7.1.1. The context of a type signature

Unlike Haskell 98, constraints in types do not have to be of the form (class type-variable) or (class (type-variable type-variable ...)). Thus, these type signatures are perfectly OK

      g :: Eq [a] => ...
      g :: Ord (T a ()) => ...

GHC imposes the following restrictions on the constraints in a type signature. Consider the type:

      forall tv1..tvn (c1, ...,cn) => type

(Here, we write the "foralls" explicitly, although the Haskell source language omits them; in Haskell 98, all the free type variables of an explicit source-language type signature are universally quantified, except for the class type variables in a class declaration. However, in GHC, you can give the foralls if you want. See Section 8.7.4, “Arbitrary-rank polymorphism ”).

1. Each universally quantified type variable `tvi` must be reachable from `type`. A type variable `a` is "reachable" if it appears in the same constraint as either a type variable free in `type`, or another reachable type variable. A value with a type that does not obey this reachability restriction cannot be used without introducing ambiguity; that is why the type is rejected. Here, for example, is an illegal type:

         forall a. Eq a => Int

   When a value with this type was used, the constraint `Eq tv` would be introduced where `tv` is a fresh type variable, and (in the dictionary-translation implementation) the value would be applied to a dictionary for `Eq tv`. The difficulty is that we can never know which instance of `Eq` to use because we never get any more information about `tv`.

   Note that the reachability condition is weaker than saying that `a` is functionally dependent on a type variable free in `type` (see Section 8.6.2, “Functional dependencies ”). The reason for this is there might be a "hidden" dependency, in a superclass perhaps. So "reachable" is a conservative approximation to "functionally dependent". For example, consider:

         class C a b | a -> b where ...
         class C a b => D a b where ...
         f :: forall a b. D a b => a -> a

   This is fine, because in fact `a` does functionally determine `b` but that is not immediately apparent from `f`'s type.

2. Every constraint `ci` must mention at least one of the universally quantified type variables `tvi`. For example, this type is OK because `C a b` mentions the universally quantified type variable `b`:

         forall a. C a b => burble

   The next type is illegal because the constraint `Eq b` does not mention `a`:

         forall a. Eq b => burble

   The reason for this restriction is milder than the other one. The excluded types are never useful or necessary (because the offending context doesn't need to be witnessed at this point; it can be floated out). Furthermore, floating them out increases sharing. Lastly, excluding them is a conservative choice; it leaves a patch of territory free in case we need it later.

### 8.7.2. Implicit parameters

Implicit parameters are implemented as described in "Implicit parameters: dynamic scoping with static types", J Lewis, MB Shields, E Meijer, J Launchbury, 27th ACM Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages (POPL'00), Boston, Jan 2000.

(Most of the following, still rather incomplete, documentation is due to Jeff Lewis.)

Implicit parameter support is enabled with the option `-XImplicitParams`.

A variable is called dynamically bound when it is bound by the calling context of a function and statically bound when bound by the callee's context. In Haskell, all variables are statically bound. Dynamic binding of variables is a notion that goes back to Lisp, but was later discarded in more modern incarnations, such as Scheme. Dynamic binding can be very confusing in an untyped language, and unfortunately, typed languages, in particular Hindley-Milner typed languages like Haskell, only support static scoping of variables.

However, by a simple extension to the type class system of Haskell, we can support dynamic binding. Basically, we express the use of a dynamically bound variable as a constraint on the type. These constraints lead to types of the form `(?x::t') => t`, which says "this function uses a dynamically-bound variable `?x` of type `t'`". For example, the following expresses the type of a sort function, implicitly parameterized by a comparison function named `cmp`.

      sort :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> [a]

The dynamic binding constraints are just a new form of predicate in the type class system.

An implicit parameter occurs in an expression using the special form `?x`, where `x` is any valid identifier (e.g. `ord ?x` is a valid expression). Use of this construct also introduces a new dynamic-binding constraint in the type of the expression. For example, the following definition shows how we can define an implicitly parameterized sort function in terms of an explicitly parameterized `sortBy` function:

      sortBy :: (a -> a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]

      sort   :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> [a]
      sort    = sortBy ?cmp

#### 8.7.2.1. Implicit-parameter type constraints

Dynamic binding constraints behave just like other type class constraints in that they are automatically propagated. Thus, when a function is used, its implicit parameters are inherited by the function that called it. For example, our `sort` function might be used to pick out the least value in a list:

      least   :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> a
      least xs = head (sort xs)

Without lifting a finger, the `?cmp` parameter is propagated to become a parameter of `least` as well. With explicit parameters, the default is that parameters must always be explicit propagated. With implicit parameters, the default is to always propagate them.

An implicit-parameter type constraint differs from other type class constraints in the following way: All uses of a particular implicit parameter must have the same type. This means that the type of `(?x, ?x)` is `(?x::a) => (a,a)`, and not `(?x::a, ?x::b) => (a, b)`, as would be the case for type class constraints.

You can't have an implicit parameter in the context of a class or instance declaration. For example, both these declarations are illegal:

      class (?x::Int) => C a where ...
      instance (?x::a) => Foo [a] where ...

Reason: exactly which implicit parameter you pick up depends on exactly where you invoke a function. But the ``invocation'' of instance declarations is done behind the scenes by the compiler, so it's hard to figure out exactly where it is done. Easiest thing is to outlaw the offending types.

Implicit-parameter constraints do not cause ambiguity. For example, consider:

       f :: (?x :: [a]) => Int -> Int
       f n = n + length ?x

       g :: (Read a, Show a) => String -> String
       g s = show (read s)

Here, `g` has an ambiguous type, and is rejected, but `f` is fine. The binding for `?x` at `f`'s call site is quite unambiguous, and fixes the type `a`.

#### 8.7.2.2. Implicit-parameter bindings

An implicit parameter is bound using the standard `let` or `where` binding forms. For example, we define the `min` function by binding `cmp`.

      min :: [a] -> a
      min  = let ?cmp = (<=) in least

A group of implicit-parameter bindings may occur anywhere a normal group of Haskell bindings can occur, except at top level. That is, they can occur in a `let` (including in a list comprehension, or do-notation, or pattern guards), or a `where` clause. Note the following points:

- An implicit-parameter binding group must be a collection of simple bindings to implicit-style variables (no function-style bindings, and no type signatures); these bindings are neither polymorphic or recursive.

- You may not mix implicit-parameter bindings with ordinary bindings in a single `let` expression; use two nested `let`s instead. (In the case of `where` you are stuck, since you can't nest `where` clauses.)

- You may put multiple implicit-parameter bindings in a single binding group; but they are not treated as a mutually recursive group (as ordinary `let` bindings are). Instead they are treated as a non-recursive group, simultaneously binding all the implicit parameter. The bindings are not nested, and may be re-ordered without changing the meaning of the program. For example, consider:

        f t = let { ?x = t; ?y = ?x+(1::Int) } in ?x + ?y

  The use of `?x` in the binding for `?y` does not "see" the binding for `?x`, so the type of `f` is

        f :: (?x::Int) => Int -> Int

#### 8.7.2.3. Implicit parameters and polymorphic recursion

Consider these two definitions:

      len1 :: [a] -> Int
      len1 xs = let ?acc = 0 in len_acc1 xs

      len_acc1 [] = ?acc
      len_acc1 (x:xs) = let ?acc = ?acc + (1::Int) in len_acc1 xs

      ------------

      len2 :: [a] -> Int
      len2 xs = let ?acc = 0 in len_acc2 xs

      len_acc2 :: (?acc :: Int) => [a] -> Int
      len_acc2 [] = ?acc
      len_acc2 (x:xs) = let ?acc = ?acc + (1::Int) in len_acc2 xs

The only difference between the two groups is that in the second group `len_acc` is given a type signature. In the former case, `len_acc1` is monomorphic in its own right-hand side, so the implicit parameter `?acc` is not passed to the recursive call. In the latter case, because `len_acc2` has a type signature, the recursive call is made to the polymorphic version, which takes `?acc` as an implicit parameter. So we get the following results in GHCi:

      Prog> len1 "hello"
      0
      Prog> len2 "hello"
      5

Adding a type signature dramatically changes the result! This is a rather counter-intuitive phenomenon, worth watching out for.

#### 8.7.2.4. Implicit parameters and monomorphism

GHC applies the dreaded Monomorphism Restriction (section 4.5.5 of the Haskell Report) to implicit parameters. For example, consider:

     f :: Int -> Int
      f v = let ?x = 0     in
            let y = ?x + v in
            let ?x = 5     in
            y

Since the binding for `y` falls under the Monomorphism Restriction it is not generalised, so the type of `y` is simply `Int`, not `(?x::Int) => Int`. Hence, `(f 9)` returns result `9`. If you add a type signature for `y`, then `y` will get type `(?x::Int) => Int`, so the occurrence of `y` in the body of the `let` will see the inner binding of `?x`, so `(f 9)` will return `14`.

### 8.7.3. Explicitly-kinded quantification

Haskell infers the kind of each type variable. Sometimes it is nice to be able to give the kind explicitly as (machine-checked) documentation, just as it is nice to give a type signature for a function. On some occasions, it is essential to do so. For example, in his paper "Restricted Data Types in Haskell" (Haskell Workshop 1999) John Hughes had to define the data type:

         data Set cxt a = Set [a]
                        | Unused (cxt a -> ())

The only use for the `Unused` constructor was to force the correct kind for the type variable `cxt`.

GHC now instead allows you to specify the kind of a type variable directly, wherever a type variable is explicitly bound, with the flag `-XKindSignatures`.

This flag enables kind signatures in the following places:

- `data` declarations:

        data Set (cxt :: * -> *) a = Set [a]

- `type` declarations:

        type T (f :: * -> *) = f Int

- `class` declarations:

        class (Eq a) => C (f :: * -> *) a where ...

- `forall`'s in type signatures:

        f :: forall (cxt :: * -> *). Set cxt Int

The parentheses are required. Some of the spaces are required too, to separate the lexemes. If you write `(f::*->*)` you will get a parse error, because "`::*->*`" is a single lexeme in Haskell.

As part of the same extension, you can put kind annotations in types as well. Thus:

       f :: (Int :: *) -> Int
       g :: forall a. a -> (a :: *)

The syntax is

       atype ::= '(' ctype '::' kind ')

The parentheses are required.

### 8.7.4. Arbitrary-rank polymorphism

Haskell type signatures are implicitly quantified. The new keyword `forall` allows us to say exactly what this means. For example:

            g :: b -> b

means this:

            g :: forall b. (b -> b)

The two are treated identically.

However, GHC's type system supports arbitrary-rank explicit universal quantification in types. For example, all the following types are legal:

        f1 :: forall a b. a -> b -> a
        g1 :: forall a b. (Ord a, Eq  b) => a -> b -> a

        f2 :: (forall a. a->a) -> Int -> Int
        g2 :: (forall a. Eq a => [a] -> a -> Bool) -> Int -> Int

        f3 :: ((forall a. a->a) -> Int) -> Bool -> Bool

        f4 :: Int -> (forall a. a -> a)

Here, `f1` and `g1` are rank-1 types, and can be written in standard Haskell (e.g. `f1 :: a->b->a`). The `forall` makes explicit the universal quantification that is implicitly added by Haskell.

The functions `f2` and `g2` have rank-2 types; the `forall` is on the left of a function arrow. As `g2` shows, the polymorphic type on the left of the function arrow can be overloaded.

The function `f3` has a rank-3 type; it has rank-2 types on the left of a function arrow.

GHC has three flags to control higher-rank types:

- `-XPolymorphicComponents`: data constructors (only) can have polymorphic argument types.

- `-XRank2Types`: any function (including data constructors) can have a rank-2 type.

- `-XRankNTypes`: any function (including data constructors) can have an arbitrary-rank type. That is, you can nest `forall`s arbitrarily deep in function arrows. In particular, a forall-type (also called a "type scheme"), including an operational type class context, is legal:

  - On the left or right (see `f4`, for example) of a function arrow

  - As the argument of a constructor, or type of a field, in a data type declaration. For example, any of the `f1,f2,f3,g1,g2` above would be valid field type signatures.

  - As the type of an implicit parameter

  - In a pattern type signature (see Section 8.7.6, “Lexically scoped type variables ”)

Of course `forall` becomes a keyword; you can't use `forall` as a type variable any more!

#### 8.7.4.1. Examples

In a `data` or `newtype` declaration one can quantify the types of the constructor arguments. Here are several examples:

    data T a = T1 (forall b. b -> b -> b) a

    data MonadT m = MkMonad { return :: forall a. a -> m a,
                              bind   :: forall a b. m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b
                            }

    newtype Swizzle = MkSwizzle (Ord a => [a] -> [a])

The constructors have rank-2 types:

    T1 :: forall a. (forall b. b -> b -> b) -> a -> T a
    MkMonad :: forall m. (forall a. a -> m a)
                      -> (forall a b. m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b)
                      -> MonadT m
    MkSwizzle :: (Ord a => [a] -> [a]) -> Swizzle

Notice that you don't need to use a `forall` if there's an explicit context. For example in the first argument of the constructor `MkSwizzle`, an implicit "`forall a.`" is prefixed to the argument type. The implicit `forall` quantifies all type variables that are not already in scope, and are mentioned in the type quantified over.

As for type signatures, implicit quantification happens for non-overloaded types too. So if you write this:

      data T a = MkT (Either a b) (b -> b)

it's just as if you had written this:

      data T a = MkT (forall b. Either a b) (forall b. b -> b)

That is, since the type variable `b` isn't in scope, it's implicitly universally quantified. (Arguably, it would be better to require explicit quantification on constructor arguments where that is what is wanted. Feedback welcomed.)

You construct values of types `T1, MonadT, Swizzle` by applying the constructor to suitable values, just as usual. For example,

        a1 :: T Int
        a1 = T1 (\xy->x) 3

        a2, a3 :: Swizzle
        a2 = MkSwizzle sort
        a3 = MkSwizzle reverse

        a4 :: MonadT Maybe
        a4 = let r x = Just x
    	     b m k = case m of
    		       Just y -> k y
    		       Nothing -> Nothing
             in
             MkMonad r b

        mkTs :: (forall b. b -> b -> b) -> a -> [T a]
        mkTs f x y = [T1 f x, T1 f y]

The type of the argument can, as usual, be more general than the type required, as `(MkSwizzle reverse)` shows. (`reverse` does not need the `Ord` constraint.)

When you use pattern matching, the bound variables may now have polymorphic types. For example:

        f :: T a -> a -> (a, Char)
        f (T1 w k) x = (w k x, w 'c' 'd')

        g :: (Ord a, Ord b) => Swizzle -> [a] -> (a -> b) -> [b]
        g (MkSwizzle s) xs f = s (map f (s xs))

        h :: MonadT m -> [m a] -> m [a]
        h m [] = return m []
        h m (x:xs) = bind m x          $ \y ->
                     bind m (h m xs)   $ \ys ->
                     return m (y:ys)

In the function `h` we use the record selectors `return` and `bind` to extract the polymorphic bind and return functions from the `MonadT` data structure, rather than using pattern matching.

#### 8.7.4.2. Type inference

In general, type inference for arbitrary-rank types is undecidable. GHC uses an algorithm proposed by Odersky and Laufer ("Putting type annotations to work", POPL'96) to get a decidable algorithm by requiring some help from the programmer. We do not yet have a formal specification of "some help" but the rule is this:

For a lambda-bound or case-bound variable, x, either the programmer provides an explicit polymorphic type for x, or GHC's type inference will assume that x's type has no foralls in it.

What does it mean to "provide" an explicit type for x? You can do that by giving a type signature for x directly, using a pattern type signature (Section 8.7.6, “Lexically scoped type variables ”), thus:

         \ f :: (forall a. a->a) -> (f True, f 'c')

Alternatively, you can give a type signature to the enclosing context, which GHC can "push down" to find the type for the variable:

         (\ f -> (f True, f 'c')) :: (forall a. a->a) -> (Bool,Char)

Here the type signature on the expression can be pushed inwards to give a type signature for f. Similarly, and more commonly, one can give a type signature for the function itself:

         h :: (forall a. a->a) -> (Bool,Char)
         h f = (f True, f 'c')

You don't need to give a type signature if the lambda bound variable is a constructor argument. Here is an example we saw earlier:

        f :: T a -> a -> (a, Char)
        f (T1 w k) x = (w k x, w 'c' 'd')

Here we do not need to give a type signature to `w`, because it is an argument of constructor `T1` and that tells GHC all it needs to know.

#### 8.7.4.3. Implicit quantification

GHC performs implicit quantification as follows. At the top level (only) of user-written types, if and only if there is no explicit `forall`, GHC finds all the type variables mentioned in the type that are not already in scope, and universally quantifies them. For example, the following pairs are equivalent:

      f :: a -> a
      f :: forall a. a -> a

      g (x::a) = let
                    h :: a -> b -> b
                    h x y = y
                 in ...
      g (x::a) = let
                    h :: forall b. a -> b -> b
                    h x y = y
                 in ...

Notice that GHC does not find the innermost possible quantification point. For example:

      f :: (a -> a) -> Int
               -- MEANS
      f :: forall a. (a -> a) -> Int
               -- NOT
      f :: (forall a. a -> a) -> Int

      g :: (Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
               -- MEANS the illegal type
      g :: forall a. (Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
               -- NOT
      g :: (forall a. Ord a => a -> a) -> Int

The latter produces an illegal type, which you might think is silly, but at least the rule is simple. If you want the latter type, you can write your for-alls explicitly. Indeed, doing so is strongly advised for rank-2 types.

### 8.7.5. Impredicative polymorphism

GHC supports impredicative polymorphism. This means that you can call a polymorphic function at a polymorphic type, and parameterise data structures over polymorphic types. For example:

      f :: Maybe (forall a. [a] -> [a]) -> Maybe ([Int], [Char])
      f (Just g) = Just (g [3], g "hello")
      f Nothing  = Nothing

Notice here that the `Maybe` type is parameterised by the polymorphic type `(forall a. [a] -> [a])`.

The technical details of this extension are described in the paper Boxy types: type inference for higher-rank types and impredicativity, which appeared at ICFP 2006.

### 8.7.6. Lexically scoped type variables

GHC supports lexically scoped type variables, without which some type signatures are simply impossible to write. For example:

    f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
    f xs = ys ++ ys
         where
           ys :: [a]
           ys = reverse xs

The type signature for `f` brings the type variable `a` into scope; it scopes over the entire definition of `f`. In particular, it is in scope at the type signature for `ys`. In Haskell 98 it is not possible to declare a type for `ys`; a major benefit of scoped type variables is that it becomes possible to do so.

Lexically-scoped type variables are enabled by `-XScopedTypeVariables`. This flag implies `-XRelaxedPolyRec`.

Note: GHC 6.6 contains substantial changes to the way that scoped type variables work, compared to earlier releases. Read this section carefully!

#### 8.7.6.1. Overview

The design follows the following principles

- A scoped type variable stands for a type variable, and not for a type. (This is a change from GHC's earlier design.)

- Furthermore, distinct lexical type variables stand for distinct type variables. This means that every programmer-written type signature (including one that contains free scoped type variables) denotes a rigid type; that is, the type is fully known to the type checker, and no inference is involved.

- Lexical type variables may be alpha-renamed freely, without changing the program.

A lexically scoped type variable can be bound by:

- A declaration type signature (Section 8.7.6.2, “Declaration type signatures”)

- An expression type signature (Section 8.7.6.3, “Expression type signatures”)

- A pattern type signature (Section 8.7.6.4, “Pattern type signatures”)

- Class and instance declarations (Section 8.7.6.5, “Class and instance declarations”)

In Haskell, a programmer-written type signature is implicitly quantified over its free type variables (Section 4.1.2 of the Haskell Report). Lexically scoped type variables affect this implicit quantification rules as follows: any type variable that is in scope is not universally quantified. For example, if type variable `a` is in scope, then

      (e :: a -> a)     means     (e :: a -> a)
      (e :: b -> b)     means     (e :: forall b. b->b)
      (e :: a -> b)     means     (e :: forall b. a->b)

#### 8.7.6.2. Declaration type signatures

A declaration type signature that has explicit quantification (using `forall`) brings into scope the explicitly-quantified type variables, in the definition of the named function. For example:

      f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
      f (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]

The "`forall a`" brings "`a`" into scope in the definition of "`f`".

This only happens if:

- The quantification in `f`'s type signature is explicit. For example:

        g :: [a] -> [a]
        g (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]

  This program will be rejected, because "`a`" does not scope over the definition of "`f`", so "`x::a`" means "`x::forall a. a`" by Haskell's usual implicit quantification rules.

- The signature gives a type for a function binding or a bare variable binding, not a pattern binding. For example:

        f1 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
        f1 (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]   -- OK

        f2 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
        f2 = \(x:xs) -> xs ++ [ x :: a ]   -- OK

        f3 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
        Just f3 = Just (\(x:xs) -> xs ++ [ x :: a ])   -- Not OK!

  The binding for `f3` is a pattern binding, and so its type signature does not bring `a` into scope. However `f1` is a function binding, and `f2` binds a bare variable; in both cases the type signature brings `a` into scope.

#### 8.7.6.3. Expression type signatures

An expression type signature that has explicit quantification (using `forall`) brings into scope the explicitly-quantified type variables, in the annotated expression. For example:

      f = runST ( (op >>= \(x :: STRef s Int) -> g x) :: forall s. ST s Bool )

Here, the type signature `forall a. ST s Bool` brings the type variable `s` into scope, in the annotated expression `(op >>= \(x :: STRef s Int) -> g x)`.

#### 8.7.6.4. Pattern type signatures

A type signature may occur in any pattern; this is a pattern type signature. For example:

      -- f and g assume that 'a' is already in scope
      f = \(x::Int, y::a) -> x
      g (x::a) = x
      h ((x,y) :: (Int,Bool)) = (y,x)

In the case where all the type variables in the pattern type signature are already in scope (i.e. bound by the enclosing context), matters are simple: the signature simply constrains the type of the pattern in the obvious way.

Unlike expression and declaration type signatures, pattern type signatures are not implicitly generalised. The pattern in a pattern binding may only mention type variables that are already in scope. For example:

      f :: forall a. [a] -> (Int, [a])
      f xs = (n, zs)
        where
          (ys::[a], n) = (reverse xs, length xs) -- OK
          zs::[a] = xs ++ ys                     -- OK

          Just (v::b) = ...  -- Not OK; b is not in scope

Here, the pattern signatures for `ys` and `zs` are fine, but the one for `v` is not because `b` is not in scope.

However, in all patterns other than pattern bindings, a pattern type signature may mention a type variable that is not in scope; in this case, the signature brings that type variable into scope. This is particularly important for existential data constructors. For example:

      data T = forall a. MkT [a]

      k :: T -> T
      k (MkT [t::a]) = MkT t3
                     where
                       t3::[a] = [t,t,t]

Here, the pattern type signature `(t::a)` mentions a lexical type variable that is not already in scope. Indeed, it cannot already be in scope, because it is bound by the pattern match. GHC's rule is that in this situation (and only then), a pattern type signature can mention a type variable that is not already in scope; the effect is to bring it into scope, standing for the existentially-bound type variable.

When a pattern type signature binds a type variable in this way, GHC insists that the type variable is bound to a rigid, or fully-known, type variable. This means that any user-written type signature always stands for a completely known type.

If all this seems a little odd, we think so too. But we must have some way to bring such type variables into scope, else we could not name existentially-bound type variables in subsequent type signatures.

This is (now) the only situation in which a pattern type signature is allowed to mention a lexical variable that is not already in scope. For example, both `f` and `g` would be illegal if `a` was not already in scope.

#### 8.7.6.5. Class and instance declarations

The type variables in the head of a `class` or `instance` declaration scope over the methods defined in the `where` part. For example:

      class C a where
        op :: [a] -> a

        op xs = let ys::[a]
                    ys = reverse xs
                in
                head ys

### 8.7.7. Generalised typing of mutually recursive bindings

The Haskell Report specifies that a group of bindings (at top level, or in a `let` or `where`) should be sorted into strongly-connected components, and then type-checked in dependency order (Haskell Report, Section 4.5.1). As each group is type-checked, any binders of the group that have an explicit type signature are put in the type environment with the specified polymorphic type, and all others are monomorphic until the group is generalised (Haskell Report, Section 4.5.2).

Following a suggestion of Mark Jones, in his paper Typing Haskell in Haskell, GHC implements a more general scheme. If `-XRelaxedPolyRec` is specified: the dependency analysis ignores references to variables that have an explicit type signature. As a result of this refined dependency analysis, the dependency groups are smaller, and more bindings will typecheck. For example, consider:

      f :: Eq a => a -> Bool
      f x = (x == x) || g True || g "Yes"

      g y = (y <= y) || f True

This is rejected by Haskell 98, but under Jones's scheme the definition for `g` is typechecked first, separately from that for `f`, because the reference to `f` in `g`'s right hand side is ignored by the dependency analysis. Then `g`'s type is generalised, to get

      g :: Ord a => a -> Bool

Now, the definition for `f` is typechecked, with this type for `g` in the type environment.

The same refined dependency analysis also allows the type signatures of mutually-recursive functions to have different contexts, something that is illegal in Haskell 98 (Section 4.5.2, last sentence). With `-XRelaxedPolyRec` GHC only insists that the type signatures of a refined group have identical type signatures; in practice this means that only variables bound by the same pattern binding must have the same context. For example, this is fine:

      f :: Eq a => a -> Bool
      f x = (x == x) || g True

      g :: Ord a => a -> Bool
      g y = (y <= y) || f True

### 8.7.8. Type families

GHC supports the definition of type families indexed by types. They may be seen as an extension of Haskell 98's class-based overloading of values to types. When type families are declared in classes, they are also known as associated types.

There are two forms of type families: data families and type synonym families. Currently, only the former are fully implemented, while we are still working on the latter. As a result, the specification of the language extension is also still to some degree in flux. Hence, a more detailed description of the language extension and its use is currently available from the Haskell wiki page on type families. The material will be moved to this user's guide when it has stabilised.

Type families are enabled by the flag `-XTypeFamilies`.

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